Chapter 40 Chapter Thirty-One Eighteenth Century-1

The eighteenth century was a turning point in human history. The whole of human life is like an endless relay race.For hundreds of millions of years before the sixteenth century, human beings have been walking slowly.But since the seventeenth century, Europe has accelerated its pace.Entering this century, Europe began to run, and at the same time, there were very important breakthroughs in science and ideology, which brought mankind into a new world as the basis for more violent development in the future.such as: - John develops the shuttle (this is a start). —— Hargreaves invented the spinning machine, one person can work eight people.

——Watt invents the steam engine —— Montesquieu founded the theory of separation of powers among judicial, executive and legislative.Rousseau founded the "Doctrine of Natural Human Rights" (this is another start, establishing the dignity of civil rights and human rights. It is what is lacking in Chinese political thought). ——The United States became independent from the United Kingdom, elected a president, implemented the separation of powers, and became the first country in the world where the head of state was elected by the people without an emperor. ——The Great Revolution broke out in France, and the Declaration of Human Rights was published (the practice of Rousseau's theory, the spread of democratic ideas, cannot be stopped).

China, however, was completely ignorant of all this, and it did not cause the slightest shock.As the Qing government continued to expand its territory, more than 4 million square kilometers of land were incorporated into the territory.However, in the 1980s, the golden age ended, and the great darkness that had been driven aside closed up again, and China returned to unhappiness. One Lamaism and Tibet In the conflict between the Khalkha tribe of Outer Mongolia and the Junggar Khanate, we can see the influence of Lamaism. Lama is Tibetan.La means "up".Well, it means "person".A lama is a "shangren", an eminent monk.Looking back at the relationship between the Mongol Empire and the religious state of Tubo in the 13th century, we can find that the decline of Tubo was all caused by the strange branch of Buddhism.In the 14th century, the Mongolian government was expelled from the Great Wall, and the connection between Tubo and Mongolia was also severed.Later, for unknown reasons, the name of Tubo disappeared, and it was called Uzang.In the last century (17th), for some unknown reason, the name Uzang was also eliminated, and it was renamed Tubert.

Just as Khalkha is divided into three divisions, Tubert is divided into four divisions: 1. Tibet (Later Tibet, now western Tibet) 2. Wei (formerly Tibet, now Central Tibet) 3. Kamu (also referred to as Kang, today’s eastern Tibet and the westernmost part of Sichuan Province) 4. Qinghai (Qinghai Lake and Qaidam Basin, renamed Qinghai Province in the 1920s). In the thirteenth century, Basiba, the leader of the Lama, was conferred the title of Mongolian National Teacher by the Mongol Empire.Under the leadership of Basiba, the monks all wore red cassocks, married wives and had children, so it was called the Red Sect.The combination of political power and decadent life made the Red Sect increasingly corrupt.In the 1450s, a reformer named Tsongkhapa was born in a Tibetan tribe near Xining City, Qinghai. He was Martin Luther of Lamaism.At the age of fourteen, he became a monk of the Red Sect, and at the age of twenty, he boldly proposed a reform plan.He changed to yellow cassock and forbade marrying wives in order to promote Buddhism wholeheartedly, so he was called the Yellow Sect.The reformation was carried out in extreme peace, without the bloody massacres of the European-style religious reformation.The Red Sect finally declined, and the Yellow Sect prospered day by day.

Tsongkhapa is one of the most imaginative masters. He created a unique power succession system for Lamaism.He has two disciples, a Dalai Lama and a Panchen Lama.Tsongkhapa claimed that the two disciples were reincarnated from the Buddha and would never die. Although the body was destroyed, the soul was immediately reincarnated in the world and never died.Dalai and Ban Pai predicted in advance that his soul would go to a certain direction or a certain place when his body was destroyed (death), so that he could be reborn as an incarnation.After the death, the four senior wizards (Lamu Chuzhong) chanted sutras and had a lot of fun for a while, and then set off to find his body—the soul boy.After finding it, welcome back to Lhasa. After a period of religious education, when the soul boy is a little older, the enthronement ceremony will be held and he will become the official leader of Lamaism.Sitting on a bed is to sit on a mysterious precious bed that only the leader can sit on. It is equal to the emperor's enthronement ceremony, and of course it is grand and extraordinary.

Master Tsongkhapa passed away in 1419 in the 15th century. The Dalai Lama succeeded him as the leader of Lamaism as the great disciple, and the Panchen Lama as the second disciple as the deputy leader.Since then, incarnation (Hupilhan) rule has been implemented.In the sixteenth century, the Alta Khan of Mongolia, who made the Ming government overwhelmed, welcomed the Dalai III to Qinghai to preach. From then on, the Mongolians began to accept the Yellow Sect. In the 17th century of the last century, Gush Khan, one of the Four Oirats, the leader of the Heshuote tribe of Mongolia, invaded Qinghai (Qinghai Province) and Kamu (eastern Tibet and western Sichuan Province) from the Tianshan North Road.At that time, the Dalai Lama and the Panchen Lama lived together in Lhasa, the capital of the former Tibet, while Tsangpa Khan, one of the local kings who still believed in the Red Sect, lived in Shigatse, the capital of the latter Tibet, and opposed the Yellow Sect.Sangye, the supreme consul of the Dalai Lama's religious government (Diba), asked Gushri Khan for assistance.Gushri Khan accepted this invitation, sent troops to kill Zangba Khan, and dedicated the land of Houzang that originally belonged to Zangba Khan to the leader.So the Dalai Lama still lived in Lhasa, while the Panchen Lama moved to Shigatse where Zangba Khan lived.After Gush Khan's great success, he returned to Qinghai and left a son to lead the Mongolian army to garrison Lhasa.

In 1682, the fifth Dalai Lama passed away. The supreme consul, Sang Jie, did not announce his funeral in secret. He still used the name of the Dalai Lama to request a title from China. The Qing government did not know the inside story, so he added Sang Jie as King Tubert. .Sangjie formed a secret alliance with Galdan Khan of the Junggar Khanate at that time.Galdan's accusation against the Living Buddha of Kulun (Ulaanbaatar, Mongolia) and the attack on Outer Mongolia were all Sang Jie's ideas.It wasn't until Galdan committed suicide in 1697 that China knew that Sang Jie had been playing tricks all along. They asked Sang Jie where the Dalai Lama was and hinted that they would send troops to investigate the Dalai Lama's life and death.King Sangjie panicked and hurriedly found a 15-year-old soul boy named Zayang Jia Mutuo (the Dalai V had been dead for 15 years at this time, so the Dalai VI must be 15 years old, indicating that He has been reincarnated for fifteen years), declared that he is the incarnation, and held the enthronement ceremony.Sang Jie reported to the Qing government that his purpose of keeping his funeral secret was only to calm the hearts of the people.The Qing government knew he was talking nonsense, but did not pursue it.

