Chapter 44 Chapter Thirty-Second Nineteenth Century-3
On the 11th, Russia seized another 630,000 square kilometers of territory
However, the Ili region was still under Russian occupation.
The Yili area is located between the main line of the Tianshan Mountains in northwest Xinjiang and the branch of the Boluo Ke Nu Mountain, covering an area of about 70,000 square kilometers. It is a rectangular plain with the most fertile cultivated land, the most developed industry and commerce, and the most densely populated area in Xinjiang in this century (19th). The "Ili General's Yamen", the highest official office of the Qing government ruling Xinjiang, was located in Yili City (Yining, Xinjiang).In 1870, Yagubo captured Urumqi.In 1871, Russia launched a surprise attack and occupied the Ili area.Regarding this blatant act of aggression, it explained to China that because China can no longer exercise its authority there, it temporarily manages it on behalf of friends based on the morals of friends, so as not to fall into the hands of the rebels; once the turmoil in Xinjiang subsides, it will return it with both hands .Russia believes that it is absolutely impossible for China to return to Xinjiang, and the merger of the Ili region into Russia is a foregone conclusion.
In 1876, China unexpectedly returned to Xinjiang, and Russia was greatly disappointed.According to its promise, it must retreat from Yili.Russia could not refuse to withdraw, but demanded to negotiate the terms of withdrawal.Negotiation is its favorite thing.
We are now going back to the "Tacheng Treaty" signed by China under the high pressure of Russia 12 years ago (1867) that lost 580,000 square kilometers of territory (or "The Covenant on the Division of the Northwest Boundary").
According to the Sino-Russian "Beijing Treaty" in 1860, the border between the two countries in Central Asia is: "Starting from the boundary sign of Sabinda Baha, following the situation of mountains and rivers and the permanent sentry station of China (Karen) ) and so on until Kokand.” Shabin Dabaha, that is, the Shabin Pass, is a mountain pass on the common border between China and Russia in the northwest of Tangnu Wulianghai in Outer Mongolia.
In 1862, the commander-in-chief of the Outer Mongolia Military Region (General Uliasutai Dingbian), a Manchu Mingyi, drew a border with the Russian representative.It was only then that Mingyi discovered that the shape of mountains and rivers is different from the sentry stations stationed in China. Taking the situation of mountains and rivers, that is, the watershed as the benchmark, all the sentry stations in China are far away from the west of the watershed by two to three hundred kilometers. outside. When the "Beijing Treaty" was signed, none of the officials headed by Prince Yixin knew where China's real border was.Mingyi believes that the Chinese outposts should be the main focus, because that means that the Chinese power is actually there.Russia immediately sent a large number of Cossack cavalry to attack along the border of more than a thousand kilometers.The Chinese sentry stations were unable to resist without reinforcements, and were forced to retreat steadily until they reached the location in Russia's mind, and then said: "Well, let's talk about it based on your permanent sentry stations." Yi was in a panic.
In 1864, the civil uprising broke out in Xinjiang. Tuo Ming rebelled and became king in Urumqi. Ming Yi was afraid that Russia would combine with the rebels, so he accepted Russia's request and signed the "Tacheng Treaty". Russia once again remained in China's hands. They seized a territory of 580,000 square kilometers in a sensual way. This rectangular piece of land is one and a half times the size of Japan, including 6,300 square kilometers of Issyk Lake and 3,000 square kilometers of Zaisangbo. And Almaty (now the capital of the Kazakh Republic) and Pishbek (now Bishkek, the capital of the Kyrgyz Republic) are important cities in Central Asia.
However, Russia was still dissatisfied. Seven years later (1871), the ink on the "Tacheng Treaty" was dry, and Russia sent troops to occupy Ili (Yining, Xinjiang) when Agubai captured Urumqi (Urumqi, Xinjiang).
Since Russia asked to negotiate the terms of returning Yili, China had no choice but to negotiate with it.In 1879, the Qing government sent Manchurian dignitaries Chonghou to St. Petersburg, the capital of Russia. This was the first time in Chinese history that an envoy was sent to a foreign capital for negotiations.
Chonghou thought that as long as Yili City was taken back, the task would be considered complete.And the astrologer had warned him that going abroad this time would be very bad for him.So he was eager to sign the treaty as soon as possible so that he could return home quickly and get rid of bad luck.Therefore, after he arrived in Russia, he quickly signed the following "Treaty of Livadia" (also known as "Treaty of Ili"):
1. Russia handed over the city of Ili (Yining, Xinjiang) to China.
2. China shall compensate Russia for occupation fees of 5 million Russian dollars (rubles) (2.8 million taels of Chinese silver).
Three ceded to the west of the Khorgos River (20,000 square kilometers), and the Turks River City (30,000 square kilometers) and Russia.
To the east of Sizhai Sangbo, re-demarcate the border (that is to say, Russia's favorite negotiations will also be held).
As a result of the treaty, China only took back one city of Ili, and all the territories west and south of the city were lost, and the Tekes River, which must pass through from Yili to the south of Tianshan Mountain, was also cut off.At this time, the Qing government began to have a little understanding of international affairs, and the British secretly advised China, so the Qing government refused to ratify the treaty, and announced that Chonghou had returned to China without receiving instructions, arrested him and sentenced him to death. The death penalty (the ominous prophecy of the astrologers was fulfilled).
Several ministers of the Qing government also claimed to take back Ili by force.Public opinion across China was boiling, and Zuo Zongtang also assembled troops and prepared to attack.Russia's attitude was very tough, but at that time they did not have the Siberian Railway, and it was difficult to transport troops.Moreover, the newly conquered Central Asian countries are in danger of taking the opportunity to resist and cooperate with China.In the end, China and Russia resumed negotiations. This time, the Qing government did not send Manchu dignitaries, but sent Zeng Jize, a Han Chinese, as a plenipotentiary representative.
In 1881, the "Treaty of St. Petersburg" (also known as the "Treaty of Taking Back Ili") was signed:
One ceded the west of the Horgos River (20,000 square kilometers) to Russia (and finally kept the Turks River Basin of 30,000 square kilometers).
2 Compensation for military expenses of 9 million Russian dollars (rubles) (an increase of 4 million Russian dollars, 9 million Russian dollars is about 5 million taels of Chinese silver).
Russia still refused to give up. Two years later (1883), it reassessed the border east of Zhaisangpo with China and signed the "Kota Treaty" (the border treaty between Khobdo, Outer Mongolia and Tacheng, Xinjiang). Ask, it is still poor China that has suffered a loss and been deceived, and it is still poor China. The Zhaisangbo area with an area of 30,000 square kilometers (about the size of Taiwan Island) will be given up to Russia.
