Chapter 43 Chapter Thirty-Second Nineteenth Century-2

Five Great Changes The "Nanjing Treaty" has 13 articles, the following are the main contents: 1. China compensates the British for opium losses and military expenses of 21 million taels of silver. 2. China cedes all sovereignty over Hong Kong to the United Kingdom. Three ports of Guangzhou, Fuzhou, Xiamen, Ningbo, and Shanghai were opened as commercial ports, and Britain was allowed to set up officials (consuls) in Zambia for free trade (five-port trade). Fourth, the status of China and the UK is equal, and official documents are exchanged in an equal style. China can no longer call Britain a British barbarian.

This is the first time that China has signed a defeat treaty in the modern sense. Of course, the defeated country is unlucky-cede territory and pay compensation.The five-port trade agreement is also a normal international relationship.Britain's elevation from "British and Barbarians" to the same status as the Chinese Empire showed the equal meaning of the "Nanjing Treaty". What's more, China still called the British and Barbarians the same in fact, and still looked down on them in their hearts.However, some appendices to the "Nanjing Treaty" were subsequently signed, which is not the case.These addendums are:

In 11842, he signed eight articles of the "Rehabilitation Regulations". In 21843, fifteen articles of the "Articles of Trade with Five Ports" were signed. In 1843, another 20 articles of the "Humen Treaty" were signed. Among these annexes with different titles are the following provisions: Any dispute between a British person, or between a British person and a Chinese person, the British people are not subject to Chinese judicial trials, but are tried by British officials (consular jurisdiction). 2. British warships can berth at five commercial ports to protect merchants and people.

3. The United Kingdom can rent land and build houses in five commercial ports (by 1846, the United Kingdom officially demarcated the area in Shanghai, called the concession. In the concession, it is regarded as the British mainland, and China cannot exercise sovereignty. After that, other countries followed suit. There is another country within China). 4. Any benefits that China will give to other countries in the future should also be given to Britain at the same time. This is the real unequal treaty. In these appendices, Britain took advantage of the ignorance of Chinese Qing government officials on international affairs, half intimidated, half deceived, and made the Qing government at the mercy of Britain in a muddle.As for the opium issue that caused the war, it was as if there was no such thing, and neither side mentioned it.The United Kingdom deliberately avoids putting it into words, because using treaties to protect drug trafficking will become a stain in history; especially once China wakes up and requires reciprocity, the United Kingdom will be very embarrassed.The Qing government was already in a trance, lest mentioning the ominous thing of opium would cause more trouble.In such a situation where everyone knew what was going on, but kept silent, the import of opium resumed, and more than before, the number of Chinese drug addicts also increased wildly.

——By the end of this century (nineteenth), most of the officials and the slightly richer Chinese were wallowing in smoke couches. We should keep a deep impression on this smoky social landscape, so that we can understand that China is falling into desperation day by day The popularity of opium is one of the important reasons. The ancient gate of China, which has been closed for five thousand years, has since been opened by British warships and cannons, and it can no longer be reunited.Then U.S. President Taylor dispatched Gu Sheng, the plenipotentiary ambassador, to Guangzhou on a warship with a book titled "Twenty-six States of Solitude".Like flies chasing stinky flies, the French warships also arrived after hearing the news. On behalf of Qiying, the Qing government plucked up the courage and hesitated a little. Signed the Treaty of Whampoa.Then there are Portugal, Spain, Belgium, Prussia (Germany), Austria-Hungary, Italy, the Netherlands, Denmark, Sweden, etc., some small countries that China has heard of, or have never heard of, have come here in the past The tribute may not be qualified enough, and now they are queuing up.The Qing government was in a hurry and couldn't resist, so as long as they could name a country, the Qing government would sign treaties with them one by one.In all these treaties, there is a clause of "equity of interests". Although they did not defeat China, each of them turned out to be a victorious country, biting China like locusts and sucking blood. The one-sided most-favored-nation privileges they enjoy, such as consular jurisdiction and the right to escort overseas Chinese by warships, are also obtained at the same time.In the eyes of these small countries, China is a rustic big fat guy. If you don't take the opportunity to cheat, it will be hard for your conscience.

This is a great change that has never been seen since the creation of Pangu. China is facing almost all things that are not in the traditional culture that China has always been proud of. And never.China's inherent way of life and inherent ideology began to be ruthlessly impacted by the powerful Western way of life and Western ideology. In terms of lifestyle, such as: ideology, most of the Confucian system of thought belongs to the scholar-bureaucrat class, and the adaptive thinking of agricultural feudalism, such as: No one has ever doubted the value and legitimacy of the inherent cultural traditions listed above, and no one has opposed them. Occasionally, some people have opposed them, and their strength is very weak, or they have been quickly suppressed by political forces.But now began to face sharp and fierce challenges.

——Shocks and challenges are immediately met with a response, and defenders of the Tao will defend them one after another.However, the harder they defend, the longer it will take for China to be reborn, that is, the time for the birth of a new Chinese civilization.The harm China has suffered is also greater because of this.The old traditional way of life was not abolished until the Qing government was overthrown in the 20th century and the Manchus were kicked out of the Golden Temple.But the ideology of the old tradition still lingered until the end of the 20th century. Six Taiping Heavenly Kingdoms

The five-port trade policy caused foreign goods to flood into China like a tide, and the economic structure of China's rural areas was severely damaged.The spread of opium to the backcountry, the impact it produced was exactly the same as Lin Zexu and other anti-smoking people expected before the ban on smoking, but the Qing government was still stubborn and did not learn any lessons from the Opium War, just like the trees in the sauce tank cannot absorb like any nourishment.The high-level ruling group, including the emperor, lived in a small world full of servants and servants. They never saw the strange-looking Westerners, nor did they see the miserably displaced rural areas and peasants. Think about why China is so weak and if there is another war, how China can defend against those warships and artillery.