The political form of Tibet is: the three giants stand side by side.King Sangjie of Tubert presided over the administration, the Dalai Lama VI presided over the religion, and Lhazang Khan (the great-grandson of Gush Khan) presided over the military affairs. 2. Exploitation of the Southwest Territory——Tibet The three-headed horse-drawn carriage system in Tibet has serious basic conflicts, and in this century (18th), the conflicts have become superficial. Lhazang Khan was very dissatisfied with King Sangye's determination of who was the incarnation of the Dalai Lama without his prior consent, and he said he would boycott it to the end.Sangjie thought it was inexplicable that you, a Mongolian chief, dared to interfere in our internal affairs in Tibet, so he decided to poison Lazang Khan to death.When Lazang Khan got the news, he acted first. In 1705, he launched a surprise attack, killed Sangye in mourning, and imprisoned Dalai VI.China and the Junggar Khanate asked Lhazang Khan to welcome the Dalai VI respectively. Emperor Xuanye feared that Lhazang Khan would not buy into China's account, and said worriedly: "They blindly worship the Dalai Lama, if they are welcomed by the Junggar Khanate Go, it may have a great impact." But Lhazang Khan was obviously willing to win the friendship of China, and he sent the Dalai VI to China, but unfortunately the Dalai VI died of illness on the way.

Lhazang Khan searched for the Dalai Lama's incarnation separately, and found a child named Yixijia Mutuo in Bokda Mountain (North Bogduo Mountain, Turpan, Xinjiang).But Lhazang Khan's political skills were too poor, he didn't get along well with those high-level wizards, one of them found a man named Gelsang Jiamu in Litang (Litang, Sichuan) in Kamu (eastern Tibet and western Sichuan Province). Xu's child, claiming that he is the real soul boy.The Mongolian princes (chiefs) of Heshuote Khanate in Qinghai supported this new soul boy.Lhazang Khan sent troops to arrest Gelsangyal Mutuo, but his father had already fled to Qinghai with the child in his arms. He appealed to China and also asked for a seal.So there was a dispute between the real and the fake Dalai Lama, with each accusing the other of being fake while claiming to be the real one.

Junggar Khan Tsewangarabutan and Lhazang Khan had a close marriage relationship.Tsewang Arabutan is Lazang Khan's brother-in-law, and Tsengwang Arabutan's daughter is married to Lazang Khan's son Danzhi. The young couple has been living in Tsengarabutan's palace in Yili (Yining, Xinjiang). However, the interests of the country are more important than anything else. Cewang Allah Butan is eager to conquer Tibet, and Lhazang Khan refuses to give him the Dalai VI, so that he will not be blamed for his own conspiracy.In 1716, Cewang Arabutan organized an expeditionary force of 8,000 people and ordered his general Da Celing to lead a surprise attack on Lhazang Khan.It was the bravest, most difficult and longest lightning strike in the world.From Yili to Lhasa, the air distance is 1,900 kilometers, and we have to cross the 6,000-meter Tianshan Mountains—2,000 meters higher than the Alps, bypass the 500-kilometer-deep Taklamakan Desert, and climb the 7,000-meter-long Kunlun Mountains. Only then can we climb to the top of the world in Tibet, and then we have to march secretly in the 1,200 kilometers of uninhabited ice and snow valleys.

This expeditionary force set off in October 1716, lurking during the day and advancing at night. Ten months later, in July of the following year (1717), they approached Lhasa, the capital of Tibet, without anyone noticing. .The area around Lhasa is densely populated, and it can neither be killed nor avoided. Da Celing told the astonished Tibetans that they were the guards sending Dan Zhong and his wife back home to visit their relatives.Lazang Khan is old, and the Chinese side has repeatedly warned him against an attack by the Junggar Khanate. Lazang Khan thinks this is the most naive way to sow discord.Now the Junggar expeditionary force descended from the sky, captured the Potala Palace where Lhazang Khan lived, and killed Lhazang Khan.In order to get rid of the grass and roots, Cewang Arabutan ordered his son-in-law Dan Zhong to be killed as well.Tibet was then merged into the territory of the Junggar Khanate, and Cewang Allah Butan fulfilled the great wish of his father, uncle, and grandfather. Tsewang Arabutan succeeded strategically, but he made a mistake politically. He did not estimate China's concern and response to this matter. After receiving reports of the fall of Lhasa, China decided to intervene by force.In the following year (1718), the Qing government officially recognized Gelsang Gyalmusuo, who had fled to Qinghai, as Dalai VII, and sent troops back to Tibet.But after entering Tibet, he was defeated by Dace Zero in the Kazawusu River (upstream of the Nu River). Of course China would not give up. Two years later (1720), the Qing government sent a second expeditionary force to attack in three directions.The two regiments stationed in Khobdo and Barkol (Balkol, Xinjiang) directly attacked the mainland of the Junggar Khanate on the North Tianshan Road, preventing it from sending reinforcements to Tibet.The Commander-in-Chief of the East Route Army (General Dingxi) Garbi