No matter what method Russia used to fool the Qing government, it never failed.In the corner of the northwest border alone, China lost 630,000 square kilometers of land.Even the previously cut northeastern border territory has reached a total of 1.61 million square kilometers. We use the following table to illustrate the details:
These 1.61 million square kilometers are as big as three Frances or four Japans, and they are all important areas in China's national defense that must never be lost. No Chinese will forget this huge debt.Under the leadership of the Manchurian dignitaries of the Qing government, China was slaughtered by Russia in large chunks, but it did not attract the attention of anyone in the world at that time.Compared with the public robbery of the British, French, and later Japanese militarists who fired guns and shook the neighbors, Russia's methods are of a higher level.What makes the Chinese people laugh is that every time Russia grabs Chinese land, it is after it insists that it is very friendly to China and insists that it is China's best friend.
Twelve Sino-French Vietnam War
Two years after the signing of the "Treaty of St. Petersburg" (1883), China went to war with France again in order to protect Vietnam.
At the end of the last century (18th), the exiled King Nguyen Phuc Anh of Guangnan, with the assistance of French missionaries, signed a treaty of alliance with France in 1789, allowing the French army to be stationed in the Chinese region of Cochin (Southern Vietnam), and Ceded Toulon (Da Nang) to France.France promised to send an army to help restore Nguyen Phuc Anh.Five years later, in 1794, the French expeditionary force captured the capital Hue, and the Tay Son Party regime was eliminated.At this time, the French Revolution, unable to digest the fruits of its victory, withdrew its troops.Ruan Fuying continued the Northern Expedition to destroy the Annan Kingdom and unify the whole territory.
At the beginning of the 19th century, Nguyen Phuc Anh requested China to grant him the title, and China changed him to be the King of Vietnam. He is the famous King Gia Long in Vietnamese history.In 1820, Nguyen Phuc Anh passed away. When he was dying, he told his son Nguyen Phuc Khao: "Don't forget the great kindness of France. You must always respect and love France, but you must never cede the land to France." His descendants took a hostile attitude towards France, and French missionaries were persecuted and killed at every turn, and France's anger was predictable.
It was delayed until 1856 before France took action. Rear Admiral Rouyori went to Hue to present a letter of credence, demanding that Vietnam fulfill the treaty signed with King Nguyen Phuc Anh of Gia Long in 1789.The Vietnamese government ignored it and returned it intact.Luyoli landed in Toulon (Yangang) and destroyed the Vietnamese fort.After the Vietnamese government waited for the retreat of the French fleet, they massacred the French missionaries who were preaching in Vietnam as revenge.
Three years later, in 1859, the British and French allied forces were defeated in Dagukou, China, but they did not relax in Vietnam.The French fleet came to Vietnam again and captured Saigon (Ho Chi Minh City), the capital of Cochin.Vietnam had no choice but to bow its knees and signed the Treaty of Saigon with France in 1862, cutting Cochin to France.
The French government seems to be satisfied with occupying one-third of Vietnam's land, but French businessmen covet the northern part of Vietnam known as the "Beiqi" area. The businessman Jiu Piyou found in the capital of Beiqi, the ancient capital of Jiaozhi (Hanoi). A new traffic road that can lead to China's Yunnan Province is Honghe.He used this river to sell arms to Yunnan Province, and sold them to the fighting Islamic rebels and the Qing government's army.But arms were banned in Vietnam, and Vietnamese officials, unable to stop him, asked the French governor-general in Saigon to recall the businessman.In 1873, the French Governor-General sent naval officer Gurley to investigate. After Gurley led two warships to Tokyo (Hanoi), he was persuaded by Jiu Piyou to suggest that the Governor-General send troops to annex Beiqi, the northern part of Vietnam.Vietnamese officials hated Gorley deeply, so they secretly contacted the Black Banner Army in the mountain area, and Gorley was killed in ambush during a sniper battle by the Black Banner Army.
The leader of the Black Banner Army, Liu Yongfu, is a native of Guangdong Province, China. During the uprisings in China in the 1950s, Liu Yongfu was one of them, but he did not have political ideals like those leaders of the Taiping Army.After the failure of the Taiping Heavenly Kingdom, the Qing government gradually restored order. Liu Yongfu could not gain a foothold in China, so he led his tribe to flee to Vietnam, and settled in the mountainous area in the northwest of Beiqi on the Sino-Vietnamese border. kingdom.Vietnam has always regarded the Chinese as people from the Celestial Dynasty, so it is neither able nor willing to expel Liu Yongfu's invasion.Liu Yongfu, a group of about 2,000 green forest heroes, used black flags, so the Vietnamese called them the Black Banner Army.When Liu Yongfu presented Gurley and other five French heads to Vietnamese King Nguyen Hongren (grandson of the second king Nguyen Phuc Khao), Nguyen Hongren was very happy. He thought that France had lost courage, so he appointed Liu Yongfu as the deputy commander of the Third Xuan Corps (San Xuan deputy admiral).
Gurley's death has caused more pressure in France.Next year (1894), the Vietnamese government capitulated again and signed the second "Treaty of Saigon" with France.
- France recognizes Vietnam as an independent country.
Two Vietnamese diplomacy is represented by France.
Three open the Red River for free navigation.
The French envoy to China notified the Qing government of the copy of the treaty, and the Qing government formally replied and stated: "There is a clause in the treaty that recognizes Vietnam as an independent country. China is puzzled. Vietnam has been a vassal state of China since ancient times. It cannot be recognized." Vietnam is not prepared to implement this humiliating treaty that even lost its diplomatic rights.However, China and Vietnam had no choice but to pin their hopes on the Black Banner Army, hoping that the Black Banner Army could obstruct the navigation of the Red River.The Vietnamese government told France that the Red River was not navigable because of the black flag army of unknown origin occupying Baosheng City (Lao Caicheng, an important town on the east bank of the Red River on the Sino-Vietnamese border).While ignoring the French proxy diplomacy, they continued to send tribute envoys to China. France used force to prevent the tribute envoys from leaving, but the tribute envoys left one day earlier, which made the French army come to nothing.
Of course, France refused to give up. In 1882, Admiral Lee Weili led a fleet from Saigon to the north, landed in Beiqi, captured Tokyo (Hanoi), and demanded that Vietnam fulfill the Second Treaty of Saigon.Vietnam begged for aid from suzerain China, China negotiated with France, and the representatives of the two countries signed the Tianjin Draft Treaty in Tianjin. In the draft treaty, France agreed that the north of the Red River was a Chinese protected area, and China recognized that the south of the Red River was a French protected area.However, when this draft agreement was submitted to the governments of the two countries, it was immediately opposed. Beijing believed that this would be tantamount to carve up Vietnam, and firmly believed that the Black Banner Army was the nemesis of the French army;
The following year (1883), both China and France declared the draft treaty invalid.The French army attacked Hue, the capital of Vietnam, and the Vietnamese National Defense Force collapsed. King Nguyen Phuc Thanh (son of Nguyen Hong Ren) surrendered and signed the "Treaty of Hue" with France, recognizing Vietnam as a protectorate of France.The high level of the Vietnamese government refused to recognize it, deposed Nguyen Phuc Thang, and appointed his son Nguyen Phuc U as king, while sending urgent envoys to China for help.The Qing government reacted very quickly, and immediately dispatched the Vietnam Expeditionary Force into Vietnam, and set up defenses in the areas of Bac Ninh, Shanxi, and Xinghua near Tokyo (Hanoi).But when the French army launched an offensive, the Vietnam Aid Expeditionary Army and the overestimated Black Banner Army were all defeated.The Qing government had to negotiate with France again.