But singing and dancing only belongs to the ruling class.The deteriorating government forced people to rebel, but it continued to deteriorate.And because of the failure of the war against foreign countries, the paper tiger of the Qing government has been exposed.Civil upheavals in all directions are in full swing.The largest popular force, led by Christian Hong Xiuquan, erupted in 1850, the eighth year after the end of the Opium Wars.The outbreak occurred in Jintian Village, Guiping County, Guangxi. Hong Xiuquan is a native of Huaxian (Huadu, Guangdong), which belongs to the county of the Hakka people who speak the ancient Central Plains dialect.Like every intellectual at that time, he received a Confucian system education since he was a child, was familiar with Confucian books, and determined to follow the imperial examination procedures and become an official.However, he went to Guangzhou to take the exam four times, but he didn't even get the title of "Xiucai", the lowest level of scholar-bureaucrat.Later, he accepted the Christian faith, adored the peaceful scene in the kingdom of heaven depicted by Jesus, and became a fanatical priest.He founded the "God Association", claiming that Jesus was not the only son, but that he also had a younger brother, Hong Xiuquan.Hong Xiuquan believes that God is the Father, and Jesus is of course the Brother.He smashed up all the statues of Buddhist gods and Confucian books, as well as the tablets of Confucius and Yu Ke enshrined in his home, and burned them all.

This behavior shocked the society, and defenders of Taoism attacked him. He fled to Guangxi and went deep into Zijing Mountain in Guiping County with his disciple Feng Yunshan to preach to the Hakka charcoal burners from Guangdong on the mountain. The number of believers increased sharply.Droughts have occurred in Guangxi year after year, and civil upheavals have sprung up. In the year 1850, there were nine popular anti-violence forces in the province, each with more than a thousand or seven to eight thousand people.The governor (governor) Zheng Zuchen was also a well-known corrupt official, forcing those who refused to participate in the uprising to also participate.Hong Xiuquan organized his followers to form the Taiping Army.

The Qing government first attacked the Taiping army with its corrupt troops and surrounded Jintian Village, where Hong Xiuquan was located.In the following year (1851), the Taiping Army broke through to the north and captured Yong'an (Mengshan, Guangxi). In Yong'an, it announced the establishment of the Taiping Heavenly Kingdom. Hong Xiuquan was revered as the king of heaven and the head of the Taiping Heavenly Kingdom.He made five of his outstanding assistants kings. In the next year (1852), the Taiping Army abandoned Yong'an and captured Quanzhou (Quanzhou, Guangxi).After entering Hunan Province, the attack on Changsha failed, so they bypassed Changsha and went north to capture Yuezhou (Yueyang, Hunan).In Yuezhou, they unearthed the giant cannon buried by Wu Sangui in the 17th century, and their strength increased suddenly, and they immediately captured Hanyang, an important town in Hubei Province (on the north bank of the Yangtze River in Wuhan, Hubei). ——The giant cannon buried by Wu Sangui is an antique two hundred years ago, but it has come in handy and can still exert its power on the battlefield, which shows that the army of the Qing government has made no progress in the past two hundred years. In 1853, the Taiping Army captured Wuchang (Wuhan, Hubei Province), the capital of Hubei Province.Going east along the Yangtze River, it finally captured Jiangning (Nanjing, Jiangsu), the largest city in the south of the Yangtze River, and made it the capital of the country, renamed Tianjing. The political call of the Taiping Heavenly Kingdom can be divided into the following three items: A handful of Manchus were expelled from China. Two cancel most of the unreasonable way of life. Three build a Christian society. Under this request, the Taiping Heavenly Kingdom made all kinds of drastic reforms that distressed the old-fashioned diehards, such as: prohibiting women's footbinding; prohibiting opium smoking; prohibiting idol worship and ancestor worship; prohibiting prostitution; prohibiting men from taking concubines; Drinking alcohol; prohibiting gambling; prohibiting superstitious worship of witches and witches; cutting off the braids; implementing land reforms; creating a new system of acres of land; confiscating land as state-owned; granting land according to the average population; establishing a new calendar, abolishing the lunar calendar, and switching to the solar calendar.This series of measures brought China to a new level, and the Qing government panicked about this new force, which was different from ordinary civil uprisings.In 1853, shortly after the Taiping Heavenly Kingdom established its capital in Tianjing, it sent two large armies to the Northern Expedition. The first army, led by General Lin Fengxiang, set out from Tianjing and advanced to Duliu Town, Jinghai County, which was only 30 kilometers away from Tianjing. It caused the Qing government in Beijing to shake.The Second Army, led by General Zeng Lichang, set out from Anqing, Anhui, and