Chapter 39 Chapter Thirty Seventeenth Century-2

The entry of the Eighth Qing Army Although the Shun government occupied Beijing at that time, in fact they only controlled a part of North China. The most powerful frontier army of the Ming government was led by Wu Sangui, the son of Wu Xiang, the commander of the Jiliao Corps. From his defense line Ningyuan (Xingcheng, Liaoning), he is rushing to help Beijing, and the vanguard has reached Fengrun (Fengrun, Hebei), 150 kilometers away from Beijing. At this time, the Shun government was caught in the frenzy of recovering stolen goods, and could not calm down and consider some of the problems it was facing.At the same time, since they tortured the first corrupt official, they have repeated the mistakes made by Huang Chao, the leader of the changed people in the ninth century. The spirit of the original rebellion was lost; in the palace surrounded by eunuchs and maids of honor, Li Zicheng could not live with his senior cadres as usual.

Wu Sangui received the news of Li Zicheng's accession to the throne and decided to surrender.His father, Wu Xiang, also sent servants to the army to persuade him to join the court.But after the following conversation, Wu Sangui's attitude changed immediately.When he asked about his father's situation, the servant said, "He has been arrested." Wu Sangui said, "I will be released when I arrive in Beijing." He asked about his property, and the servant said, "It has been confiscated." Wu Sangui said, "I arrived in Beijing." After Beijing, it will be returned." Asked about his beautiful concubine Chen Yuanyuan, the servant said, "It has been snatched by the prime minister Liu Zongmin." Wu Sangui became furious and ordered his army to wear white mourning clothes for the dead emperor Zhu Youjian, He vowed to avenge Zhu Youjian. In his letter to his father, he said impassionedly: "A father cannot be a loyal minister, and a son cannot be a dutiful son." The Qing Empire surrendered and asked the Qing Empire to send troops into the pass (Shanhai Pass) to jointly suppress bandits.

——Not long after, the poet Wu Meicun wrote an epic poem called "Yuanyuanqu", describing this incident. There are two sentences in it: "Crying bitterly, the six armies are all plain, and they are angry at the crown and become a beauty."Wu Sangui was still in Kunming, Yunnan Province at that time, and since he could not kill Wumei village thousands of miles away by falsely accusing him of rebelling against an unjust prison, he had to give him 1,000 taels of gold and asked to delete or amend the two sentences, but Wumei village refused to accept it. The fifth (and last) plunder of the Qing Empire was in 1642.It was not until the early summer of the following year (1643) that they left with a full load.In the autumn of that year (1643), the second emperor, Huang Taiji, passed away.Huang Taiji died suddenly, and no one knows if it was murder.When Nurhachi died seventeen years ago (1626), in order to compete for the throne, there was a storm, and the second son Daishan and below were excluded (the eldest son died early), and the eighth son Huang Taiji succeeded to the throne.The death of Huang Taiji caused another storm. His eldest son Haoge and below were all excluded, and the sixth-year-old ninth son Fulin succeeded to the throne.This abnormal inheritance shows the fierce competition.Huang Taiji's pro-army once surrounded the royal meeting and warned that if Li Fulin was not emperor, they would die with Huang Taiji.As a result, the princes fled the banquet one after another, and Huang Taiji's younger brother Dorgon successfully achieved his goal of being the regent (of course his goal was still the Golden Luan Palace in the end, but he died after entering the customs).Prince Shuo Tuo and another prince's son, Adali, attempted a coup d'état to oust Dorgon, but Dorgon preemptively killed them. However, civil war could break out at any time, and the Qing Empire was entering a dangerous bottleneck era.