In the second year (1884), Chinese representative Li Hongzhang and French representative Freneau signed the "Li-Fu Agreement" (or "Tianjin Concise Terms") in Tianjin.
A Chinese army retreats from Vietnam.
2. China is still the suzerain of Vietnam, but it no longer interferes with the treaty between France and Vietnam.
Three China does not claim compensation from France.
However, this draft agreement was once again opposed by the governments of the two countries. The Chinese government believed that this was tantamount to betraying Vietnam. The French government believed that China would still retain the name of suzerain, which might cause future troubles.France first attacked Lang Son, a city on the northeastern border of Vietnam, but was repulsed by the Chinese expeditionary force to aid Vietnam. The French Chargé d’Affaires in Beijing, Xie Manlu, presented an ultimatum to the Qing government, requiring China to promise to pay 80 million French dollars (francs) for the French military expenditure within two days.The Qing government refused, and Xie Manlu did not get an answer within the time limit, so he returned home under the flag.The Chinese Emperor Zai Tian ordered the provinces to prepare for battle, and the French fleet had begun to attack.The army of the Qing government was corrupt, and the fleet moored at the mouth of the Minjiang River in Fuzhou, Fujian Province and the Mawei Fort, which was known as impenetrable, were all destroyed by the intruding French fleet.The French fleet attacked Taiwan again, landed in Keelung, occupied Huwei (Taiwan Freshwater), blocked the Taiwan Strait, and cut off China's North and South Sea Routes.
Next year (1885), French troops landed again on the Penghu Islands in the Taiwan Strait.Vice Admiral Guba, commander of the French fleet, died in Penghu.His death, China said he was killed by China, France said he died of illness.However, when the French army attacked northward from Tokyo (Hanoi), it was defeated by Feng Zicai, a Chinese general who became famous for this battle, at Zhennan Pass (Friendship Pass) on the Sino-Vietnamese border. Advance to Tokyo (Hanoi).This was a shocking blow to France, which has always been accustomed to victory. The news spread to Paris tomorrow that the French cabinet fell.
Under such circumstances, China and France accepted mediation, signed the "Vietnam Treaty" and recognized the "Li-Fuck Agreement", but canceled the clause that China was the suzerain of Vietnam. Vietnam has since become a colony of France. Although China was forced to abandon Vietnam, the China has done its utmost as a suzerain country and has not escaped.
——At that time, the government of the Gialong Dynasty in Vietnam and the government of the Qing Dynasty in China were equally corrupt and ignorant, and they only blindly closed their eyes to foreign countries.Thirty years had passed since the Opium War. The Qing government should understand that trade itself was not a crime, and should encourage Vietnam to accept it.If we don’t do this, but help Vietnam use the mob’s Black Banner Army to obstruct the navigation of the Red River, even if the obstruction is successful, it will not benefit the crisis in Vietnam that has already collapsed.Fortunately, China took advantage of Lang Son's victory and immediately reconciled. Otherwise, France would very likely continue to occupy Taiwan and Penghu, resulting in the fact of cession.
Thirteen Self-Strengthening Movement
The Opium War in the 1940s of this century was an epoch-making war, but the emperor and officials of the Qing government regarded it as an ordinary battle against foreign countries in history. Although China has lost the battle, it is only a temporary setback. As the saying goes, if there is a small bend, there will be a big stretch. Once the emperor with unlimited authority is furious, shows his might, and makes a big fight against the sky, those barbarians and ugly people will still be defeated. Prostrate at the feet of Master Wang.But immediately after the British and French allied forces invaded Beijing in the 1960s, the Manchurian dignitaries were personally hit by a huge stick, especially Yixin who signed the "Beijing Treaty". The young prince was the first to bear the brunt and was more stimulated. The status of a strenuous sport.The year following the end of the Anglo-French War (1861), Emperor Yikou passed away, and his six-year-old son Zaichun sat on the throne of the emperor. Zaichun's mother, Nala Laner, came to court as the empress dowager, and Yixin presided over the government. (The official title is "Prince Gong, Minister of State Affairs, Minister of Military Aircraft"), so he was able to implement his proposition.
No one is against working hard, the question is how to work hard.During the Opium War, Britain only dispatched more than 2,000 troops; during the British and French Allied Forces, the two countries only dispatched more than 10,000 troops, and they defeated the largest superpower in the world with a population of 400 million at that time.Yi Xin, along with some of the powerful Han Chinese officials like Zeng Guofan and Li Hongzhang, suddenly realized that the politics of the Westerners was not as good as that of China, and that the only thing better than China was "ships and guns".As long as China has strong ships and strong guns, it can subdue the British and French barbarians.As for how to make the ship strong and powerful, the goal can be achieved as long as the following three measures are taken:
I have been buying warships and cannons from the West.
2. China set up its own factories to manufacture warships and cannons.
Third, send overseas students to Western countries to learn their skills.
The only problem is that I am afraid that the barbarians in the West will not teach the secrets of how to build and use the cannons of warships; but when I find that the barbarians are not only willing to teach the secrets, but also enthusiastically teaching them, I can't help but be very surprised.Therefore, the self-improvement movement was actively promoted on the basis of the above-mentioned theories.From the end of the Anglo-French Allied War in the 1960s to the outbreak of the Sino-Japanese War of Sino-Japanese War in the 1990s, we use the following table to illustrate the main measures taken by the Qing government:
The most important thing in the Self-Strengthening Movement is the establishment of the Prime Minister's Office for International Affairs, which is a new thing after the British and French allied forces invaded the capital Beijing.In the past, countries could only negotiate with border local officials designated by the Qing government. For example, Russia could only negotiate with the minister of affairs in Kulun (Ulaanbaatar, Mongolia), and European and American countries could only negotiate with the governor of Guangdong and Guangxi in Guangzhou.The central government of the Qing Dynasty had only one vassal affairs department (Li Fanyuan), which dealt with the affairs of the vassal states.Even after the Opium War, this was still the case. Therefore, when the Anglo-French treaty amendment discussion first started, Ye Mingchen, the governor of Guangdong and Guangxi, refused to meet. Britain and France could not even find someone to talk to, so they decided to use force instead.