advanced to Linqing Prefecture, Shandong Province.But the two northern corps were like kites with a broken string, without reinforcements or supplies.In 1855, the First Army retreated to Lianzhen, Dongguang County, Zhili Province (Hebei Province), and was wiped out, and the Second Army retreated to the southwestern border of Shandong Province. The failure of the Northern Expedition caused the Taiping Heavenly Kingdom to overthrow the Manchu Qing government, and the hope of unifying China by itself was shattered.And due to the following three reasons, it declined rapidly. First, after the collapse of the regular Manchurian army, the Qing government turned to the Han people's militia (tuanlian), that is, local self-defense organizations.Zeng Guofan, a Han deputy minister (servant) of the Qing government, was in his hometown of Xiangtan County, Hunan Province, to observe the three-year funeral for his dead mother.He is a typical scholar-bureaucrat of the Confucian system, and he strongly dislikes the Taiping Heavenly Kingdom's behavior of destroying those inherent ways of life.He took the restoration of the traditional way of life - what he called "maintaining the Mingjiao" as a political call (he tried his best to avoid the embarrassing issue of allegiance to a foreign nation), organized the Hunan Army with Hunanese as the main body, attacked the Taiping Heavenly Kingdom, and became a The only rival of the Taiping Heavenly Kingdom. Second, the Taiping Heavenly Kingdom was established by Christianity. Although the Heavenly Father and Heavenly Brothers were seriously deviant, the Christian countries in the West were very excited. Coupled with their hatred for the Qing government, they all looked forward to the success of the Taiping Heavenly Kingdom.In 1853, the French ambassador Doboron went to Tianjing to meet Hong Xiuquan. He was amazed at the strict discipline of the Taiping Army and the stable social order.However, the Taiping Heavenly Kingdom grew too fast, and all the leaders were as ignorant of the international situation as the officials of the Qing government. They didn't know how to use foreign aid.However, some generals in the Qing government and the Hunan Army have realized the beneficial effects of combining with foreigners.Therefore, the Western forces that could have helped the Taiping government turned around to help the Qing government. The third most important thing is that it took only four short years for the Taiping Heavenly Kingdom to raise troops from Guangxi to settle in Tianjing.Although the leaders are all outstanding figures, their success is too rapid, from charcoal-burning workers and poor peasants to emperors and generals in a blink of an eye. As the highest leaders of the country, it can be said that they have not undergone severe torture and necessary training. Unable to adapt to the new situation.Soon after the capital was established in Tianjing, they followed the same path as Huang Chao and Li Zicheng, and immediately began to corrupt. They got used to the degenerate life they opposed, and were driven mad by power. Most of the founding leaders died of cannibalism. ——There are two most deadly crises for any emerging power, one is corruption, completely abandoning their original revolutionary spirit and goal of struggle.One is the inability to unite, resulting in a series of self-defeating sibling infighting.If the Taiping Heavenly Kingdom did not fail in these two areas, neither the militia of the scholar-officials nor the intervention of foreigners would be enough to make them fail. Under these three pressures, the Taiping Heavenly Kingdom finally collapsed.In 1864, Nanjing had been besieged by Zeng Guofan's Hunan Corps (Xiang Army) for three years. Hong Xiuquan died in the siege, and his son Hong (Wang Zhen) succeeded to the throne.Soon after the city was broken, Li Xiucheng, the last outstanding general who rose up in the Taiping Heavenly Kingdom, protected Hong (Wang Zhen) to break through, but was dispersed by the Hunan Corps, Hong (Wang Zhen) disappeared, and Li Xiucheng was captured by Zeng Guofan.After being captured, Li Xiucheng pretended to submit and wrote a confession in his own hand, asking Zeng Guofan to send him to surrender to the Taiping Army still scattered in various parts of southern China.But Zeng Guofan obviously didn't want to jump into this trap, so he was still killed. Li Xiucheng died, the Taiping Heavenly Kingdom was destroyed, and the regime was established for 14 years. The reforms made by the Taiping Heavenly Kingdom made China leap forward for at least one hundred years.But now footbinding, braiding, taking concubines, smoking opium, and other "famous religions" that have been maintained have returned to their old views one by one.Only one thing has not been restored, and that is the military power in the hands of the Qing government has since been transferred to the hands of the Han people. Seventh Nian Army · Change The Taiping wars were limited to southern China. The war in North China was equally fierce, and it was waged by the Nian Army.The Nian Army started earlier than the Taiping Army, but ended later. Twisting, when used as a verb, refers to the action of twisting pieces of paper or cotton wool into a