At this time, eight months after Fulin ascended the throne, Wu Sangui's request for help arrived, and the Qing government knew that China had undergone tremendous changes. Ningyuan City (Xingcheng, Liaoning) was empty, and Shanhaiguan, which had been out of reach for decades, was Open the door to welcome them.The God of Destiny took care of these Tatars like a mother taking care of babies. Suddenly, the clouds and fog dissipated in the sky, and a new and exciting goal appeared in front of them. The internal strife subsided, and Prince Dorgon ordered to enter the customs. Li Zicheng personally led the army to attack Wu Sangui, and fought in Shanhaiguan. When the battle was inextricable, the Manchurian Corps of the Qing Empire launched a surprise attack from the flank. The Shun Corps was suddenly attacked by a new force wearing strange clothes and issuing strange orders. Shouting loudly: "The Tatar soldiers have joined the battle."Li Zicheng couldn't stop the tide of retreat, just like Fu Jian couldn't stop the tide of retreat of the former Qin army in muddy water in the fourth century.The rapid decline forced Li Zicheng to abandon Beijing and continue to retreat to Xi'an.However, under Wu Sangui's pursuit, Xi'an could not gain a foothold, so he abandoned Xi'an again, fled to the southeast, and marched to Tongcheng (Tongcheng, Hubei). He was accidentally killed by a villager, and the tribe collapsed.

The Manchurian Corps of the Qing Empire successfully entered Beijing, claiming that they had been invited to help expel the "rogue bandits".Now that the "rogues" have been expelled, it is time to return the house to its original owner.But instead of returning the house, this righteous hero moved his own home, insisting that they were the masters.Dorgon moved the Qing government from Shenyang to Beijing. While urging Wu Sangui's troops to continue going south, he sent his Manchurian troops and some traitor regiments who had surrendered to attack the Yangtze River Basin to wipe out the remnants of the Ming Dynasty.

The remnants of the Ming Dynasty fought hard, and a series of three emperors appeared in the south of the Yangtze River in an attempt to stop the advance of the Tartars.It's a pity that it is impossible to pick good apples from the pile of rotten apples. They are all full-fledged wine and meat emperors, so they can't succeed. The first is Zhu Yousong, the son of Zhu Changxun, the prince who was killed in Luoyang.Zhu Yousong's capital was in Nanjing. After he became emperor, his first order was to recruit court ladies, and his second order was to order local officials to pay tribute to the secret prescription of aphrodisiacs.Ruan Dayue, one of the eunuchs who had been relegated, was recalled to serve in the government and formed a front with the powerful Prime Minister Ma Tuying.When the eunuch party was eliminated, it was called "reverse case", and now the two use "success case" as a counterattack. Anyone who escaped from the Shun government's jurisdiction is easily labeled as "conspiracy with evidence". Massacre.This smoky little court lasted only thirteen months. The next year (1645) after the fall of Beijing, the Qing army broke through Nanjing, captured Zhu Yousong, and sent him to Beijing to beheaded.

The second is King Zhu Yujian, whose royal lineage is relatively distant. After the fall of Nanjing, he fled to Fuzhou, Fujian, and was supported by Zheng Zhilong, the commander of the Fujian Corps (Fujian General Soldier), and succeeded Zhu Yousong to the throne.But Zheng Yilong only used Zhu Yujian as a bargaining chip, and did not intend to be loyal to the Ming Dynasty.He secretly communicated with the Qing army that was flocking southward, and removed the guards of the northern fortress Xianxiaguan (South of Jiangshan, Zhejiang), and the Manchurian Corps swaggered in.Zhu Yujian was captured on the way to escape, and was escorted back to Fuzhou to be executed.

The third is Zhu Yousong's cousin, Prince Zhu Youlang. After the fall of Fuzhou, he ascended the throne in Zhaoqing (Zhaoqing, Guangdong), and was chased by the Qing army just like Zhang Xianzhong and other bandits. Constantly fleeing in embarrassment has no impact on the stability of the Qing government ruling the whole of China.In this neglected state, he supported for sixteen years.In 1661 in the 1960s, Zhu Youlang no longer had a foothold in China, so he fled to the Kingdom of Burma, built thatched huts, and lived with natives in the wild border areas.But Burma could not resist the pressure of the Qing government, so it handed Zhu Youlang to Wu Sangui, who was in Kunming, Yunnan, and Wu Sangui hanged him.This disgusting Ming Dynasty was established for two hundred and ninety-four years, and it has now perished.