marched westward from Dajianlu (Kangding, Sichuan), and the Commander-in-Chief of the North Route Army (General Pingni) Yanxin crossed the Tanggula Mountains (now Qinghai Province) from Xining (Xining, Qinghai). border with Tibet) southward.The big strategy was defeated in zero battles, and they had to give up other people's land that had been occupied for four years, and retreated from the original road to the country. However, they no longer had the strong morale when they came, and there were many casualties along the way. Less than half of them survived to Yili (Yining, Xinjiang) . The Chinese Expeditionary Force entered Lhasa, revoked the titles of all kings and khans, and revoked the title of the Tubert Kingdom, and renamed it Tibet.Appointment of one of Lazang Khan's subordinates, Kang Jinai, is the supreme consul of Tibet (Gushan Beizi Gabulun), and another staff member, Polonai, is the supreme consul of Tibet (Taiji Gabulun).Assign the east of Kamu (western Sichuan Province and eastern Tibet) to Batang (Sichuan Batang) to Sichuan Province. Tibet, which covers an area of ​​1.6 million square kilometers, including Tibet, Wei, and Kang, was incorporated into the central territory of the Qing government. 3. Exploitation of Central and Western Territories——Qinghai After Tibet was incorporated into China, Qinghai rebelled against the central government.Qinghai was originally one of the four regions of the Tubert Kingdom, but it was invaded by the Heshuote tribe of the Mongols at the beginning of the 17th century. Therefore, on the vast plateau of Qinghai, the Mongols and the Tibetans are the same many.However, they are all devout believers who believe in the same lama, so the relationship between Mongolia and Tibet is very harmonious. Gush Khan, the greatest leader of the Heshuote Khanate, soon conquered the entire Tubert Kingdom after entering Qinghai.The descendants of Gushri Khan are divided into two branches, one in Qianzang and the other in Qinghai.The branch in Qianzang ended when Lazang Khan was killed.The branch in Qinghai was inherited by his son Eqitu Khan, and was defeated and annexed by the Turkic Galdan Khan in the last century (17th).After the defeat of Galdan, Qinghai broke away from the control of the Junggar Khanate and became a state of anarchy, with each tribe governing independently, and the chaotic group of dragons had no leader.The Chinese government found Zashbatu, another son of Gushri Khan, and made him a vassal and the leader of various tribes in Qinghai to resist the pressure from the Western Junggar Khanate. After the death of Zashbatu, the throne was inherited by his son Luobu Zangdanjin.When China attacked Tibet in the 18th and 20th century, Luo Bu Zang Danjin also led his Mongolian army to march.This trip made him see the past glory of the Heshuote Khanate, aroused his great pride, and determined to restore the vigorous hegemony of his grandfather Gushi Khan.So he turned to his friend China as an enemy, and the enemy Junggar Khanate as a friend. In the third year after Tibet was incorporated into China (1723), Luo Buzangdanjin called on the chiefs of the Mongol tribes in Qinghai to cancel the titles of "King" and "Duke" conferred by the Qing government of China, and to separate from China. suzerain relationship.Most of the important monasteries of Mongolian tribes and Lamaism responded.Chang Shou, the deputy minister (servant) sent by the Qing government to deal with frontier affairs in Xining City, was lured by Luo Bu Zang Danjin to the camp and imprisoned. He assembled more than 200,000 troops and attacked Xining.Although Xining was not captured, China's road to Tibet was cut off and tremors along the border. There is really no need for Luobu Zangdanjin to break with China. In fact, Qinghai has always been independent.Except for changing the titles of "Khan" and "Chief" to "King" and "Gong", China has never interfered in their internal affairs.The Junggar Khanate was no better than China, it had conquered Qinghai, wiped out the Hoshut Khanate, and brought the Mongols and Tibetans under rule.At least it is impossible for it to help Luobu Zangdanjin seize Tibet. If it has this kind of power, it will seize it by itself.Luo Bu Zang Danjin didn't take this into consideration, maybe he thought it was not the case. China responded strongly and quickly. The Qing government appointed Nian Gengyao as the commander-in-chief (General Fuyuan), and Yue Zhongqi as the deputy commander-in-chief and commander-in-chief of the former enemy (Xiangzan Military Affairs, General Fenwei).In February of the following year (1724), Yue Zhongqi led 5,000 cavalry to launch a surprise attack.Marching westward from Xining city for twelve times, at the dawn of the thirteenth day, they captured the main force of Luobu Zangdanjin on the wasteland.Luo Bu Zang Danjin's troops woke up from the dream, but none of the horses were saddled, so they couldn't fight. In an instant, the whole army collapsed and scattered for their lives. Yue Zhongqi was in hot pursuit, running 150 kilometers every day. Two days later, he chased him to a place called Sangluohai (southwest corner of Qinghai Province). The captives, including Luo Buzang Danjin's mother, returned in triumph.It only took Yue Zhongqi 15 days from his departure