thread-like shape with the thumb and forefinger.As a noun, it means "a small group of people".At the beginning of the 19th century, in the vast areas along the north and south banks of the Huaihe River, folks burned incense and worshiped Buddha. A small group of people was often engaged in the work of welcoming gods and expelling plague ghosts.They are the White Lotus Sect in essence, but not on the surface.The corruption of officials and the famine caused by floods and droughts forced farmers to leave the land in large numbers, and joined this group of burning incense and worshiping Buddha, and went into exile to beg for food.When they could not beg for food, they plundered the homes of landlords, wealthy households and officials and scholar-bureaucrats.The Qing government hunted them down as bandits, but they were erratic and resisted with guerrilla tactics. In 1814, when the Qing government heard that the leader of the Nian Army was a woman named Wang Niuzi, they ordered her to be wanted, but they were not found.However, after this raid and harassment, the Nian army gradually merged from a small group into a large group, and became a powerful force.At that time, the Qing government was dealing with Tianlijiao and other more serious civil uprisings, and did not take further action against the army. In the 1950s, the Taiping Heavenly Kingdom established its capital in Tianjing (Nanjing, Jiangsu Province). Zhang Luoxing, the leader of the Nian Army, took Zhiheji (Guoyang, Anhui Province) as his base in Mengcheng County, Anhui Province, and accepted the title of the Taiping Heavenly Kingdom.The Qing government handed over the responsibility of conquering the Taiping Heavenly Kingdom to Zeng Guofan's Hunan Corps (Xiang Army), and used Han people to attack Han people.The Manchurian Corps dealt with the Nian Army, and they believed that the Nian Army was relatively weak. In 1863, Zhang Luoxing was betrayed by the traitor Miao Peilin, and captured and dedicated to Seng Gelinqin, the commander-in-chief of the Qing government's brutal suppression of bandits.Zhang Luoxing's nephew, Zhang Zongyu, continued to fight and shot Seng Gelinqin to death in Caozhou (Heze, Shandong) two years later, in 1865, the year after the fall of the Taiping Heavenly Kingdom.The Qing government lost its last trump card and had to rely on the Han people again. It ordered Zeng Guofan and another militiaman, Li Hongzhang, who was also known as the leader of the "Huai Army" (mainly from Anhui Province), to take advantage of the remaining prestige of destroying the Taiping Heavenly Kingdom. Responsible for dealing with the Nian army. In 1866, the Nian Army was intercepted by the Qing Army and divided into two branches.Zhang Zongyu personally led a branch into Shaanxi Province, called Xiyan.Another leader, Lai Wenguang, led a branch into Hubei Province, called East Nian.In 1867, Dong Nian advanced to Wayaopu in Yangzhou (Jiangdu), Jiangsu, and was wiped out by the gathering of Qing troops.Next year (1868), Xi Nian turned back to Shandong Province, lost his way in Ping County, fell into the swampy area between the Yellow River and the canal, and was completely wiped out. The Nian Army War lasted fifty-five years, and the last sixteen years involved bloody battles across central China.They did not have the highest political guiding principles, nor lofty ideals. They only blindly attacked the Qing army or were chased by the Qing army. In the central region of China, that is, in the vast area centered on Lanzhou, Gansu, along with the rise of the Taiping Army and the Nian Army, there were Muslim rebellions. The biggest difference between the Muslims in the central region and the Muslims in the western region (Xinjiang Province) is that most of the Muslims in the west are Uighurs, and almost all of them maintain their inherent customs and language.The Muslims in the central region are said to have Arab ancestors who moved to China in the eighth century Tang Dynasty a thousand years ago. Now, except for their religious beliefs, everything else has been completely Chinese, but their appearance still shows Arab ancestry, compared with Han people, have higher noses and more beards. Central Islamist operations are spread over three areas: 1. Yunnan Province In 1855, Du Wenxiu, the leader of the Hui people in Yunnan, raised an army in Dali County (the capital of the Nanzhao Kingdom in the ninth century). 2Shaanxi Province In 1862, Ren Wu, the leader of the Hui people in Shaanxi Province, set up a hill in Weinan County At the same time in 1862 in Gansu Province, Ma Hualong, the leader of the Hui people in Gansu Province, raised troops in Jinjibao (Jinji Town, Wuzhong, Ningxia). Except for Kunming, the provincial capital, almost all other counties in Yunnan Province rebelled.But the division within the Muslims turned their victory into a defeat, and it also saved the area where there were few Han people at that time from leaving like Vietnam.In 1872, the Qing government army captured Dali City, and the 18-year melee ended. The armed forces of Muslims in Shaanxi Province are relatively small, but because they are close to Xi'an, an important town in Guanzhong (central part of Shaanxi Province), the former capital of more than