——At the same time as the Ming Dynasty ended, there was also a long third eunuch era.In Zhu Youlang's sixteen-year-old court, the tradition of eunuchs in power has not changed.The last great eunuch is Ma Jixiang, the eunuch of Li. He continued to scold and torture loyal officials who followed the orthodox government in exile in the golden throne hall in the shabby hut, as if he was still in Beijing.Before Zhu Youlang was captured and sent back to China, the Burmese government lured Ma Jixiang out and killed him. ——Standing on the national feelings at that time, the fall of the Ming Dynasty, which was composed of Han people, made people sad.But standing at the peak of Chinese history and looking back at it from a bird's eye view, we are grateful for its demise.The territory of the Ming Dynasty in this century (17th) has shrunk to more than 3 million square kilometers, and it will continue to shrink. There is no hope of reforming internal affairs, and it will only get worse and worse.If it is dragged on until the nineteenth century and meets the Western powers that invaded the east, I can say with certainty that China will be partitioned and the Chinese nation will become another Jewish nation that lost its land, and because there is no such strong religion as the Jews Because of the centripetal force of emotion, it will never be able to restore the country.At least, pay attention to one point. After the Qing Dynasty repeatedly cut land in the 20th century (a total of more than 1.5 million square kilometers was cut off), China still has 11.4 million square kilometers, which is three times larger than that of the Ming Dynasty. China has the means to stand up.This is of course the point of view of the twentieth century when everything has passed, not the point of view at that time when facing the invasion of foreign nations. The time gap between the two is 350 years.

The Nine Han Nation's Rebellion and the Battle of San Francisco The Manchus never expected to wipe out the Ming Dynasty, let alone become the masters of Celestial China. They were suddenly invited by Wu Sangui to enter the customs. Scatter a pile of fallen leaves, invincible.The Manchu people were amazed at how brave their own Manchurian regiments were, and how terribly cowardly the Han people were. In fact, this was the case at that time, but it was for a reason. The army of the Ming Dynasty was extremely corrupt, and the Han people were extremely exhausted.Changes in the ruling class could no longer stimulate a strong reaction. In the eyes of the people, the Manchu Corps, the Traitor Corps, the regular army and guerrillas of the Ming government, and the so-called rogues were all the same.In addition to the dislike of the Ming government and the emperor Zhu, except for a few scholar-bureaucrats and gentry, few people are willing to seriously sacrifice for it.

So the Qing government had no scruples, and in 1645, after the capture of Nanjing, issued an order to shave the hair. Shaving, from another angle, is also called braiding.Some of the barbarians in the north have had their hair braided since the beginning of recorded history—we don't know why.During the great division in the fifth century, the Han nationality in the Southern Dynasty criticized the Xianbei people in the Northern Dynasty as "Suolu".Ropes, ropes, to describe their braids hanging down their backs like ropes (this criticism is much milder. In the early 20th century, Han people ridiculed that Manchurians’ braids were pigtails), this hairstyle exclusively for men is very ugly. First shave off the hair around the top of the head (shaved hair), leaving only a pinch in the middle of the top of the head to let it grow, and then form a braid (braided hair) and hang down to the back.In the eyes of people with a little bit of education, such attire is really hard to catch.The traditional way for Han men to deal with their hair is to bundle their hair, which is neither shaved nor drooped, but just coiled on top of their heads. In the 1220s of the 12th century, the Golden Empire issued an order to shave their hair, and anyone who refused to do so would be executed, but only for government officials.Now the Qing government popularizes all Han people, strictly enforces it, and shouts the hideous slogan: "Keep your hair but never your hair, keep your hair and never your head." National sentiments, like a group of lambs who were tame to beheading, suddenly roared like a tiger because they wanted to shave off part of his head.Let us cite the witness record in his book "Tartar War Records" written by Martini, a Western missionary in Shaoxing (Shaoxing, Zhejiang) at that time, as an illustration: The Tatar army found no resistance and successfully occupied Shaoxing.The counties in the south of Zhejiang Province can also be easily conquered.At this time, Tatar issued an order to force