The establishment of the prime minister's office for national affairs indicated that the Qing government finally recognized in psychology that there were still countries with equal status in the world.It is equivalent to the modern Ministry of Foreign Affairs, but diplomacy is only one of the main tasks of the prime minister's national affairs office. In fact, it is the headquarters of the self-improvement movement. Yixin is the supreme commander. Li Hongzhang, the governor, is the chief executive officer.The Prime Minister's National Affairs Office is responsible for promoting almost all kinds of new businesses that have never been heard before, such as:
1. The self-improvement movement requires talents who are proficient in foreign languages. Tong Wen Guan (Foreign Language School) not only cultivates language talents, but also trains scientific talents in addition to the four departments of English, French, Russian, and German, including the Department of Astronomy and the Department of Chemistry. , Department of Geology, Department of Gezhi (Department of Physics), and Department of Medicine are the prototypes of modern national universities.
2 Customs This should be a matter of the Ministry of Finance (Ministry of Households), but now it is presided over by the Prime Minister's National Affairs Office, and a British is hired as the head of the customs, called the "General Taxation Department".For the ports along the coast and the commercial ports along the river, three-tenths of all foreign trade taxes are reserved for self-improvement campaigns, and the other seven-tenths are turned over to the national treasury.
The Prime Minister of the Three Seas, the Army, and the Office of National Affairs are also the Ministry of the Navy and the Ministry of the Army.Naval fleets, ships, naval ports, and naval subsidiary units, such as ordnance bureaus, shipyards, and naval officer schools, are all under the responsibility of the Prime Minister's State Affairs Office.The military academy, fort fortress, new army training, and all purchases of weapons by the navy and army were all under the Prime Minister's National Affairs Office. At that time, the Ministry of Defense (Military Department) almost became an unimportant institution.
4. Others are not limited to those mentioned above. Others, such as mineral development, railways, electric wires, ships, domestic and overseas shipping lines, industrial factories, etc., are related to shipbuilding and artillery, even though they are irrelevant, as long as they are related to foreign countries. All are presided over by the Prime Minister's State Affairs Office.
Because the main form of the self-improvement movement is the Westernization of the military, and dealing with foreigners from Eastern and Western countries, it is also called "Westernization".A lot of money was invested, and China soon presented a magnificent scene in appearance. The new naval camp was magnificent, and the powerful Beiyang Fleet was established first. There were also three smaller fleets, namely the Nanyang Fleet, the Guangdong Fleet and the The Fujian Fleet, which was completely sunk by France at the mouth of the Minjiang River in 1884, has huge ships and cannons known as the seventh largest sea power in the world. After the 1970s of this century, although China is no longer the super Powerful country, but still maintain the dignity of a first-class power.
However, political corruption and official corruption and incompetence have rendered the newly resplendent military force no more than a pair of beautiful boxing gloves.When an old boxer with terminal cancer is defeated, when he observes the advantages of a strong opponent, he does not attribute it to the opponent's strength as a cow, but to the opponent's having a pair of beautiful boxing gloves. The law has already made great progress.The old boxer thinks that as long as he also has such a pair of beautiful gloves, he can produce equal power, or even greater power, because his body (political and social) is much healthier than his opponent.The purpose of the self-strengthening movement of the Qing government was to obtain such a pair of beautiful boxing gloves, and now they have obtained them.
Only a few people found that the problem was not so simple. One of them was Guo Songtao, the minister in Britain. This official from the imperial examination had an opinion of the times. He wrote to Li Hongzhang in England, warning:
In the two thousand years since the founding of Western countries, politics and education are very refined.It is completely different from the situation of the rise of the Liao and Jin Dynasties. ... The West is rich and strong, but it does not exceed mining, ships, and trains.But they are rich and powerful for a reason. ... We must have honest customs and the people's family is full, as the cornerstone, and then we can talk about prosperity.There is no reason why the people are poor and the country can be rich and strong.People who talk about prosperity now regard the country's major affairs as having nothing to do with the people.Officials are corrupt, thieves are rampant, floods and droughts continue, and there are hardships from top to bottom, and there are worries and disasters every day.At this time, the rash pursuit of wealth and strength is just a waste of money. ... The strength of ships and guns ("military affairs") is the last trivial matter, and the political system is the foundation of a country. ... The great trouble in China is that the scholar-bureaucrats are ignorant.
The Prime Minister's National Affairs Office has compiled and published various reports by Guo Songtao. We have quoted only a small part of them, but we can see his profound insights.However, not only did his profound insights fail to arouse positive reactions at the time, but was slandered by the advocacy public opinion of the scholar-official class all over the country as a traitor and traitor who had forgotten his ancestors.
In 1894, the Sino-Japanese War of 1894 broke out, and the Qing government put on this pair of beautiful boxing gloves.
14 Second Defense of Korea
During the 200 years between the seventh and eighth centuries, a large amount of Chinese culture was imported into Japan, making Japan, after Korea, the two countries in the world that adopted Chinese characters as their own.In the 13th century, China and Japan were invaded by the Mongol Empire at the same time. China was ruled by the Yuan Empire government established by the Mongols, but Japan survived with the help of typhoons.
In 1635 in the 17th century, Tokugawa Iemitsu, the Japanese general (Edo shogunate), ordered the expulsion of all foreigners, prohibiting Japanese from going abroad, and the Japanese abroad were not allowed to return to Japan, only China and the Netherlands were allowed A small number of merchant ships traded in Nagasaki.This is the famous lock-up order, and Japan is like a bottle with a stopper, isolated from the outside world.
Japan locked the country for 219 years, this century (19th) 1853, that is, the year when the Taiping Heavenly Kingdom established its capital in Tianjing (Nanjing, Jiangsu), a fleet of the US Navy.Under the leadership of Fleet Admiral Perry, he came to China to protect American nationals.During the voyage, for unknown reasons, he suddenly broke into Tokyo Bay (Edo Bay) in Japan and asked Japan to agree to trade. Perry sent two white flags to Japanese officials, telling them that they would surrender when the war was defeated, and told them that , I can't stay here for long this year, and I will come here again next year.The whole of Japan waited in panic until next year (1854), and Perry came as promised. Japan surrendered without resistance, and signed the "Kanagawa Treaty" with the United States. The era of seclusion ended and the door opened wide.But the biggest impact came eight years later, in 1862, when Japan killed a British man and British warships bombarded Kagoshima.Japan, like China, was stimulated by the giant ships and cannons and was determined to work hard.
Five years later (1867), that is, the third year after the fall of the Taiping Heavenly Kingdom, and the year when Yaguba proclaimed Khan in Xinjiang, Emperor Meiji of Japan ascended the throne and ordered a reform. In the "Meiji Restoration", Tokugawa Yoshiki, the general who conquered barbarians (Edo shogunate), returned the ruling power to Emperor Meiji. Emperor Meiji moved the capital from Kyoto to Edo near the sea and renamed it Tokyo, which is the same as the seventh century. Just as the "Daika Reform" absorbed Chinese culture in its entirety, the Meiji Restoration absorbed Western culture in its entirety—from lifestyle to ideology.In just a few short years, Japan has leapt from a barren and backward state to a modern young country with a completely new look.