a thousand years, their influence is more than a hundred times that of Yunnan. , was shot dead when attacking Kou (Changzhi) (Shaanxi Zhouzhi) county. The Manchu nobles had been proven corrupt and incompetent for the thousandth time, so they had to reassign Zuo Zongtang, another Han general from the Hunan Corps.In 1868, Dong Fuxiang, the last mutineer leader (but he was not a Muslim), surrendered, ending the seven-year melee. Gansu Province had the largest scale of change. Within the province’s 1,200 kilometers from east to west, it was the same as in Yunnan Province. Except for the provincial capital Lanzhou, other castles responded to Ma Hualong’s call.Zuo Zongtang went west after resolving the change in Shaanxi Province.In 1870, Jinji Fort (Jinji Town, Wuzhong, Ningxia) was captured.In 1873, Nianbo (the capital of the Southern Liang Kingdom in Ledu, Qinghai Province during the Great Split) and Suzhou (Jiuquan, Gansu Province, the capital of the Northern Liang Kingdom in the Great Split Era) were captured, and the 12-year melee came to an end. Eight British and French Allied Forces When the battered Qing government was trapped in a fierce civil war, and because of its excessive ignorance, it caused the deadly Anglo-French war. In the "Treaty of Wangxia" between China and the United States, there was a provision for revision after the expiration of twelve years, but there was no clause in the "Treaty of Nanjing" between China and the United Kingdom.However, the Sino-British "Nanjing Treaty" and the Sino-French "Whampoa Treaty" have a clause on the equalization of interests, so they also have this clause. 1854—Twelve years since the signing of the Sino-British Treaty of Nanking in 1842; ten years since the signing of the Sino-French Treaty of Whampoa and the Sino-US Treaty of Wangxia in 1844 year.The envoys of Britain and France asked Ye Mingchen, governor of Guangdong and Guangxi, to hold negotiations on the amendment of the treaty.The Qing government did not have a Ministry of Foreign Affairs at that time, and the foreign affairs of various countries were not handled in Beijing, where the central government is located, but by the governor of Guangdong and Guangxi in Guangzhou. The farther you push things, the better.Ye Mingchen is a traditional corrupt old bureaucrat. He is incompetent and thinks he is very smart. His attitude towards foreigners is that he refuses to meet them all, regardless of whether you are an ordinary businessman or an envoy representing the country. Loyalty to the Emperor.The French Minister to China, Bourlon (noticing this, the foreign envoys to China at that time lived in Guangzhou) came to China in 1852 and returned to China in 1855. During the four years, he repeatedly asked to visit Ye Mingchen couldn't even see him.The American Minister to China, Spike, from 1846 to 1848, and from 1850 to 1852, was unable to see Ye Mingchen twice for a total of six years.Marshall, the new minister who succeeded him, arrived in 1852 and asked Ye Mingchen to submit his credentials on a specified date. He did not even get a reply until he left in 1854. In this form of diplomacy, it would be a big surprise if Britain and France's request to revise the treaty could be responded to.Of course, the envoys of Britain and France were well aware of the tricks of the Chinese officialdom, so after making a request to Ye Mingchen and completing this routine diplomatic procedure, they all went north together. When they arrived in Tianjin, they proposed to the Qing government that the two countries be allowed to cooperate with each other. The Chinese envoys were stationed in Beijing, and Tianjin was allowed to become a trading port like Guangzhou.After reading the report, Emperor Yan Ning was furious, especially regarding the fact that foreign envoys had been stationed in Beijing for a long time. He thought that since his ancestors founded the Qing Dynasty, he had never heard anything more absurd than this. Britain and France found that they could not achieve their ends except by the use of force. There must be an excuse for using force, and here comes the excuse.In 1856, Guangdong patrol boats intercepted a Chinese-owned vessel at the mouth of the Pearl River, but it was registered in Hong Kong and was flying the British flag. people, and pulled down the Union Jack and threw it away.The sailors of the patrol boat obviously did not know the meaning of the national flag, because China did not have a national flag at that time.British Consul Pacharley asked Ye Mingchen to release the twelve people and apologized in writing.Ye Mingchen released the twelve people, but he didn't seem to see the request for an apology.So the British ships bombarded Guangzhou, and the people of Guangzhou set fire to the British business hall in anger, shouting "Kill all the barbarians and leave no one behind." France is also anxiously looking for an excuse, and the excuse has come.In the same year (1856), the French Catholic priest Ma Lai was beheaded by officials of the Xilin County government as a gangster in the remote Xilin County in the northwestern part of Guangxi.France immediately took joint action with Britain. In the following year (1857), the British and French allied forces presented an