the newly surrendered Han people to shave their hair, so all Han people, whether soldiers or citizens, became angry, armed with weapons, and resisted Tatar.They didn't have this love for the country and the emperor, but in order to protect their hair, they gave up their lives to resist a powerful enemy, and the Tatars were finally repelled to the north of the Qiantang River. The most representative fierce resistance took place in Yangzhou (Yangzhou, Jiangsu) and Jiading (Jiading, Shanghai). The desperate battles in these two isolated cities drew brutal revenge from the Manchurians. They massacred in Yangzhou for ten days, killing 800,000 people. There were three massacres in Jiading, killing 200,000 people. ——This blood debt was called "Ten Days in Yangzhou" and "Three Massacres in Jiading" when the Han people demanded repayment from the Manchurians at the end of the 19th century two hundred years later.However, the descendants of the murderer who was asked to repay the blood debt have long forgotten the bestiality of their ancestors. Because there was no unified leadership, the final victory still belonged to the Manchus. The Han people finally followed the Manchus, with braids hanging down their backs—this braids had been hanging down for more than two hundred years, and it was not until the early 20th century that they were cut off at the same time as the Qing government.However, the fighting power of the Han people made the Manchurians panic. At that time, Zhu Youlang, the last emperor of the Ming Dynasty, was still wandering in the southwest, and the mountains around the Yunnan-Guizhou Plateau were undulating. In such a situation, it hopes to negotiate peace with the fleeing Ming government and not invade each other.But the big traitor Wu Sangui objected, he advocated cutting the weeds and exterminating the roots, and volunteered to be the vanguard of the masters of different nationalities. The Qing government hesitated for a long time before accepting his proposal, and Zhu Youlang died at the hands of Wu Sangui. ——Looking back to the past in the twelfth century, the Golden Empire invaded southward with thunderous force, but it could only advance as far as the Huaihe River.However, its descendant, the Qing Empire, quickly annexed the whole of China. The main reason is that the Jin Empire lacked the help of powerful traitors and traitor corps at the beginning, so that even though Wanyan Wushu crossed the Yangtze River, it was still a branch of China. Blind lone army.When the Qing Empire entered the customs, it had already raised many powerful traitors and traitor regiments, and Wu Sangui was even a dog who wagged his tail and sent him to the door.In many major battles, it is often not the Manchus attacking the Han people, but the traitors attacking the Han people. The three most famous traitors under the banner of the Qing government were all named vassal kings and given them vast territories.It was called "San Francisco" at that time: One of the most progressive measures of the Qing government is that the emperor's son does not necessarily become a prince.After being crowned a prince, he cannot acquire fief land, and there is no political organization of the royal palace.However, these three traitor vassals who are not from the royal family each occupy one side and become a semi-independent situation, which is obviously not a normal state.Even the three major traitors felt that cutting down the feudal clan was inevitable. The reduction of feudal vassals is a necessary means for centralization and national unification, but the phenomenon shown in Chinese history is that every time a vassal state is cut, it will cause a fierce resistance.In 1673, because Shang Kexi could not bear the violence of his son Shang Zhixin, he asked the Qing government to retire, and recommended Shang Zhixin to inherit his title and take over Guangzhou as his successor.The emperor at that time was Emperor Xuanye, the son of Fulin. He allowed Shang Kexi to retire and Shang Zhixin to inherit the title, but he did not allow Shang Zhixin to succeed his father in guarding Guangzhou. He said: "There is no hereditary rule for local official positions." Wu Sangui and Geng Jingzhong (grandsons of the first vassal Geng Zhongming) heard the news and found that the atmosphere was a bit strange, so they also requested to retire at the same time. The purpose was to test the attitude of the Qing government, hoping (and believing) that the central government would comfort them.The Qing government attached great importance to this matter and had heated debates, knowing that once the vassal was really withdrawn, the three big traitors would definitely rebel.The 20-year-old Emperor Xuan Ye insisted on withdrawing the domain and ordered to accept their request.As expected, San Francisco rebelled, and China, which had just settled down, fell