to his complete victory to completely conquer the Qinghai land with an area of ​​about 600,000 square kilometers and bring it into the central territory of the Qing government.This is the most famous battle in the history of Chinese warfare, comparable to the battle of Dace Zero's raid on Tibet. The Fall and Genocide of the Four Junggars We can perceive a phenomenon that no matter in Outer Mongolia, Tibet, or Qinghai, the Qing government encountered the powerful power of the Junggar Khanate everywhere.The Junggar Khanate could not wait to invade outwards, impatient and fierce, but they happened to meet China in the third golden age.So every time it caused China to retaliate fiercely, and it continued to snatch large areas of territory that had swallowed their throats from their mouths. A series of accomplished monarchs of the Junggar Khanate had infinite anger at this setback, which made the conflicts in the Qing and quasi-border areas no peace.The Qing government obviously did not have the power to destroy them, so they just blindly hoped for peaceful coexistence without incident.After conquering Qinghai, he proposed to the Junggar Khanate to redraw the border.In order to show its sincerity, the Qing government specially withdrew the two corps stationed in Hami (Hami, Xinjiang) and Khobduo (Khobduo, Mongolia).But Khan Tsewangarabutan was not interested in reconciliation. He still hoped to at least gain Tibet, and the negotiations were unsuccessful.In 1727, Cewang Arabtan passed away, and his son Celing succeeded him. He was more talented and ambitious than his father. Ce Ling refused, and in a sentence that was considered very impolite by the Qing emperor, he informed Emperor Yinrongzhen (the son of Emperor Xuanye) that his father, Cewang Allah Butan, had ascended to heaven and became a Buddha, and his own responsibility was to Let Lamaism spread throughout the world, and all human beings in the world will gain peace because of him.These words made him appear to be greater than Yinrong Zhen, and Yinrong Zhen was furious. In 1729, Yin Rongzhen formed an expeditionary force, appointing Fu Erdan as the commander-in-chief (General Jingbian), and Yue Zhongqi as the deputy commander-in-chief (General Ningyuan).In 1730, Fu Erdan built Kobduo Castle as a permanent military base.In the second year (1731), he received very vivid information that there was civil strife in the Junggar Khanate.Luo Bu Zang Danjin led his remnant men to defect to China, but was discovered by Ce Ling Khan, and a battle broke out.Fu Erdan was overjoyed and launched an attack.However, when his 4,000 forwards advanced 200 kilometers to the west of Khobduo and Tongnur, all of a sudden there were barrages and ambushes rushed out. Fu Erdan led the main force to rescue, so even the main force was trapped.As a result, the entire army was wiped out, and only Fu Erdan and his few guards fled back in embarrassment.Yue Zhongqi quickly launched an offensive in Urumqi, which could no longer play a containment role.Ce Ling Khan ordered his capable generals, Da Ce Ling and Xiao Ce Ling, to take advantage of the victory to advance eastward and penetrate into the hinterland of Outer Mongolia. Haier Khan Duran City) Chief Celing County King Kemie (Ce Ling, Cering, Da Ce Ling, Xiao Ce Ling, confusing people, probably at that time the Mobei tribe was very popular in this pronunciation of the name).The Qing government immediately promoted Celing County King to Prince, and ordered his Sanyin Nuoyan tribe to separate from the Tuxietu Khan tribe and become an independent Yihan tribe.Outer Mongolia, which originally had only three Khan tribes, has now been divided into four Khan tribes, and the general term of Khalkha tribe has also been replaced by Outer Mongolia.Next year (1732), Cering Khan invaded Outer Mongolia again. Prince Cering led 30,000 Mongolian troops to fight. Cering Khan was defeated. That is, in the vicinity of Harhelin, the ancient capital of the Mongolian Empire, Helin, cutting off the retreat of the Junggar Corps. After two days of bloody battles, the Junggar Corps collapsed, half of them died in battle, and half were squeezed into the water and drowned. The guard stood out from the encirclement. The defeat of the Chinese Expeditionary Army and Tongnaoer, because Yin Rongzhen was so impressed with Yue Zhongqi's conquest of Qinghai in fifteen days, he thought that the Junggar Khanate was also so fragile.However, Fu Erdan, the Manchu commander-in-chief he appointed, was a mediocre man who knew nothing about the enemy, so he fell into an extremely naive trick to lure the enemy. force.But for the Junggar Khanate, the Battle of Guangxian Temple was an unexpected and heavy trauma, and it has no power to attack since then.At this time, Ce Ling Khan proposed a reconciliation, and Yin Rongzhen also gave up his hard line and accepted it.In 1734, Fu Nai, a minister-level official (Shangshu) of the Yinrong Zhen faction, went to Ili (Yining, Xinjiang), the capital of the Junggar Khanate, to demarcate the border with Junggar and use the Altai Mountains as a boundary marker to conduct business with each other. The Qing government also allowed Junggar The Khan can go to Tibet to worship the Dalai Lama (sencha) at any time. This was the only reconciliation between Qing