ultimatum to Ye Mingchen, demanding that negotiations be held within ten days.Ye Mingchen used official stunts to "push" and "drag" to deal with it.When the ten-day deadline came, the Allied forces attacked, Guangzhou fell, and Ye Mingchen was captured alive. ——Ye Mingchen and Xie An, the prime minister of the Jin government at the Battle of Feishui in the fourth century, are characters cast from the same mold. The only difference is that Ye Mingshen lacks the good luck of Xie An.So Xie An succeeded in a trance, but Ye Mingchen failed in a trance.Xie An used outings and playing chess to show that he was confident and unhurried, while Ye Mingchen used Fushi to worship gods and sleep deeply.After Ye Mingchen was captured, the British sent him to India for captivity, where he died the next year (1858).But some Chinese congressmen who hated him for harming the country insisted that he was regarded as a strange animal by Britain, packed in a wooden pet, and transported to various countries for exhibition.In fact, this kind of anger is not necessarily fair. If all the officials in Yanyi have to accept this kind of treatment, there are probably not a few of the thousands of officials in the Great Dark Age, including the emperor of the Qing government, who are not qualified to be exhibited . In the following year (1858), the fleet of the British and French allied forces went north, captured Dagu, and approached Tianjin.The Qing government had to accept the principle of revising the treaty, and the Prime Minister Guiliang went to Tianjin to negotiate with the British and French envoys who followed the army.The twenty-eight-year-old young Emperor Yi (Manning's son) still strictly refused foreign envoys to enter Beijing, while Britain and France insisted on entering Beijing.Guiliang was squeezed into the cracks and was very embarrassed, so he tried to use domestic officialdom fraud to solve the problem. In his report to Yikou, he said: "(The treaty signed with them now) is not a real evidence, but it is just to borrow this A few pieces of paper, and temporarily send them to withdraw the warship from the port. If they don’t want to fulfill it in the future, just say that I didn’t handle it well and punish them severely. The so-called treaty will become a piece of paper.” Gui Liang signed it. The Tianjin Treaty, which the Qing government was prepared to break its promise when it was signed, included the following important events: Britain and France sent envoys to Beijing, and China sent envoys to London and Paris. Second, Niuzhuang Yingkou (Yingkou, Liaoning), Yantai (Yantai, Shandong), Taiwan (Tainan, Taiwan), Tamsui (Taipei, Taiwan), Shantou (Shantou, Guangdong), and Qiongzhou (Qiongshan, Hainan) were opened as trading ports. 3. China compensates Britain and France for military expenses of six million taels of silver coins (English four million taels, French two million taels). Four British and French merchant ships can freely navigate the inland waters of China. 5. China reaffirms that Westerners should no longer be called barbarians. After the approval of the governments of both parties, the contract will be renewed in Beijing next year (1859). Emperor Yikou didn't care about the clauses that really forfeited power and humiliated the country, such as inland river navigation. He only regarded the fact that foreign envoys were stationed in Beijing as an intolerable shame.So as soon as the British and French allied fleet left, he ordered the rapid reconstruction of the Dagu Fort, and appointed Prince Seng Gelinqin, who died in the Nian Army seven years later, to lead his elite corps to deploy defenses along the coast. In the second year (1859), the time for renewing the contract came, and the envoys of Britain and France arrived in Dagu by warship.The Qing government informed them that Dagu had been fortified and they were impassable. Please land at Beitang, 15 kilometers north of Dagu.The envoys of the two countries looked down on the so-called fortification of the Qing government at all, refused to accept the advice, and went ashore at Dagu, the Dagu fort opened fire, and the British and French fleets fought. China fired artillery, but the British and French fleets still failed. Four of them sank, six were seriously injured, and fled in embarrassment. The Qing government did not even raise a protest against such atrocities committed by American warships, because it had no idea that American warships had violated public international law.Officials of the Qing government, big and small, were like idiots, receiving sap for nothing, and they didn't know it was sap. However, in any case, the British and French fleets were finally repelled. This was a victory in a foreign war since the Opium War, and the emperors of the flowery size, the officials of the Ye Mingchen type, and the scholar-official class cheered happily.It is agreed that the prestige of the Celestial Dynasty has been revived, the barbarians have been subdued, and the world has been peaceful since then. In the second year, 1860, the British and French fleets made a comeback, destroyed the Dagu Fort with fierce artillery fire, and captured Tianjin after the army landed.However, the 30-year-old Emperor Yikou, who lived among the women