——During the Great Golden Age of China in the fourth century B.C., the successful reform of the Qin State was the greatest magic of mankind.This century (nineteenth) Japan has also successfully reformed, which should be the second largest magic of mankind.Scholars from all over the world have tried to discover the reasons for this change that the Japanese created that stunned the whole world, but they could not reach a consistent conclusion.
Once Japan rises, it will immediately invade abroad.
In 1871, a ship of the Kingdom of Ryukyu sank in the sea of Taiwan. When the boat people landed on Taiwan Island, more than 50 of them were killed by the natives of the Peony Society on the island (Peony Township, Pingtung, Taiwan).This matter has nothing to do with Japan, but Japan thinks it is.In 1874, Japan's newly established fleet, which didn't even have transport ships and had to rent American ships to supply supplies, sailed to Taiwan, massacred people and burned villages.The Qing government had to pay 500,000 taels of silver before the Japanese army returned with a full load.This incident is only eight years after the Meiji Restoration in Japan, and the eagerness to bleed its neighbors shows on the one hand the great effect of the Japanese reform and the rapid growth, on the other hand it also shows that Japan is small and easy to gain.
——Japan soon banned Ryukyu king Shangtai from paying tribute to China. Shangtai sent secret envoys to Beijing to beg for help, but the Qing government was unable to protect this vassal who was isolated overseas.In the last year of the 1970s (1879), Japan captured Shangtai to Tokyo and changed the Kingdom of Ryukyu to Okinawa County, and Ryukyu fell.
The Taiwan incident made Japan discover that aggression is wonderful, just like a robber discovers that plundering is wonderful, he can get the most rewards at the least cost.Japan's next plundering target immediately shifted to the ancient kingdom of Korea, which had run into trouble three hundred years ago.
The year after the attack on Taiwan (1875), the Japanese fleet broke into Ganghwa Bay facing the Korean capital Seoul, and small boats went deeper into the Han River to measure the waterway.The North Korean fort fired artillery to stop it, and the Japanese fleet captured the fort. This is exactly the same as the Western method against China.North Korea had no choice but to agree to Japan's conditions and sign the "Ganghwa Treaty" with the following points:
1 Japan recognizes North Korea as an independent country.
2. Japan enjoys consular jurisdiction in Korea.
Three Koreas opened two ports (Wonsan and Incheon) to trade.
North Korea reported the content of the treaty and the signing process to China. The Qing government was trying its best to recover Xinjiang at this time, and was unable to respond. It advised the North Korean government of the Lee Dynasty to take this opportunity to actively open the door and establish diplomatic and business relations with countries all over the world. The relationship between Japan and Japan has been restrained.However, Kim Yun-sik, the prime minister of North Korea, refused to say: "Instead of living with the ocean, I would rather perish without the ocean." The food and payment lasted for thirteen months, and even the wine and meat officials of the Qing government, who were famous for their corruption, were taken aback.In 1882, the year after China signed the Treaty of Yili, a mutiny broke out in Seoul. Angry soldiers attacked the palace. Concubine Min was injured and escaped. King Li Xi was imprisoned. The mutiny attacked the Japanese legation supporting the Ae family , several Japanese officers were killed.Li Xi's father, the former regent (Daewon Lord) Li Shiying, who had long lost power, stepped forward to maintain order and preside over the government.
Li Shiying was in fact the leader behind the mutiny, a fatuous old bureaucrat who lacked the necessary political acumen to anger China and Japan at the same time.China believes that imprisoning the king, even the father of the king, who was canonized by China, is treasonous, and it is also deeply afraid that Japan will use the excuse of the killing of military officers to further blackmail North Korea.Japan is of course furious at the attack on the Japanese legation and the death of personnel, especially since Japan is a nouveau riche who is in need of face and cannot bear this kind of insult.As a result, the Chinese and Japanese armies landed in North Korea respectively. When the Japanese minister Hanabou Yoshitaka announced that the Japanese army would take action against Li Shiying's government, Wu Changqing, the commander of the Chinese Expeditionary Force (admiral of the Guangdong Navy), had used lightning-fast tactics to cover his ears. Li Shiying was detained by means of a special ship and sent back to China to welcome King Li Xi back to life.Since Japan lost the target of the attack, it had to accept mediation. North Korea paid 500,000 taels of silver as compensation, and signed the "Jemulpo Treaty" with Japan, recognizing Japan's right to garrison troops in North Korea to protect the legation.
North Korea was not reconciled to the Japanese garrison, and asked the Chinese army not to retreat to balance the threat from Japan.The Qing government agreed and appointed Yuan Shikai, a general of Wu Changqing's department, as the commander of the garrison army.
North Korea's continuous internal and external troubles have divided the country into two parties. One is the "Independence Party", which advocates imitating Japan's reforms and implementing political reforms.One is the "major party", which advocates continuing to serve the Celestial Dynasty-China and maintain the status quo.With the support of Chinese and Japanese officials stationed in North Korea, the two parties fought fiercely.
Two years later, the Jiashen (1884) Incident occurred in North Korea.At this time, China was busy fighting against France for Vietnam. Japan believed that China had no spare capacity to take care of North Korea. The Independence Party launched a coup, led a new army trained by Japanese military officers, massacred the big party, rushed into the palace, and forced the king to order the Japanese army. Escort into the palace.Japanese Minister Shinichiro Takeso advocated that the king should be secretly sent to Japan as a hostage immediately, but the Independent Party was afraid that it would arouse the anger of the people and would not be able to deal with the aftermath, so it advocated sending the king to Ganghwa Island at the mouth of the Han River first.Yuan Shikai, the commander of the Chinese garrison, got the news and immediately attacked the palace, exposing the Japanese conspiracy to the Korean people.The angry North Korean masses surrounded the palace and assisted the Chinese army to attack day and night.The Japanese army could not support it, so they had to abandon the king, break through with the Independence Party, and retreat to the port of Incheon, 40 kilometers away.
The Jiashen Incident was Japan's blatant interference in North Korea's internal affairs, which aroused criticism from various countries in the world.So although it suffered a loss, its attitude could not be tough.It was delayed until the following year (1885), and finally signed the Sino-Japanese "Tianjin Treaty" with China to resolve the Korean issue. It stipulated that China and Japan should withdraw from North Korea at the same time. Send troops at the same time.This treaty made Korea the joint protectorate of China and Japan.But in the minds of North Koreans, Japan is not recognized as having such a qualification at all.
Japan is like a greedy hungry wolf, staring at North Korea intently, praying to God to cause it to make trouble soon.China, on the other hand, fears that something wrong with North Korea will lead to Japan's intervention.Only the government under the control of the Min family in North Korea has no sense of this. The Min family seems to have a deep blood feud with the North Korean kingdom.China later released their political enemy, the former regent Li Shiying, back to China. The Min family then hated China to the bone and tried to contact Russia to fight against China and Japan.