and Zhun, which lasted for 25 years. In the case of not being able to eliminate the other party, a long-term war will cause one to die of exhaustion, and it is wise to reconcile.But reconciliation is based on the fact that both parties are equally strong. Once one party is too weak, especially if there is no balance of power from a third party, the reconciliation will come to naught.Soon after the reconciliation of the Junggar Khanate, civil strife broke out.In 1745, Celing Khan died.Namzal, the legitimate son, succeeded to the throne. He was the first tyrant of the Junggar Khanate. In 1750, when he wanted to kill his brother-in-law Dazar, Dazar killed him instead and sat on the throne himself.But Dazar was even worse. In 1754, he was killed by Dawazi, the grandson of the nobleman Da Celing (the famous general who raided Tibet), and Dawazi succeeded him as Khan.But Dawazi is not as good as Dazar. As soon as he took power, he turned his face and wanted to kill his friend Amursana who helped him gain power.Amursana was the chief of the Huit tribe (northwest corner of Mongolia), one of the four Oirats, and he fled to China. Qing Emperor Hongli (son of Yin Rongzhen) personally met Amursana, conversed in Mongolian, made him a prince, gave him expensive gifts such as horses, and invited him to participate in the Rehe Field ( The hunting held in the northernmost part of Hebei Province) welcomed him with great pomp.The ministers greatly disapproved of Hongli's preferential treatment of an exiled politician, but they soon discovered the reason, which was very simple. The Qing had been in conflict with the Junggar Khanate for more than 80 years. I didn't understand the environment, so I was always at a loss what to do. Now that I got a guide out of nowhere, of course I was overjoyed. The next year (1755) after Amur Sana surrendered, the Qing government rebelled against the alliance, and two armies attacked the Junggar Khanate at the same time.Commander-in-Chief of the North Route Army (General Dingbei) Bandi and Deputy Commander-in-Chief (General Dingbian Left) Amursana, starting from Uliasutai, Outer Mongolia; Commander-in-Chief of the West Route Army (General Dingxi) Yongchang and Deputy Commander-in-Chief Commander-in-Chief (Dingbian Right General) Salar, set off from Barkol (Balkol, Xinjiang).After more than ten years of killing each other in the Junggar Khanate, the hearts of the people have long been dispersed. In addition, Amursana called on them not to resist, so the Junggar army laid down their weapons one after another, and the people lined up to welcome them.The two Chinese armies easily captured the capital Yili (Yining, Xinjiang) without a fight. Dawaqi was captured together with Luo Buzangdanjin, who had been on the run for 31 years. Up to this time, China had no intention of annexing the Junggar Khanate, but just wanted to divide and conquer it so that its power would be weakened and it would no longer invade China.Therefore, the Qing government ordered to restore the original state of the four Weilats of the last century (17th), so that they remained four independent tribes, independent of each other. Individuals were regarded as foreign vassals of China, like Khalkha before the merger of Outer Mongolia, divided into three same as the independent department.So Emperor Hongli sealed the four khans of the four tribes at one go, and invited these upstarts to the distant East Rehe (Chengde, Hebei), where they were received by Hongli and attended a grand banquet. For Amur Sana, the Qing government named him the double prince to reward him for his contributions.But Amursana has his greater ambitions. His purpose of leading the Chinese army to subvert his motherland is only to borrow.Killing people, borrowing from China.Kill his political enemies.He didn't want the motherland to split, so he insisted on maintaining the khanate system and let him be the khan.His thinking is exactly the opposite of China's basic policy, and the Qing government certainly cannot accept it.After being greatly disappointed, Amursana decided to defect from China. He understood that China's rapid success in this expedition depended on the strength of his political appeal. He estimated that this strength could drive China out of the country.Therefore, in the next year (1756) after the occupation of Yili (Yining, Xinjiang), Amursana declared independence, and those four khans who had just received the seal of the Qing government also joined the ranks of this emerging khanate.Sure enough, the Chinese expeditionary force was defeated again and again, and almost all the land of the Junggar Khanate was recovered.This made Emperor Hongli lose face greatly, thinking that the Junggar people were barbaric people who could not be influenced by benevolence and righteousness, and must be severely punished. In the second year (1757), Hongli reorganized the expeditionary force. The Mongolian Corps on the North Road was commanded by the Mongolian Cheng Gunzabu (Deputy General of Dingbian Zuo); The commander (the deputy general on the right of Dingbian) launched a pincer attack. It was at this time that terrible bad luck caught Junggar, and smallpox suddenly became popular. Junggar soldiers died one after another, and the army disintegrated on its own.When