into melee again. San Francisco elected Wu Sangui as the leader. After the order to shave their hair, the national feelings of the Han people were heavy and vigorous, and people all over the country cut off their braids in response.The Qing army retreated steadily, retreating to the Yellow River area, and still suffered frustrated defeats.However, there were two major factors that reversed the situation soon. One was that Wu Sangui's traitor brand was too loud to issue a clear political call and establish a strong leadership center. Because of the whole family, he could not take advantage of the inertial influence of the Ming Dynasty.He can only be the emperor himself, but at this critical juncture, the emerging regime cannot immediately produce a centripetal effect.The second is that Wu Sangui is old, and has the overly cautious and conservative mentality that is most likely to happen to the elderly, and dare not take risky actions.He demands absolute security, but there is no absolutely safe revolution and rebellion in the world. Another factor is that Wu Sangui's opponent is Emperor Xuanye, one of the wisest monarchs in Chinese history, young and strong, with Liu Bang's open-mindedness and Li Shimin's wisdom of knowing people and being good at responsibility. After nine years of melee, in 1683, all San Francisco were wiped out.Geng Jingzhong, Shang Kexi, and Wu Sangui's grandson Wu Shi (Wang Fan) (Wu Sangui died of illness) were all executed. From the starvation riots in 1682 to the end of San Francisco in 1682, the war of dynastic change lasted 55 years, and China was unified again, and the third golden age of more than 100 years immediately appeared. Ten China's third golden age The third golden age began in the 17th and 1980s of this century and ended in the 18th and 1870s of the next century. It is exactly one thousand years from the second golden age in the seventh century. This is a long wait. But the great darkness has not passed, and the heavy pollution will not disappear so easily all at once.It's just that they are temporarily driven aside by the strong and lively new vitality of the Manchurians, just like a few days of sunny days suddenly appear in a rainy season. The Manchus followed the model of the Ming Dynasty and established an absolute autocratic totalitarian system. The entire central government was nothing more than a communication room for the emperor to issue orders.All the officials are nothing but the emperor's personal secretary and messenger.Each of the central ministries has two ministers (shangshu), one full and one Han.There are two executive deputy ministers (left servants) and two political affairs deputy ministers (right servants).It is also a man and a man.Although the six ministries have their own responsibilities in name, in fact each ministry has the power to directly report to the emperor, and no one can control others. Therefore, each ministry has twelve ministers, which is equivalent to twelve emperor's secretaries. Everything is decided by the emperor.The tasks of the various ministries are also limited to handling the affairs assigned by the emperor, and cannot issue orders to local governments on their own initiative like the central agencies of those dynasties before the Song Dynasty in the eleventh century.The system of the Qing government is exactly the same as that of the Ming government in at least one point, that is, there is only one person who has the authority to issue orders to the local government, that is, the emperor sitting high on the top of the pagoda.The most special thing is that the emperor of the Qing government was not only the head of state of China, but also the supreme slave manager of the Manchurian nation.All Manchurians, including the most senior officials and prime ministers, were slaves of the emperor—this was the most special social structure of the Manchurian nation. The only duty of slaves in front of their masters was to bow their heads and obey their ears.This phenomenon of high concentration of power is easily corrupted.However, when the wise monarchs that rarely appeared in history suddenly appeared one after another, the functions of the government could be fully utilized. The traditional Chinese court system underwent major reforms in the hands of the Qing government, and the expenses of concubines, eunuchs and courts were greatly reduced.The royal family of the Qing Dynasty came from the simple and unsophisticated society of Liaodong (Liaoning Province), and what was brought to the court was a relatively simple and unpretentious form of marriage.Except for the empress, the emperor has only about ten concubines. Although it is still a polygamous system, it is an astonishing improvement compared to the previous camp of seventy-two imperial wives and tens of thousands of court ladies. Try some of the following