A Korean people's uprising called the Donghak Party broke out across North Korea.
Fifteen Sino-Japanese Sino-Japanese War
东学党是朝鲜民间崛起的反抗暴政和反抗除了中国人以外所有外国人的组织，闵氏家族用最残酷的手段镇压他们，结果激起全国大暴动，朝鲜政府失去控制。一八九四年，即中国古老历法的甲午年，朝鲜向中国请求派军平乱。当中国军队出发时，依照中日《天津条约》，通知日本，两国军队遂同时到达朝鲜。日本这一次已拿定主意，再也不走了，他们从甲申事变（一八八四）焦急地等待了十年，才等到这个天赐良机。
东学党听到中国军队登陆的消息，精神上失去支持，即行溃散，天大的变乱霎时间归于平息。中国通知日本，要求两国军队同时撤退，日本提出种种不能马上撤退的理由，然后，突然间发动攻势，把王宫占领，逮捕闵氏家族以消除人民的怨恨，请出李是应再当摄政王。国王李熙在压力下，下令废除跟中国签订的一切条约，又下令征召日本军队驱逐侵犯朝鲜主权而又拒不撤退的中国军队。
中国急向朝鲜增援，当增援的军舰济远号跟广乙号，运送陆军到牙山（汉城南八十公里）回航，驶到距牙山六十公里的丰岛海面时，受到日本舰队偷袭，广乙号搁浅，自己炸毁。济远号竭力抵抗后不支，悬起白旗诈降，然后乘隙逃走。日舰在追击途中遇到中国第二批增援部队所乘的高升号商轮和操江号护航舰。高升号被击沉，增援部队一千二百人仅七十余人逃生。操江号携同所载运的白银二十万两军饷投降。
中日两国同时宣战。
战争分别在陆海战场进行。中国驻防牙山的陆军，自丰岛海战后，就受到日军的猛烈攻击，无法抵抗，即向汉城北方二百公里外的重镇平壤撤退。中国在平壤集结的军队有一万四千人，司令官（诸军总统）叶志超是官场中的典型人物，胆小如鼠，视钱如命，又没有声望，其他将领们也都是大小官僚，除了吸食鸦片外，每天都摆酒欢宴，既不体恤士兵，也不理会逼面而来的大敌，他们都相信“船到桥头自然直”的官场哲学。等到日军以一万五千人发动攻击时，大军即行崩溃，叶志超首先逃生。日军乘胜尾追，越过鸭绿江，深入中国领土的辽东半岛，顺利地占领位于半岛最南端、中国最优良的旅顺军港。日本这时已决心永远的攫取旅顺，所以在旅顺作灭种式的大屠杀，中国人全部死尽，只有三十六人逃生。
平壤溃败三天后，中国北洋舰队，包括战舰十二艘、炮艇二艘、鱼雷艇四艘，从大连出发，运送增援平壤的武装部队在大东沟（辽宁东港）登陆，在回航途中的黄海上，跟同样拥有十二艘战舰和四艘鱼雷艇的日本舰队相遇。
北洋舰队司令（提督）丁汝昌站在旗舰定远号的舰桥上指挥，下令舰队作一字形雁阵应战。可是副司令兼旗舰舰长（右翼总兵旗舰管带）刘步蟾，发现如此则旗舰定远号恰恰在最危险的前端，将第一个受到炮击，于是他在转达命令时，竟改为人字形雁阵，使定远号位于他认为比较安全的中央后方位置。英国顾问泰乐尔看见阵势跟司令所下的命令不符，对这种在海军中闻所未闻、几近叛变的阵前抗命，大为震骇。他急忙奔上舰桥，企图挽救，但时间已不许可，日舰已经逼近，刘步蟾下令开炮。奇怪的事情发生了，当定远号的大炮发射第一炮时，那个年久未修，早就锈烂了的舰桥，被震断裂，丁汝昌和泰乐尔被双双抛到半空而后跌到甲板上。丁汝昌腰部重伤，泰乐尔失去知觉。日舰的猛烈炮火，把定远号的桅樯摧毁，以致悬挂不出指挥的旗帜，各舰遂成了一群各自为政的盲鸭。
海战只五小时，中国战舰五艘沉没，其余全部重伤，落荒而逃。日本则仅旗舰松岛号重伤，无一舰被击沉。
北洋舰队这时仍剩下军舰二十六艘，包括战舰七艘、炮艇六艘、鱼雷艇十三艘，集结在基地威海卫（山东威海）。旅顺陷落后，威海卫更加重要，仍控制着渤海海口，阻止日舰进攻天津。黄海战役三个月后，日本海陆夹攻威海卫，陆军由山东半岛最东端的成山角登陆（七世纪时，中国援助朝鲜半岛上新罗王国的远征军，就在这里乘舰出发），日军登陆后，攻陷威海卫的要塞炮台，北洋舰队反而暴露在自己岸炮的威胁之下。日本海军又一连两夜发动鱼雷艇偷袭，定远号被击搁浅，来远号和威远号则被击沉，两舰上的战士伤亡惨重，但两舰的舰长却安然无恙，因为两位舰长都上岸嫖妓去了，根本不在舰上。
这是一个绝望的局势，中国海军主力全在北洋舰队，其他南洋、粤洋两个舰队都微不足道，而且地域观念和派系观念，使他们乐意于看到以李鸿章为首的北洋系势力瓦解，所以北洋舰队根本不可能有援军。不久，司令部所在地的刘公岛上发生兵变，水兵弃舰登陆，要求司令丁汝昌“放他们一条生路”，而岛上驻防的陆军却抢着攀上军舰，要求快快逃命。秩序已乱，英国顾问瑞乃尔建议丁汝昌凿沉残余军舰，士兵徒手投降。丁汝昌采纳，下令沉船，可是那些舰长们恐怕沉船后会触怒日本人，可能性命不保，所以拒绝执行命令。丁汝昌又打算率领各舰突围，更没有人理他，丁汝昌只好服毒自杀。
拒绝沉船，又拒绝突围的舰长之一程璧光乘着悬挂白旗的炮艇出港，向日本舰队投降。历时二十四日的威海卫战役结束，曾经煊赫一时，作为自强运动结晶的北洋舰队，灰飞烟灭。清政府知道大势已去，尤其是那位皇太后那拉兰儿，急于庆祝她六十岁的快乐生日，所以迫不及待向日本乞和。
次年（一八九五），中国代表李鸿章在他领导的事业全部失败后，到日本低头接受屈辱的和平，签订《马关条约》：
一中国承认朝鲜独立自主。
二中国割让辽东半岛、台湾、澎湖给日本。
三中国赔偿日本军费白银二亿两（这是一个天文数字）。
中国战败，朝鲜陷于惊恐，在朝鲜人的眼中，伟大的天朝是不会战败的。朝鲜失去了靠山，六神无主，只有默默地承认日本为他们的宗主国。
——本世纪（十九）最后第三年（一八九七），日本命朝鲜国王改称皇帝，并改称为大韩帝国。下世纪（二十）一九一○年，即清政府被中国人推翻的前一年，日本命李照签订跟日本《合并条约》，朝鲜遂亡。朝鲜当中国的藩属一千余年，两国感情融洽，如足如手，中国对朝鲜没有任何领土野心，这一次又为了保护它，而连自己的领土都赔了进去。但它当日本的藩属只不过十六年，就被并吞。