the Chinese Expeditionary Force approached Yili (Yining, Xinjiang), Amursana had no choice but to flee to the Kazakh Kingdom and then to Russia. He also contracted smallpox and died of a disease.At the firm request of China, Russia transported his body to the city of Kyakhtu in Outer Mongolia (Altanbulag, Mongolia) and returned it to China. Although the Junggar Khanate fell and Amursana died, the Junggars who did not die of smallpox used guerrilla warfare to fight to the death, which made Zhaohui exhausted.This made Hongli even more angry, and he ordered Zhaohui to implement his genocide policy.Since then, the Junggar people have disappeared from their homeland, leaving only a geographic term, the Junggar Basin, and the Junggar Gate (Alashankou, northeast of Bole, Xinjiang) fortress on the border between China and Russia, for posterity to mourn. ——A person or a small group, for the sake of dignity, would rather break the jade than make it whole. The heroic sacrifice they made should be revered by all ages.However, a country or a nation should have the wisdom and courage to accept humiliation, and there is still a day of revival in tile, and there is no hope for broken jade.What happened to the Junggar people shocked us. Amur Sana is the grandson of Lazang Khan, the posthumous son of Dan Zhong, and his mother is the daughter of Khan Tsewang Allah Butan.After Cewang Alabatan attacked and killed Lhazang Khan, he killed Danzhong and married his pregnant daughter to another chief of the Huite tribe.According to folklore, when the posthumous son Amursana was born, he was covered in blood. Everyone believed that he came for revenge, and he really achieved his goal. Exploitation of the Northwest Territory——Xinjiang The territory where the Junggar Khanate perished includes two major parts, one is the Junggar Basin on the North Tianshan Road, and the other is the Tarim Basin on the South Tianshan Road.The Qing government called Tianshan North Road "Zhunbu" and the south of Tianshan Mountain "Huibu". Conquering the Zhunbu of Tianshan North Road does not mean controlling the entire territory of the former Junggar Khanate.The Hui part of Tianshan South Road was annexed by Galdan Khan in the last century (17th). Now that the invaders have failed, the Hui part is no longer willing to accept the rule of outsiders. The scope of Huibu is the scope of the Tarim Basin, in which is the huge Taklamakan Desert.At the western end of the desert, there are more than a dozen prosperous cities, and 90% of the population in the basin is concentrated in these ten cities. This is the most important hometown of the ancient Western Regions in Chinese history. Zhang Qian in the second century B.C. and Ban Chao in the first century A.D. are here to shock the nations.In the seventh century, the army of the Tang Dynasty entered again and annexed it to China, but it was taken by the Tubo Kingdom in the eighth century.Until this century (eighteenth), for a whole thousand years, they were cut off from China.In the past thousand years, countless events that we don't know and countless changes in the ups and downs with different legends have occurred in this area.Therefore, when the Chinese Expeditionary Force conquered the Junggar Khanate and crossed the Tianshan Mountains to the south, what they faced was not the quaint Western Regions of the past, but the strange and unfamiliar scenery of Huibu. Back in the ninth century, the Huihe Khanate disintegrated and its tribes scattered.Some of them entered Xizhou (Turpan, Xinjiang) and were called Xizhou Huihe.They later migrated from Xizhou to the southwest, arrived at the Shule Kingdom (Kashgar, Xinjiang) 1,100 kilometers away by air, conquered it, and renamed it Kashgar City.I don't know when it started, the Huihe people abandoned their original Buddhist beliefs and converted to Islam that came from Western Arabia.Because Islam is believed by the Uighurs, people call Islam Islam because of the cause.In the era of the Mongol Empire in the 13th century, for unknown reasons, Huihe was renamed Uyghur. Because they believed in Islam, people called them Huihui, Huimin, and Hui in reverse, and called the area where they lived, that is, Tianshan South Road. It is "back to the Ministry".Like the Junggars, the Uyghurs belong to the Turkic nationality. Among the four major classes of the Mongolian Empire, they belong to the second class (Semu) class, and their status is higher than that of the Han people. I also don’t know when, in Huizhou, there was an Islamic leader called He Zhuomu, whose status was similar to that of the Dalai Lamaism and the Pope of Catholicism, except that Zhuomu could marry, so the leader’s throne It is passed down from father to son.In the 1820s of this century (18th), Ling Khan, the national policy of the Junggar Khanate, took the 25th generation Hezhuomu Ahamat, together with his two sons, Branetton and Huo Jizhan, namely The famous size and Zhuo Mu were lured to Yili (Yining, Xinjiang) and taken as hostages.Ahmat died soon after, and his two sons were imprisoned as before.Regarding the lineage of He Zhuomu, we list the following table: In 1755, the Chinese Expeditionary Force entered Ili and sent Dahe Zhuomu back to his former capital Yarkand (Shache, Xinjiang), but Xiaohe Zhuomu was still left