items.To compare: Pay attention to the number of court ladies and eunuchs, nine thousand and one hundred and thirty-four, one hundred thousand and five hundred.Pay attention to the daily expenditure of the court, 10,000 taels and 35 taels. Avoiding the palace" small action, you will feel that he is really too smart).The eunuch organization of the Ming Dynasty had forty-two institutions.After Fulin entered the customs, he was addicted to this kind of luxury for a time, and only reorganized forty-two institutions into thirteen institutions, called "Thirteen Yamen". The eunuch's power expanded almost as much as that of the Ming Dynasty. Not long after, Wu Liangfu, the great eunuch and chief inspector of rites, and Liu Zhengzong, the prime minister of the Han Dynasty, called brothers and sisters, buying officials and selling titles, which shocked the Manchu nobles who were still young and lively at that time.In 1661, when Fulin passed away, his mother, Empress Dowager Borzigit, cooperated with the ministers who were supporting the government, and executed Wu Liangfu. For eunuchs and palace affairs, the Manchu nobles served as ministers of the Ministry of Internal Affairs, and the number of eunuchs was greatly reduced, and they were no longer in a leading position. These reforms had two consequences: First, the era of eunuchs has since become a thing of the past, unable to reproduce.At the end of the 19th century, although one or two eunuchs such as An Dehai and Li Lianying were very powerful, they were individual in nature and could not form a group. Second, the lifespan of the Qing Dynasty was 296 years, and there were twelve emperors in total. Among the twelve emperors, nearly two-thirds of the emperors were very capable, understood and worked hard to fulfill their responsibilities, and one-third were also competent. Of medium intelligence, the Qing Dynasty had none of the series of idiot-like villainous monarchs like the Ming Dynasty.There is no dynasty in China, including the Zhou Dynasty, the Western Han Dynasty, the Eastern Han Dynasty, and the Tang Dynasty. There have been so many emperors who are very capable and willing to work hard. For the Han nationality at that time, the Manchurian conquest of China was the second subjugation of China.But the Manchurians are a very backward nation in terms of culture, they don’t even have writing, and the Manchu writing was only created when Nurhachi was in power, so it is not universal.Because for Manchurians, both Manchurian characters and Chinese characters are new characters, while Chinese characters have a cultural background like the ocean, while Manchurian characters are limited to daily spoken language.As a result, the Manchurians were rapidly sinicized. Like a person who fell into the sea and had to drink the seawater, they had no choice.During the Jianzhouwei period, Manchurians had already popularized Chinese.After entering the customs, they had more extensive contact with Han people, and Chinese became more popular.Emperor Xuanye is proficient in Chinese, just like a senior intellectual of the Han nationality, he is even more proficient in various classics of the Confucian system.This is true of every emperor after him.His grandson Hongli wrote more than 50,000 Chinese poems alone, which probably ranks first in the world in terms of quantity (unfortunately, his poems are a kind of imperial doggerel, which is unsightly). Therefore, in fact, it didn't take long for the Manchus to regard themselves as native Chinese, which was exactly the opposite of the situation in which the ruling class of the Mongol Empire refused to be closed. However, the national boundaries are still very strict.In the seventeenth century of this century, the population of the Han nationality had reached more than 80 million, while the population of the Manchurian nationality was only more than 3 million. The Manchurians ruled the absolute majority with an absolute minority, and a backward tribe ruled an ancient empire with a profound culture. The danger of being digested at any time is of course very fearful.It strictly prohibited intermarriage between Manchu and Han, and excluded Han Chinese as high-ranking military officers as much as possible.In terms of administrative management, it cannot do without the Han people, but in the eyes of the Manchus, the Han people are just beggars who are given a bowl of food by the Manchus. They are not even as good as their slaves, and the Han people are not given power.Just in this century (seventeenth), Han prime ministers would kneel down when they met Manchu prime ministers, and Han ministers would kneel down when they met Manchu ministers.During the meeting, the Manchu prime ministers sat down proudly, and the Han prime ministers knelt beside them. The Manchus were not kind enough to ask them to get up, but the Han people dared