《马关条约》既然签订，中国的重大损失已成定局，然而国际间错综复杂的形势，却发生三国出面强迫日本退还辽东半岛的事件。俄国、德国、法国联合起来向日本提出抗议，认为割让辽东的要求，过份苛刻。这事件的动机十分简单，当中日战争爆发之前和已经爆发之后，清政府渴望俄国或其他任何一国出面干预，但没有一国肯帮这个忙。等到条约签订，俄国才发现它垂涎已久，远东最大的不冻港旅顺和旅顺所在地的辽东半岛，竟落到日本人手中。德、法两国也愿利用俄国的心理状态，向俄国和中国表示惠而不费本的友谊，作为以后索取报酬的资本。纯粹自私的动机，在外交词令下，看起来好像是正义的行动。
日本无力跟三国抗衡，答应把辽东半岛退还中国，但由中国增加白银三干万两的赎金。
——三国干涉还辽事件，使清政府的当权人物对俄国感激零涕，认为俄国真是中国最好的朋友。这份感激之情维持了五年，直到下世纪（二十）第一年（一九○○），俄国乘八国联军进攻中国之际，突然间出兵占领面积达一百一十万平方公里的东北三省，清政府才大梦方醒。
十六中国失败的原因
在发奋图强上，日本起步比中国迟。中国门户开放了十年之后，日本门户才开放。中国发动自强运动七年后，日本才明治维新。但海军居世界第十一位的蕞尔小国日本，却一举击溃了海军居世界第七位的庞然大物的中国，使全世界都大大的震惊，不得不承认中国是远东病夫。——当时，欧洲人称土耳其帝国是近东病夫。
都是发奋图强，为什么日本办得到而中国不能，不但本世纪（十九）不能，而且拖到下世纪（二十）中叶以前，仍然不能。
这可以由对门户开放所持的态度上，得到启示。
美国舰队敲开锁国二百余年的日本，日本并不把它当作一种耻辱，反而庆幸由于这个刺激，使日本早日惊醒。中国不然，像一个赤身露体而衰老患病的梦游患者，被鸦片战争惊醒后，发现自己所处的窘境，而认为惊醒他的人罪该万死。
日本面对着巨变，内心充满着恐惧和自卑，立刻就认清必须全盘接受西洋文化，才能生存。中国则悻悻然怒不可遏。对西洋文化怀着一种轻蔑和仇视的心情，在不得不屈服时，也只勉强接受一副漂亮的拳击手套，这已是让步的最大限度。也就是说，日本认为万事不如人，它的改变出自内心的彻底觉悟。中国则始终坚持从古代传下来的儒家系统的那些儒书，仍是救世良方，只要加以现代化的解释就可以了。
中日两国有同一的文化基础，却对同一刺激，产生两种恰恰相反的反应。Why is this so?
我们认为主要的下列四项原因：
一中国有长期的科举制度，日本没有。
二中国有士大夫僵化了的阶层，日本没有。
三中国人在经济上有安全感，日本人没有。
四中国帝王有危险感，日本帝王没有。
日本于七世纪大化革新时，把中国文化几乎全部接受过去，不知道什么原因，却单单的拒绝或遗漏了中国知识分子最疯狂崇拜的科举制度。科举制度有它的主要功能，它使政权向下微作一隙的开放，使拥有相当资产的平民有机会借此一线狭径，爬到政权高峰。但也使帝王用它来控制知识分子，这些被长久控制的知识分子，在帝王跟平民之间，形成一个新的统治贵族。他们异于旧有的血统上的贵族，而是一种由科举考试而产生的贵族，即士大夫阶层。他们以研究儒家学派的儒书和做官为唯一职务，俸禄和贪污使他们的财富增加，再把这些财富投资到土地上，所以每一个士大夫都拥有土地和一个寄生性的家族。这些士大夫和这些家族，就像大海里无数礁石，而中国政府则像一只巨舟，在这些礁石之间，蹒跚行驶。日本因为从没有科举的缘故，它幸运的没有制造出来这些礁石，日本政府航行的大海是辽阔的，只要领导人决心改变方向，它就可以改变，不会遭遇到像中国领导人所遭遇到的密如星斗般礁石的阻吓。
科举制度主要内容是考试两千年前的儒书，儒家学派强烈的保守和崇古本质，也就成为士大夫最突出的冥顽性格，八股文的机械训练，更使士大夫脑筋里残存的想像力荡然无存、士大夫习惯于不用自己的思想，所有的著作都是代替圣人系统发言，于是养成一种不切实际发高烧的毛病，对社会上的任何改革和进步，都狂热的对抗。日本知识分子也有这种毛病，但毛病要轻得多，大多数都能冷静地思考到自己国家的缺点，虚怀若谷地接受西洋的生活方式和西洋文化的意识形态。
日本的长子继承制度也使日本社会的资金容易累积，比中国社会蕴藏较高的活力。长子继承制度一定使次子以下的子弟（至少占全国青年三分之二）都有一种不安全感，他们发现父母的财产跟自己无关时，只有走出家庭，赤手空拳到陌生的社会上创立事业。中国是平均继承的，每一个男子都有一份遗产，他缺少创业的刺激，如果他雄心勃勃地去创业——除非是去参加科举考试，社会上没有一个人会赞扬他奋发进取，反而会认为他不知道安分守己。
十九世纪以前的中国的家庭，往往跟家族同义，上的贾府就是一个士大夫地主家庭的典型形态，没有工作不能生产的成年人，他不必工作，只要停在家里，照样可以享受被重视的生活。而在老年时，尤其占优越地位，所以中国人永远在礁石保护之下，而不是在政府巨舟的保护之下。日本人没有礁石作他们的藏身之所，他们必须奋斗。
中国政府的性质和皇族的地位，跟日本的完全不同。日本皇帝被形容为万世一系，是一种传奇的政治形态，日本有过将近七百年的幕府政治，但幕府的最高官位不过“征夷大将军”，他们把天皇的权力剥夺罄尽，但从没有人想到把天皇排除，自己去当天皇。中国任何一个有权力的野心家，第一件想到的事就是把皇帝挤下宝座，由自己的屁股坐上去，并且还要用极残忍的手段对付失去权力的帝王，以免他死灰复燃。帝王本身自然也用同样残忍的手段对付那些有权力的野心家，以免他们的屁股发痒。所以中国统治阶级对于权力问题，具有高度的敏感和紧张，帝王的最大工作不是治理国家，而是防止官员或将领独揽大权。一些高级官员或军事将领，也特别用不揽大权——事实上也就是不负责任，来表示自己并不是野心家。西洋文化中的民主政治，主要的精神是帝王无权，权在民选的宰相和议会，而这恰恰的严重违反了中国政治传统，更触犯了权力中心最大的禁忌。日本天皇事实上一直没有权力，所以也从不担心丧失权力，征夷大将军归还大政，不过把权力从旧式的幕府转移给新式的内阁与国会而已。