in the palace, was very confident. When he saw the translation of Queen Victoria's credentials, he could not help but sneered and commented: "Yelang is arrogant." ".Seng Gelinqin was ordered to tell the British and French allied forces: "Strike head-on and wipe out all the ugly ones." However, the Senggelinqin Corps did not have the strength to support Yikou's sneer, and kept retreating. Yangcun (Tianjin Wuqing), an important military town between Tianjin and Beijing, fell, and the British and French allied forces were only 80 kilometers away from Beijing. Yikou and his father Minning Similarly, there is no other way but to criticize some outrageous words in the report.In the end, they had no choice but to declare their willingness to accept the Tianjin Treaty.However, when the three countries were about to sign.The British representative, Pacharley, suddenly put forward the "terrible" condition, that is, when the treaty is ratified and renewed, all the credentials must be presented to the head of state by the envoy in person.That is to say, foreign barbarian officials actually tried to confront the emperor face to face. This made Yikou more furious than the request of envoys stationed in Beijing, because those barbarians would definitely refuse to kneel when facing each other, and kneeling and kowtowing is the most important thing in China. One of China's traditional cultures has a long history of more than 2,000 years. Any patriot with conscience and insight will not allow it to be destroyed. The negotiator of the Qing government, Prince Yixin, Yikou’s younger brother, found that the problem was caused by Bacharley, who could speak Chinese. He believed that if Bacharley was excluded, the British and French allied forces would lose their souls.So he ordered the arrest of Parker. —— Thirty-nine entourages were arrested at the same time as Bacharley, and they were imprisoned in Beijing Prison.China's traditional prisons are terrifying, and it must be so in a society without human rights thinking and good criminal procedures.Later, when the Qing government was forced to release Pachari, there were only thirty-four of them left; during the ten days of captivity, five of them died of torture by the jailers. The arrest of Pachari prompted the British and French allied forces to attack Beijing. The Senggelinqin Corps collapsed at Baliqiao, 15 kilometers away from Beijing.Interestingly, the Anglo-French allied forces stopped advancing at this time and proposed to negotiate again, for fear that the negotiator Prince Yixin would also run away, and they would not be able to find a negotiating partner.Yixin gave in completely, released Bacharley, and raised a white flag on the city of Beijing to welcome the British and French allied forces into the city.This is not the first time that Beijing has fallen to a foreign country, but it is the first time that it has fallen to a European country, and the total number of these enemies is only 16,000.In retaliation for the mistreatment of Pacharley and the tragic death of his entourage in prison, the British army vented their anger on the Yuanmingyuan, the Chinese emperor's luxurious villa outside Beijing.Set fire to.The Old Summer Palace was built by the Qing government with the blood and tears of the Chinese people. It was used as a place for the emperor alone and the women around him to hang out and entertain. Now it has been reduced to a pile of rubble. Yikou, who fled to Rehe, was ashamed and frustrated. He found that he could not win the victory by only approving some big words on the minister's memorial. He authorized his younger brother, Prince Yixin, to agree to all the conditions proposed by the British and French coalition forces, and only hoped that the coalition forces would withdraw from Beijing as soon as possible. .Yi Xin, a pale young man in his twenties, was angry and frightened, and finally signed the "Beijing Treaty" with the British and French allied forces with great trepidation. "Beijing Treaty", including the following important items: 1. Except for the item of compensation, the Treaty of Tianjin shall remain in force. 2. China compensates Britain and France for military expenses of 16 million taels of silver (England and France each have 8 million taels of silver). Three ceded the Kowloon Peninsula to the United Kingdom. Envoys from the four countries were stationed in Beijing and had an audience with the emperor. In the fifth increase, Zhenjiang (Zhenjiang, Jiangsu), Hankou (Wuhan, Hubei), Jiangning (Nanjing, Jiangsu), Jiujiang (Jiujiang, Jiangxi), and Tianjin were opened as trading ports. Sixth, foreign missionaries are allowed to preach in mainland China and have the right to purchase houses and land. Britain and France were completely victorious, and China under the Qing government was completely defeated.However, the British and French imperialists, which had gained significant benefits, changed their stance towards the Taiping Heavenly Kingdom, believing that the Taiping Heavenly Kingdom was the biggest obstacle to their vested interests, and turned to actively help the Qing government, which gave them vested interests; A windfall. Nine Russia seized 980,000 square kilometers of territory In the second month after