not get up.Sometimes the Manchurians were having a good time talking and forgot to be kind, and the old Han minister knelt for too long and even fell to the ground.The idea of ​​the Manchurians is to use strong pressure to cultivate Han people's obedience and servility to the Manchus forever. The Chinese culture inherited by the Manchu people is exactly the same as the Chinese culture inherited by the Xianbei people in the Northern Wei Dynasty in the fifth century.Therefore, although the dynastic regime and rulers changed, the ideology and social foundation that constituted the great darkness remained unchanged, the stereotyped imperial examinations and torture and imprisonment remained unchanged, the worship of ancestors and mourning for three years remained unchanged, and the complex of opposing any reform remained unchanged.That is, the sauce jar remains unchanged.To give an example as an illustration, Xie Jishi, a member of the Ministry of Supervision (censor), used the original text of another ancient book "Book of Rites" when annotating one of the four books, "The Great Learning", instead of using the opinion of Zhu Xi, a tycoon of Neo-Confucianism. He was really furious and sentenced Xie Jishi to death.Later, he managed to avoid death, but he was still punished to do hard labor.In this context, people's imagination and creativity are all killed. What the third golden age brings to China is not the surging academic trend of thought in the first golden age, nor the arrogance of heroes in the second golden age, but only a hundred years of peace and order.This is the minimum requirement of the people and the minimum function of the government, but it has disappeared in China for a long time.But compared with the Ming Dynasty and the earlier Mongol Empire, the Chinese people in the past hundred years seem to be living in heaven. The greatest achievement of the third golden age was that the Qing government of the Manchus opened up a vast territory for China.Both the Eastern and Western Han dynasties and the Tang Dynasty added an area of ​​1.7 million square kilometers to China, but they lost it soon.The territory added by the Qing government to China was more than four times that of the Chinese territory inherited from the Ming Dynasty. 11. Exploitation of Eastern Territory——Taiwan The first target of the Qing government's outward expansion was Taiwan Island. Taiwan Island is only 150 kilometers away from the coast of Fujian Province at its narrowest point.Since ancient times, it has been inhabited and managed by the Gaoshan ethnic minority in China, and has little political connection with the Central Plains Dynasty. At the beginning of the seventeenth century of this century, changes occurred on both sides of the Taiwan Strait. First, the pirate Zheng Zhilong surrendered to the Ming government. The Ming government appointed him as the commander of the Fujian Provincial Navy (admiral of the Fujian Navy), and maritime merchants began to gain security.One is the Kingdom of the Netherlands, not much bigger than Taiwan Island, which developed eastward from Europe and landed in Java in 1619 to conquer the East Indies (Indonesia).In 1627, it landed in Taiwan and put all the Malays, Chinese, and Japanese on the island under its rule. Let us go back to the past when Zhu Yujian, the nineteenth emperor of the Ming Dynasty, was killed. be opposed to.Of course, Zheng Zhilong would not change his mind, so Zheng Chenggong led a lone army, based in Xiamen, Fujian, and enshrined Zhu Youlang, the twentieth emperor in exile in the southwestern Yunnan-Guizhou Plateau, to fight against the Qing government.In 1658, Zheng Chenggong launched a large-scale northern expedition, penetrating from the mouth of the Yangtze River and surrounding Nanjing.But the result failed and returned to Xiamen.At that time, the Qing government had not yet had the strength to fight back after entering the customs. Instead, it only adopted the strategy of strengthening the walls and clearing the wilderness. All residents in the 2,000-kilometer coastal zone from Nanjing to Guangzhou were all moved inland by 20 kilometers.After Zheng Chenggong experienced the great trauma of the Northern Expedition, he was no longer able to make a second Northern Expedition.Fortified and cleared the country, his army faced starvation and isolation.Only then did he think of Taiwan. If Taiwan can be occupied, the source of food and soldiers can be solved. In 1661, Zheng Chenggong attacked Taiwan, and Chixian City (Tainan, Taiwan), one of the two giant cities built by the Netherlands, fell.Another isolated city, Relanza (Xi'anping City, Tainan), was besieged for nine months. The Dutch army ran out of ammunition and surrendered to Zheng Chenggong. Zheng Chenggong sent them all to Java. - The Netherlands has occupied Taiwan Island for thirty-eight years.Kui