所以中国专制政体下的帝王，是世界上危险感最大的人，对野心家的恐惧心理，助长一种对中国伤害最大的贪污罪行。贪污在中国数千年不能绝迹，而在大黑暗时代尤其无孔不入，原因之一就是帝王有意培养它，当愤怒的人群纷纷控告某一有权人物贪污暴虐时，帝王往往暗自高兴，认为手握大权的人一旦把注意力放到贪污上，他就再不会有坐金銮殿那种野心。英明的玄烨大帝，就公开承认，绝对不贪污的官员根本没有。以贪污为中心的官员们的结合，形成一个只有中国才有，而其他各国所无的“官场”和官场特有的意识形态，在官场中，以善颂善祷和不负责任为第一要务。这些跟西洋近代文化，尤其跟自然科学工业以及军备业务，不能并存。日本却在二开始就肃清了贪污，建立起来一个非常有效率的文官制度，这是重要的分野。
石头投入河流会生出涟漪，苹果种进肥沃的土壤会发芽成长。石头投入酱缸只会听到“噗”的一声，苹果种进酱缸很少能发芽，即令发芽，也无法成长，即令成长，结出的果实也使人沮丧。中国没有力量摆脱数千年累积下来、沉淀下来的渣滓废物的污染，这是中国的不幸。
十七百日维新·戊戌政变
中国在被日本击败后，弱点全部暴露。二十年前七十年代时，中国知识分子为堕落的祖国解嘲，说中国是一头睡狮，终会觉醒，有些外国人同意这个看法。现在西洋各国对这个睡狮的表现，哄堂大笑。当非洲、土耳其和印度莫卧儿帝国，先后被欧洲瓜分之后，他们认为瓜分中国的时机已经成熟，而且必须迅速下手，否则就可能会被别人抢走。在本世纪（十九）最末短短的五年内，各国对中国急吼吼宰割的成果，我们摘要列为下表：
从上表可以看出，中国已千疮百孔，支离破碎，开始受到各国的凌迟酷刑。过去他们对中国还保持着对待一个一级强国应有的礼貌，现在完全露出帝国主义的狰狞嘴脸，不再作任何化装。像俄国对旅顺、大连，它的舰队突然闯进港口，声称有租借它，的必要，就大模大样作军事占领，清政府只好答应。英国对威海卫，法国对广州湾，都是直率地提出他们的要求。中国清政府这个末期癌症的老拳师，在失去了漂亮的拳击手套之后，只有挨打的份。
各国的势力范围也就是各国预定的瓜分地区，都已协调妥当，只等动手的信号。幸而这个信号没有出现，却出现了美国的敏锐反应，美国不愿意被排除在瓜分的行列之外。本世纪（十九）最后一年（1899），美国国务卿（外交部长）约翰开发表声明，强调维护中国领土的完整和政治的独立，以及各国在中国有均等的通商贸易机会。这就是著名的“对华门户开放宣言”，各国因为它可以消除各国在中国对抗的紧张形势，先后表示赞成。
中国就在这种脆弱的均势之下，苟延残喘。
但被瓜分的危机，已使广大的青年知识分子觉醒。
《马关条约》签订的那一年（一八九五），北京正在举行科学制度下的全国考试，集中在北京参加考试，来自全国各省的数千名考生（举人），悲愤交集，推举一位广东省的考生康有为当领袖，领导大家向皇帝载湉上书，要求效法日本的明治天皇，变法维新。专制政府等级森严，这份请愿书当然到不了载湉面前。次年（一八九六），康有为已考取了进士，再向载湉上书，载湉仍然不会看到。不过以康有为当领袖被称为维新党的知识分子们的呐喊，已掀起政治性的狂飙，成为十二世纪宋王朝大学生在被金军包围的首都开封，发动激烈的知识青年救亡运动以来，第二次激烈的知识青年救亡运动。自强运动是当权官员发动的武器改良，现在是青年们要求发动的政治改革。
经过皇家教师副宰相兼财政部长（协办大学士户部尚书）翁同和的推荐（在康有为失败后。翁同和又誓言他没有推荐过），年轻的皇帝载湉，发现了这个救亡运动。他在读到康有为稍后所著的《波兰亡国记》、《突厥亡国记》，不禁痛哭流涕，这位头脑清晰的君主对他的王朝和中国的前途，怀着极大的忧虑。本世纪（十九）最后第二年（一八九八），古历的戊戌年，二十九岁的载湉，接见地位卑微的康有为。接着从四月二十三日起到八月五日，一百零三天中，载湉颁发了下列一连串严厉的诏令，实行公孙鞅式的变法：
一科学考试仍保留，但废除八股文，改用议论体裁。
二设立北京大学（京师大学堂），各省原有的旧式书院（专门研究儒家的四书五经，造就科举考试人才），一律改为现代化的中学小学。并创办茶丝专科职业学校。
三命满洲兵团，全部改用现代化武器，用新式训练。并将汉人组成的绿营兵团，改为警察。
四撤销叠床架屋的若干中央机构，如詹事府（皇太子宫事务部），通政司（皇宫文件奏章收受处），光禄寺（皇宫供应部），鸿胪寺（属国或外国使节招待部，职权跟理藩院——藩属事条部重复），太常寺（祭祀部），太仆寺（畜牧部），大理寺（最高法院，职权跟刑部——司法部重复）。
五选派满洲贵族出国游历考察。
六改良司法部门，改良刑事诉讼法，改革监狱弊端。
七命各省出版农业丛书，奖励各种工商发明。
除此之外，康有为还建议载湉进行更激烈的下列明治维新式的改革：
一建立内阁会议制度，由皇帝召见大臣讨论国事（开懋勤殿）。
二禁止妇女缠足。
三请载湉率先剪去辫子，改穿西服（断发易服）。
四请迁都上海，摆脱旧势力，在新环境中改革。
五借巨款六亿元，改良军队，广筑铁路。
一百零三天中，载湉所作的这些冲击，使全国那些朽烂透顶了的官员士大夫阶层，像被挑了巢的蚂蚁一样，惊恐失措，骇叫奔走，乱成一团。自从十一世纪王安石变法失败以来，中国历史即显示出一个定律，在士大夫政治形态下，任何变法和改革都不可能。以王安石无懈可击的道德声望，和崇高的宰相地位，皇帝赵顼又有绝对控制政府的权力，都归于惨败。康有为不过一个新进的小官——工程部科长（工部主事），要他领导负载如此沉重的政府，做