to help deal with the affairs of the Uighurs on Tianshan North Road.Next year (1756), Amursana rebelled, and Xiaohe Zhuomu also took the opportunity to flee back to Yarkand.The next year (1757), Amursana failed.The Chinese Expeditionary Force sent envoys to Yarkand, demanding to accept Chinese rule.Dahe Zhuomu agreed, but Xiaohe Zhuomu objected. He said: "If we obey China, one of our brothers will be sent to Beijing as a hostage. Since my father's generation, we have been at the mercy of others like slaves." , It should be time to stop. Moreover, China has newly occupied the enemy's land, the guerrilla warfare is fierce, and the people are panicked. It is impossible to send a large army against us. Even if we send a large army, we will stick to the dangerous Tianshan Mountains. Their food roads are far away and supplies are difficult. "The city lords (Burke) present here all agree with Xiaohe Zhuomu's opinion.So, they announced the establishment of the Batur Khanate to confront China. However, Xiaohe Zhuomu's judgment was completely wrong, and a wrong judgment would pay the price of a wrong judgment.The Chinese Expeditionary Force forcibly crossed the Tianshan Mountains and went south. The city owners of some important cities at the foot of the mountain could not resist and surrendered one after another.In the second year (1758), Zhaohui, the commander of the Manchurian Corps (General Dingbian), led his elite 4,000 men to attack Yarkand. Halfway across the river in the Black Water (Yarqiang River) one kilometer away from the city, the bridge opened. Interrupted, divided into two, surrounded.However, the Hezhuomu Corps had neither heavy weapons and cannons for attack, nor fighting spirit.After three months of stalemate, Chinese reinforcements arrived and rescued Zhaohui back to Aksu City.In the third year (1759), Zhaohui made a second attack and captured Yarkand. The size and Zhuomu fled to the Kokand Kingdom (Uzbek Kokand City) in Central Asia.When passing through the Badak Mountain Tribe in Congling (northeast of Afghanistan), he was killed by the chief of the Badak Mountain Tribe and dedicated his head to the Chinese pursuers who were chasing after him.The Batur Khanate had only four years of life before it fell. Now, the entire territory of the Junggar Khanate, covering an area of ​​about 1.9 million square kilometers, was renamed Xinjiang by the Qing government, which means the newly opened territory—in fact, the newly recovered territory, which was incorporated into the Chinese territory. The Minority Policy of the Liuqing Government After the merger of Xinjiang, China's territorial expansion stopped, but it has become a huge superpower with more than 13 million square kilometers.In the history of the world, the area is only smaller than the Mongol Empire, but twice as large as the Yuan Empire under the Mongol Empire.The expansion of the territory over the past two centuries is illustrated by the following table: From the table, we can see how huge and important the Qing government's contribution to China was.The territory they opened up for China is four times larger than the territory they inherited from the Ming government in the 1740s. Let us list the statistics in the following table: The Qing government did not open up territory for the Han people. They developed it purely for the Manchus, but it had to be passed on to the Han people.Moreover, after they entered the customs, they insisted that they were also Chinese—the Manchu Chinese were exactly the same as the Han Chinese, so they confidently regarded themselves as the masters of China, robbed the east and west, and bought a lot of land and houses.For other ethnic groups, stand on the standpoint of the Manchus and determine their ethnic policies. The Qing government took two measures against the Manchus. One was to resolutely maintain the homeland of Manchuria (Northeast) as the Manchus’ exclusive area, and not allow the Han people to leave the customs (Shanhai Pass) to reclaim land. In case the Manchus were expelled, the Manchus could Like the Mongols back then, they can return to their old nest.The second is that every Manchu boy is born, and immediately has a soldier's salary. The purpose is to make all Manchu people soldiers, concentrate on combat training, and not be distracted by foreign affairs.Because there are too few Manchus, there are only more than 4 million in this century (18th), while there are more than 284 million Han people. The Manchus believe that this must be the case in order to be able to control the Han people and other ethnic groups. ——结果是，一、东北地广人稀，田地大部分荒芜，在东北的满族人遂私下欢迎贫苦的汉人出关为他们耕种，在严密的禁令下，汉人仍不断增加。二、满族人不需要有任何努力就有一份薪饷，使他们的生活堕落，他们的时间并没有用在战斗训练上，反而用在声色犬马上，成为满族人腐烂的根源。 对汉人清政府完全效法明政府的手段，继续用科举作为武器，使中华民族中所有知识分子比从前更严重的酱在独占性的儒家系统和僵硬的八股文之中。同时对汉人传统的中华民族本位主义，予以打击，强迫中华民族接受多元观念，承认满族人并非夷狄，同样也是中国人，而且是中国的主人。 对蒙古人清政府利用他们的战斗力，而根绝他们的智慧和知识，也就是彻底的愚民政策。除了阻止蒙古人接受教育和阻挠蒙古人汉化外，还诱使蒙古统治阶层“王”、“公”之流生活靡烂，跟人民形成尖锐的对立，使他们不能追求更高的理想，而且也根本不知道有更高的理想。 对西藏人清政府尊重他们信奉的喇嘛教，而禁止他们从事政治活动。事实上西藏人在喇嘛教的“泥沼”中，也没有余力去过问政治。清政府用隆重的礼节对待达赖和班禅，鼓励西藏人出家当喇嘛，赋给喇嘛精神上的尊荣和物质上的利益，喇嘛是不准结婚的，在清政府的鼓舞下，本已日渐减少的西藏人，更加速减少。喇嘛教如果继续不变的话，西藏人会走入自然灭种的结局。 对维吾尔人清政府看他们比蒙古人西藏人，要低一级，连谋略性的优待都没有，反而有相当难堪的迫害。满族官员虐待蒙古人、西藏人的事件不多，而虐待维吾尔人，以致激起民变的事件，却层出不穷。而且把新疆看成东北第二，作为满族人发展的专用土地，阻止汉人前往移民，早已移民过去的一些汉人，本来跟维吾尔人相处得十分融洽，清政府下令汉人必须单独居住，不准跟维吾尔杂居。