the British captured Guangzhou and captured Ye Mingchen alive, that is, in the spring of 1858, in the far north, 3,000 kilometers away from Guangzhou, Mulifeyov, the governor of eastern Siberia in Russia, made a proposal to the Qing government of China. Asked to allow the Russian envoy to China to go to Beijing to discuss with the Qing government a joint strategy against Britain. Since the "Treaty of Nerchinsk" in the seventeenth century of the last century, Russia was blocked by China and could not move forward. Until the nineteenth century of this century, for nearly two hundred years, the long border between the two countries has always maintained tranquility.However, China counterattacked due to the great darkness and became weaker and weaker every day—the excessive weakness of a country, especially a big one, is an unforgivable sin, because it can lure other countries to aggressive fanaticism.In the 1940s of this century, Muraviyov sent people to sneak across the border secretly to investigate the situation along the coast of Heilongjiang.In the 1950s, he personally went out and took a steamboat deep into the territory of China to Aihui City (Heihe, Heilongjiang), an important town on the banks of the Heilongjiang River.In Aihui City, he saw the equipment of the Chinese army with his own eyes, and he couldn't help being surprised.At that time, there were more than 1,000 troops stationed in Aihui City, and there were only a few old cannons used in the attack on Yaksa City in the 17th century, which had already been sent to museums in Western countries; only a few soldiers had shotguns, and most soldiers held spears , carrying a bow and arrow.Muraviyov believed that if a country that had not progressed for 160 years did not launch an invasion immediately, it would be death. The Russian tsarist government supported his proposition. 清政府对所有的外国都不相信，当然不愿接受俄国的建议去对抗英国，至于“顺便”重划边界，清政府声嘶力竭的声明说，《尼布楚条约》是“鸣炮誓天”的万年和约，用不着再谈。可是鉴于拒绝英法修约的后果，对俄国不敢坚持到底，于是命黑龙江军区司令（黑龙江将军）奕山为全权代表。奕山就是十七年前在广州以白银六百万两巨款向英军赎城的那位浑身发抖的满洲权贵，用这种人跟外国办理外交，结果如何，是可以预知的。谈判开始后不久，穆拉维约夫就看出奕山不过是一个脓包，毫无忌惮地告诉奕山说，中国应该交出黑龙江以北土地，两国即以黑龙江为界。然后把用俄文和满文写好的条约交给奕山，要奕山签字。奕山最初不肯，一味自说自话的重申《尼布楚条约》是万年和约，僵持了两天，穆拉维约夫放下面孔，宣称奕山应负一切谈判破裂的责任，就回到停泊在江心的俄国军舰上睡觉去了。奕山在瑷珲城中心神不宁，夜间登高向江心眺望，只见俄舰上灯火齐明，而耳边又仿佛听到什么地方传来隆隆的炮声，他吓得第二次浑身发抖，好容易盼到天亮，立即派人去请穆拉维约夫驾临瑷珲继续谈判，穆拉维约夫反而端起架子，拒绝见面，只把已写好的条约交给去请他的人带回，奕山更加六神无主，迫不及待的签了字。 这就是著名的中俄《瑷珲条约》，内容只有两条，规定中俄在东方的疆土，以黑龙江为界。黑龙江以北，外兴安岭以南，六十四万平方公里中国的广大领土，包括中国人为它两次流血并取得决定胜利的雅克萨城在内，不明不白的被俄国诈欺而去。而且又规定乌苏里江以东的中国领土，由俄国跟中国共管。 《瑷珲条约》的签订，使俄国喜出望外，它发现清政府比它想像的还要愚蠢无知，所以渴望再有机会跟清政府谈判，如果能天天都在谈判，那就更好。 第二次机会闪电般来了。《瑷珲条约》于一八五八年四月签订，五月间，英法联军进攻大沽，俄国驻华公使普提雅廷趁热闹赶到天津，通知清政府说，如果把满洲（东北三省）沿海割让给俄国，就可以阻止英法联军进攻满洲腹地，普提雅廷在照会中特别表明心迹说：“俄国军队进驻沿海，并不是欺凌中国，而是完全为了中国的利益。”清政府代表桂良稍微表示不敢接受这种帮助，普提雅廷咆哮说：“俄国一心一意为了中国好，如果中国不给面子，我们从此不再管这一类的事。”清政府恐怕俄国参加英法联军，经过讨价还价的谈判，最后终于签订中俄《天津条约》，比劳师动众才获得签字的英法《天津条约》，还早十五天，距《暖浑条约》，也同样只十五天。它的重要内容如下： 一开辟上海、宁波、福州、厦门、广州、台湾（台湾台南）、琼州（海南琼山）为通商港口（七口通商）。 二利益均沾条款适用于俄国。 三中俄两国未定边界，重新勘定（中国西北疆土丧失的伏笔）。 俄国还要求割让乌苏里江以东领土，桂良心神恍惚，口头上连连应允。口头上的应允虽然没有法律上的效力，但有鼓舞俄国要求再举行谈判的效力。 两年后，一八六○年，英法联军进入北京，俄国前任驻华公使伊格那提耶夫也狐假虎威，进入北京，向失魂落魄的奕訢亲王，表示他有办法使英法联军撤退，但中国必须把乌苏里江以东领土正式割让给俄国，作为酬谢。 英法联军所以发生，跟鸦片战争所以发生一样，都基因于清政府对当代国际社会，连最低的基本常识都没有。英法联军的目的只求清政府履行《天津条约》，并无意打进中国的首都。既然阴差阳错打进了中国首都，一则缺少冬天装备，一则又怕清政府瓦解，妨碍他们的商人做生意。所以一心一意希望早日签订和约，早日撤退。清政府官员对这些一无所知，每日忧心忡忡、唯恐英法长期占领。在签约之后，英法联军本要依限撤退，偏因内部一点小事，延缓了几天，奕訢就慌了手脚，认为是俄国从中捣鬼，他向皇帝奕囗报告说：“恐怕俄夷之事一天不解决，英夷的兵一天不走。”就又晕晕忽忽地签订了中俄《北京条约》： 一、割让乌苏里江以东土地给俄国。 二、中俄两国在中亚，以山脉河流自然形势，和中国哨兵站为边界。 三、俄国在喀什噶尔（新疆喀什）、伊犁（新疆伊宁）、塔尔巴哈台（新疆塔城）自由贸易，并有购地建屋，和传教之权。 乌苏里江以东领土有三十四万平方公里，包括海参崴在内，在俄国的诈欺下，又莫名其妙的全部丧失。 中国既没有被俄国打败，俄国也没有费一枪一弹，只凭恐吓和诈术，就硬生生的夺取了九十八万平方公里的中国领土，是日本面积的两倍半，而且这还是第一批，更多的恐吓和诈骗还在后面。这不像是真实的国际交涉，倒像是一篇童话故事。 十新疆的脱离与收复 太平天国覆亡的那一年（一八六四），西北的新疆地区，又爆发更严重的反抗战争。 陕西回变领袖人物之一的妥明从陕西到了新疆天山北路的重镇乌鲁木齐，住在乌鲁木齐军区副司令（参将）索焕章家中，企图发动另一个回变，以打击已失去控制力的清政府。恰巧军区总司令（都统）平瑞正向各县征收捐税，税吏马金、马八都是伊斯兰教徒，贪污暴虐，各县汉人纷纷起来反抗。马金、马八反而倒打一耙，指控这是抗暴的汉人有计划的要消灭伊斯兰教徒，号召伊斯兰教徒用武力对付。古城（新疆奇台）首先发生流血械斗，索焕章乘着混乱，把平瑞杀掉，拥戴妥明当王，建立独立政权。 明年（一八六五），另一位从陕西逃到天山南路的陕西回民领袖金相印，在喀什噶尔（新疆喀什）暴动，把清政府的官员p走。天山西麓，位于中亚的浩罕王国（乌孜别克浩罕）派了它的大将阿古柏，带着维吾尔人伊斯兰教徒领袖大和卓木布士尔克（可怜的张格尔之子），率领强悍善战的安集延（乌孜别克安集延）兵团，进入中国领土，援助金相印。浩罕人也属于维吾尔民族，于是汉人伊斯兰教徒跟维吾尔人伊斯兰教徒合流。 布士尔克在喀什噶尔称王，他既没有才能而又想干预阿古柏的军权，两年后（一八六七），阿古柏政变，把布士尔克逼下宝座，送去阿拉伯半岛麦加朝圣。阿古柏登位，称毕调勒特可汗，建立哲德沙尔汗国。一八七○年，阿古柏北伐，攻陷乌鲁木齐，当了七年王的妥明在逃亡途中死掉，阿古柏遂统一了新疆全境，只伊犁（新疆伊宁）地区除外，伊犁于一八七一年被俄国突击占领。 阿古柏的庞大汗国很快的就跟英俄两国缔结通商条约，又跟当时伊斯兰教教主苏丹所统治下的土耳其帝国，建立密切关系。二百万平方公里的新疆，事实上已与中国脱离。 一八七三年，甘肃回变结束，陕甘总督左宗棠向中央要求收复新疆。新疆这时脱离中国已经十年，分裂的形势已经形成，清政府高级官员对这个棘手问题，像对一颗病牙一样，小心翼翼，没有人敢去碰它。如今左宗棠提出收复国土的严正主张，使他们不得不正视现实。当权的高级官员分为两派，一派称海防派，以讨伐捻军的安徽兵团（淮军）首领李鸿章为主，认为中国的外患，来自海洋，所以主张加封阿古柏为国王，使他像朝鲜、越南一样，永作中国的藩属，也就是说，这一派主张把新疆放弃。另一派称塞防派，以湖南兵团（湘军）首领左宗棠为主，他在给中央政府的报告上说：“保卫新疆就是保卫蒙古，保卫蒙古就是保卫北京。”他和他的朋友主张必须收回新疆。 最后塞防派胜利，一八七六年，左宗棠的西征大军攻克乌鲁木齐，天山北路光复。英国驻北京的公使乌亚德要求清政府允许阿古柏独立，以保持中亚的和平。这时清政府已不敢再把外国当作夷狄，而且已逐渐生出一种恰恰相反的自卑感，对所有外国，尤其对英国，心怀畏惧。连中国驻英公使，在当时思想最新最进步的郭嵩焘，也都同意这是一个妥善的办法，以免触怒英国。但左宗棠竭力反对，他说：“英国爱护阿古柏如果出于真心，为什么不把印度割让给他？” 明年（一八七七），左宗棠的西征大军越过高插云霄的天山山脉南下，阿古柏无力抵抗。而浩罕王国在前一年已被俄国并吞，阿古柏也得不到外援，进退失据，就在库尔勒城服毒自尽。他的儿子们跟四世纪大分裂时代后秦天王姚兴的儿子们一样，大敌当前而仍拒绝团结，反而誓不并存，互相残杀。结果在内斗中胜利的一方——阿古柏的两个年轻儿子和三个孙子，被左宗棠的西征大军捕获，用酷刑磔死。 新疆脱离中国版图十四年之后，再入版图。 ——回溯十五肚纪交趾省（越南北部）因民变而永远失去的往事，阿古柏跟黎利没有两样。新疆面积十倍于越南北部，最后仍回到中国，主要靠塞防派一批英雄坚定的立场和左宗棠以下将领们卓越的军事指挥。历史上得失之间，往往间不容发。 ——中亚所有的独立王国，在本世纪（十九）全被俄国征服。阿古柏以一个浩罕人在中国国土建立汗国，即令中国同意，我们用历史眼光可以断定，俄国必然的尾追而至。俄国对阿古柏，不会比对哈萨克王国或对浩罕王国更尊重。