于是每一个城市都分裂为二，汉人集中汉城，维吾尔人集中回城，绝对不许通婚，平时也不准有友谊上的交往，呈现一种人为的畸形社会形态，目的只是为了防止维吾尔人跟汉人结合。 这种情形，在行政区域划分和地方政府的组织上，明显地表现出来。中国本土被划分为十八个省，简称为“本部十八省”，以汉人为主，仍维持明王朝遗留下来的社会和政治结构。省长称“巡抚”，两省或三省（有时候也有一省）设立一个大军区，大军区司令官称“总督”——也可以称为太上省长。这些地方政府的高级官员，当然全由满族人担任。直到下世纪（十九）中期之后，满族人无力控制全局，才不得不情愿任用汉人。 东北是满族人辫子王朝的发祥地，设立了三个“将军”，一个驻盛京（辽宁沈阳），称盛京将军；一个驻吉林（今吉林省吉林市），称吉林将军；一个驻齐齐哈尔，称黑龙江将军。他们办公的官署，称将军衙门。但他们的辖区却没有名目，既不称省，也不称特别区。人们迫于需要，只好称它为省，而把全部满族故土，称为东三省，但事实上并没有省，直到二十世纪初叶，才由清政府改称为省。满族人的政治思想仍十分简陋，只有部落（八旗）观念，还没有行政地区观念。将军事实上是总督兼省长，主要任务是维持治安和防止汉人移民。 内蒙古，则设立三个官阶比“将军”次一级的“都统”，只管军事。一个驻承德，称热河都统。一个驻张家口，称察哈尔都统；一个驻绥远城（内蒙呼和浩特），称绥远都统。主要任务在镇压蒙古人叛变和防止汉人移民。内蒙古人民则自己有自己的盟长（地区首长）、旗长（县长），享有比汉人稍高的自治权力。 青海，设西宁将军。西宁城在行政上属于中国本部十八省之一的甘肃省，但驻在西宁城的满族人将军，却是青海地区的首长，地位跟东三省的将军一样。他统治下的有汉人、蒙古人、藏人，情况比内蒙古复杂。 外蒙古和西藏，在每一个地区的首府，设一个“办事大臣”，驻外蒙古库伦（乌兰巴托）的称库伦办事大臣，驻西藏拉萨的称西藏办事大臣：他们在性质上类似总督，但来办对外国的交涉。在外蒙古境内，与库伦办事大臣并置的，又有乌里雅苏台将军，职掌跟设于东北、青海的将军相同。外蒙古人民和西藏人民享受的是更高度的自治，他们不直接隶属于办事大臣，而仍然直接隶属于他们原来的首长，独立王国的形式继续存在，办事大臣只不过是清王朝皇帝的代表。 新疆，在它的首府伊犁（新疆伊宁·准噶尔汗国的故都），设伊犁将军，跟东北、青海各将军性质相同。另外在喀什噶尔（新疆喀什），设一个参赞大臣，负责天山南路维吾尔人和汉人间的事务。 七朝鲜·琉球·安南 跟疆土开拓同时进展的，是藩属关系的加强。藩属，用现代话来说，就是被保护国。 疆土的开拓是征服其他土地使成为中国不可分的一部分。藩属则仍是独立国家，但向中国称臣进贡，承认中国皇帝也是他们的皇帝，表示对中国尊敬服从，中国则允许他们跟中国贸易。中国不干涉他们的内政，但有权处罚和奖励他们的国王，因为他们的国王必须经过中国的加封之后，才算合法。藩属国王也以被中国加封为一种光荣和保障，他用此向怀有敌意的邻邦显示，他已获得一个庞然大物当他的靠山。 ——藩属国的元首只能称国王或可汗，不能称皇帝。一旦称皇帝，就等于脱离藩属地位，跟中国平等。在中国看来，世界上只有一个皇帝，如果有两位皇帝同时出现，就等于天上有两个太阳，非拼个死活不可。所以有些藩属，虽然已称皇帝，但为了取得中国的保护，对中国仍谦卑的只称国王。像以东京（越南河内）为首都的大越帝国皇帝，他对中国只称中国所封的安南国王。 朝鲜王国是中国最古老的藩属之一，世界上再没有两个国家能像中国跟朝鲜这么长期的密切融洽。中国为保护朝鲜付出了巨大的代价。过去的事我们已叙述过，到了下世纪（十九），中国又为他作出第二次更大的流血牺牲。 另一个同样古老的藩属琉球王国，在十四世纪时，原是三个小国。十五世纪初叶，被其中之一最强大的国王尚巴志所统一，遂即派遣使节，远涉大海，向中国进贡，请求中国保护。它的首都名中山城，因之中国就封尚巴志为中山王。不过日本人的势力，因地理上更接近的缘故，不久也深入琉球各岛。每逢中国使节到琉球时，国王总是下令，命日本人先行躲避起来，在天朝大臣停留在国内期间，禁止人民说日本话，并涂去街市上的日文广告。South 第三个古老的藩属，是前面曾提到的对外称大越帝国的安王国。安南第一任国王黎利，于十五世纪脱离中国独立，效法中国对首都称“京”的习惯，把交趾城（河内）改称东京，建立大越帝国，但仍尊奉中国为宗主国。黎氏王朝的政权后来落到大臣郑氏家族之手。郑氏所属的将领之一的阮氏家族，起而反抗郑氏上欺国王下压群臣的作风，在南方的顺化城，宣布独立，另行建立一个广南王国，跟北方的郑氏家族专权的大越帝国对峙，国土从当中分割为二。 本世纪（十八）七十年代，另一个阮姓家族崛起，称为西山党，他们的领袖阮文岳，于一七七三年攻陷顺化，把旧王杀掉，而自称是广南国王。旧王的弟弟阮福映逃了出来，他就是越南历史上有名的嘉隆王。他逃到暹罗（泰国），又逃到富国岛，日夜图谋夺回政权。 西山党既征服了广南王国，新王阮文岳派他的弟弟阮光平北伐。本世纪（十八）八十年代，阮光平攻陷东京（河内），废掉皇帝黎维祁，自己坐上金銮殿。黎维祁逃到北京，向宗主国求救。中国决定出兵，一七八八年，中国远征军总司令（两广总督）孙士毅，率领大军护送黎维祁回国，击溃阮光平的抵抗，进入东京（河内），黎维祁复位。于是孙士毅洋洋得意，认为他的神机妙算超人一等，不再采取戒备措施。次年（一七八九）元旦，正当他大摆酒席，庆祝新年时，阮光平发动突击，远征军溃败，数千人被杀，黎维祁和孙士毅狼狈逃回中国。 但阮光平深知横挑强邻的结果是什么，他预防中国采取长期的报复手段，就派遣使节到北京匍匐请罪。恰好中国当时的皇帝弘历是一个虚荣心很强的人物，对阮光平的恭顺态度，大为欢喜。明年（一七九○），弘历八十岁生日，阮光平又亲自到北京恭祝寿诞，弘历就把黎维祁抛到脑后，而封阮光平当安南国王。 ——但事情并没有结束，西山党的好景不常。逃亡中的嘉隆王阮福映，靠外交手段，得到侵入东方的法国强大军力援助，于本世纪（十八）九十年代反攻，一连攻陷顺化和东京（河内），阮姓政权的西山党瓦解，阮福映统一全国。下世纪（十九）一八○二年，阮福映向中国报告复国经过，请求加封。凡是政治都是现实的，中国又把阮光平抛到脑后。一八○四年，加封阮福映为越南国王，即大越与广南的合称。从此安南改称越南。 八缅甸·尼泊尔·暹罗 缅甸是中国南方的紧邻，但因万山重叠，两国的交往很晚。本世纪（十八）五十年代，缅甸国王雍籍牙在给中国皇帝的报告上说，第一世纪九十年代时，他的祖先雍田，曾被中国当时东汉政府第四任皇帝刘肇封为缅甸国王（当时称为挥国），还赐给一颗金印。不过中国史学家对此不敢肯定，因为史籍上查不出这个记载，除非真有金印作证。 缅甸跟中国发生关系，似乎开始于十三世纪，位于云南的大理帝国消灭，云南地区随着蒙古帝国的扩张，而并于它子国之一的元帝国，缅甸才跟中国接壤。上世纪（十七）六十年代，缅甸把请求政治庇护的中国明政府最后一位皇帝朱由榔，交给清政府。这件事情发生后，中、缅两国的邦交，并没有加强，甚至并没有继续。因为缅甸不断的内乱，中国也正全力在北方开疆拓土。 经过九十年的疏远，本世纪（十八）五十年代，缅甸名王雍籍牙在位，跟中国恢复邦交。他逝世后，儿子孟驳继位，进攻东邻的暹罗王国（泰国），把暹罗并入版图。 缅甸势力膨胀，使它不断干涉中、缅两国之间属于中国的一些部落，这些部落向中国清政府乞援，清政府已十分不高兴。但按下战争电钮的人物，却是清政府的一位赃官云南总督吴达善，他向请求归附的桂家部落（据说他们是跟随朱由榔流亡到缅甸的群臣们的后裔）酋长宫里雁，索取重贿，其中一件是珍珠马鞍，宫里雁无力奉献，吴达善就把他逮捕入狱害死。宫里雁的缅甸籍妻子囊古为丈夫报仇，向缅甸国王孟驳游说，缅甸遂在这位奇女子引导下，向中国沿边发动不断的攻击劫掠。 中国政府改派明瑞出任云南总督，于一七六七年，率军攻入缅甸，企图夺取它的首都瓦城（曼德勒）。可是进入缅甸境后，在一个名叫象孔的地方，陷入缅军的埋伏，全军覆没。中国政府再派第二次远征军，由傅恒当总司令（经略），于六十年代最后一年（一七六九），再度深入。可是热带森林地区所特有的瘴气——空气污染和虐疾，无法克服，将领和战士们相继染病死亡，军心恐惧，在中途停顿，不敢前进。恰恰这时候，缅甸政府得到消息说，暹罗王国故土上的中国侨民郑昭，集结了武装部队，正攻击缅甸的占领军。缅甸不愿两面作战，就向中国请求和解，承认作中国的藩属。远在北京的弘历皇帝，正在进退维谷，也乐得就此结束。但缅甸的态度十分强硬，当中国远征军代表跟缅甸军司令眇旺模谈判，中国要求缅甸归还所侵占的木邦（缅甸腊戍以北一带）等三个部落的土地时渺旺模左顾右盼，没有听完就掉头而去，远征军代表只好瞪着眼睛回来。 缅甸当时的目的只求停战，并不是真心的低头，所以当中国退军之后，两国敌对如故。一直到了十八年后，一个曾经当过和尚，跟前任王室没有关系的国王孟云即位，他为了取得大国的支持，于一七八八年主动向中国进贡。中国政府于一七九○年，加封盖云为缅甸国王，才正式确定宗主国和藩属国的关系。 跟缅甸同样情形的，还有尼泊尔王国。 缅甸开始向中国进贡的那一年，也正是中国护送大越皇帝黎维祁返回东京（河内）复位的那一年——一一七八八。就在这一年，遥远的喜玛拉雅山南麓的小国尼泊尔，突然向比它大一百倍的庞大的中国进攻。尼泊尔王国为什么如此，传说不一，可信的一个传说是，后藏喇嘛教领袖班禅的一个部属丹津班珠丹，因为受到不公平的酷刑（脸上被刺字），逃到尼泊尔。这时正当班禅积欠尼泊尔太多的贸易借款，一直不肯偿还。尼泊尔早已愤怒，得到丹津班珠丹作向导，遂采取强硬手段。清政府一面派四川兵团入藏应战，一面派藩属事务部副部长（理藩院侍郎）巴忠，代表皇帝，担任监军。不知道什么原因，巴忠竟做出一件使人连做梦都梦不到的荒唐怪事，他是由青海那条大道直接到拉萨的，不等四川兵团抵达，就先行跟尼泊尔代表谈判，承诺每年付给尼泊尔一万五千两赠款，换得尼泊尔撤军。但巴忠却向皇帝弘历报告说，尼泊尔已被他巧妙的辩才和义正词严的立场所折服，自动退出中国国境。对于每年一万五千两的赠款，只字不提，而只秘密通知达赖，请达赖按时送去。谁知道达赖一口拒绝，尼泊尔当然不肯甘心。一七九一年，再度进攻，攻陷日喀则，班禅逃到拉萨。尼泊尔军队把班禅宫中所有的珍宝和日喀则民间的财物，抢劫一空。 巴忠听见尼泊尔索取赠款的消息，就跳井自杀。我们无法了解，天下竟有这种浑人，他怎么会想到他可以对如此重大的国际交涉，能够一手掩盖。 中国远征军于次年（一七九二）抵达西藏，尼泊尔军队败走。远征军尾追，越过喜玛拉雅山聂拉木山口，进入尼泊尔国境。尼泊尔军再败走，远征军队进攻它的首都阳布（加德满都），旦夕可下。司令官（大将军）福康安，这位被誉为皇帝弘历手下第一名将，对自己的用兵如神，大为满意，他自比为上的诸葛亮，手拿羽毛扇（这是诸葛亮的标帜），坐在四人抬的轿子上（效法诸葛亮的四轮车），一副戏台上人物的模样，从容指挥作战。尼泊尔乘他正自命不凡，疏于戒备之际，发动猛烈反攻，远征军大败，死伤惨重，福康安狼狈逃命，几乎成了第二个带汁诸葛亮。 然而，当福康安好容易脱离追兵，稳定局势，恐惧尼泊尔下一个攻势时，尼泊尔却派遣使节到军前请求和解，愿作中国的藩属，定期进贡。福康安喜从天降，迫不及待的立即接受尼泊尔的请求，撤军回国。事后才知道，并不是尼泊尔突然发作了神经病，而是另有原因，它曾向邻近的驻在印度东部加尔各答的英国军队求救，英国那时还不愿跟中国结怨，以免妨碍通商，而尼泊尔政府的另一个敌人披楞部落，正在南方国境发动攻击。尼泊尔政府不愿受到前后夹击，而尤其恐惧中国的远征军会源源而来，没有个完。 ——尼泊尔当了中国的保护国之后，就发现了好处，成为中国最后丧失的藩属，直到二十世纪初叶，还向中国进贡不辍。 不和中国土地相接的藩属，除了琉球王国外，还有暹罗王国。现代暹罗——二十世纪时改称泰国，它的开国国王郑昭，是中国广东省澄海县人，驱逐缅甸占领军后，他立即派遣使节到北京，请求中国加封。可是当使节还在中途时，发生政变。郑昭被他最亲信的暹罗籍的部将却克里所杀。却克里显然恐惧中国对郑昭之死发生反应，于是改名郑华，坚称是郑昭的儿子。于一七八六年，再派遣使节前往北京，陈述他继承王位的合法性。中国不知道内情，当然加封他为暹罗国王。 暹罗和琉球都是没有经过不愉快的战争场面而归附的藩属，暹罗跟中国的密切关系，远超过缅甸和尼泊尔。举一个例子可作说明，当本世纪（十八）最后一年（一七九九），中国太上皇弘历逝世时，正在北京进贡朝见的两位使节，一位是朝鲜使节，另一位就是暹罗使节，他们适时的代表他们的国王，为皇帝服丧。 ——却克里对中国虽坚称是郑昭的儿子，但对他的臣民因无法隐瞒真相的缘故，而自称为拉玛一世，并解释说，他并没有叛变，乃是另外一个将领叛变，由他敉平。