Yi, the governor of the Netherlands who surrendered to Zheng Chenggong, tried his best, but after returning to China, he was still sentenced to ten years in prison for the crime of falling into Taiwan. From 1661, Taiwan became the territory under the Chinese Ming government, and in this year, Zhu Youlang was sent to Wu Sangui by the Burmese for execution.In the traditional form of the imperial political system, it is normal to continue to establish an emperor.But Zheng Chenggong's attitude was very warm. Although there were other princes surnamed Zhu who moved to Taiwan, Zheng Chenggong did not find a successor to the throne.Zheng Chenggong's title was the King of Yanping County, and he used the palace of the King of Yanping County as the highest administrative agency.In jurisprudence, this is abnormal, as if a country does not have a central government, but only a general headquarters acting as the central government. Zheng Chenggong died in the year following the occupation of Taiwan (1662). His son Zheng Jing succeeded to the throne and proposed a settlement to the Qing government, asking the Qing government to recognize Taiwan as an independent kingdom and allow Taiwan to be like Korea, Annan (Vietnam), Ryukyu Similarly, he does not shave his hair or change his clothes, but only pays tribute to the Qing government, and will always be a vassal of China, and the Qing government agrees.However, Zheng Jing overestimated his own strength and demanded to keep Xiamen in Fujian Province on the other side of the strait as a trade base. The Qing government resented it and the negotiation broke down.During the Battle of San Francisco, Zheng Jing allied with Geng Jingzhong, one of the San Francisco, and sent troops to Fujian and Guangdong provinces to fight.After the failure of the San Francisco, Zheng Jing lost all his bases on the mainland. At this time, he finally admitted that his strength was weak, and he began to think of self-protection, but the opportunity had passed, and the Qing government was determined to eliminate him by force. In 1683, Shi Lang, commander of the Fujian Navy of the Qing government (admiral of the Fujian Navy), led 300 warships, set off from Fuzhou, first captured the Penghu Islands in the Taiwan Strait, and then attacked Taiwan.The Zheng regime has been in Taiwan for 23 years, and there have been many changes in the 23 years.The original fighting spirit and ambition to restore the country have long since disappeared. The generals and soldiers have all started their families on the island and are used to peace and stability.Therefore, the Qing army did not encounter resistance, so they landed in Luermen (Pinggang, Xi'an, Tainan, Taiwan), and the last Yanping County King Zheng Ke (Tu Shuang) (Zheng Jing's son) surrendered.The 36,000-square-kilometer island of Taiwan officially merged with China, and the slightly smaller Hainan Island, a thousand kilometers to the southwest, guarded China's waters like two giant fists. ——A very interesting thing happened. Prime Minister Li Guangdi (one of the famous giants of Confucianism system Neo Confucianism) suggested to Emperor Xuanye that since the Zheng regime has been eliminated, Taiwan is a wild and smoky place, not suitable for human habitation. Still given to the red hair (Netherlands).God bless Emperor Xuanye for refusing to accept his opinion. The Exploitation of Twelve Northeast Territories——"Nerchinsk Treaty" At the same time as the changes in the Taiwan Strait, the situation in the Heilongjiang River Basin in the severe cold region of Northeast China has also changed. The territory of Northeast China, since the Warring States Period in the 4th century BC, has been expanding at about 70,000 square kilometers. It used to be called "Liaodong", which is now the Liaodong Peninsula-including the two big cities of Shenyang and Liaoyang.And for a long time, even this piece of land could not be kept.Since the fourth century after the Era, only the Tang Dynasty has lasted for more than a hundred years.Mongolia's territory of the Yuan Empire included most of the Northeast, and when the Mongols were expelled from China, the territory north of the Great Wall remained their territory.The Ming government restored the old frontiers of Liaodong (Liaoning Province) in the Tang Dynasty, barely maintained it for more than 200 years, and once extended its power to the Outer Xing'an Mountains, Heilongjiang Estuary and Sakhalin Island, but in the end it was all lost to the Later Jin Khanate. The Later Jin Khanate was originally confined to the narrow Liaodong Peninsula. In the north and east of it, there were still many tribes that were more backward than the Manchurians.On the one hand, these tribes were unwilling to recognize the superiority of the Manchus, and on the other hand, they were also migrating south, and the two sides continued to fight.But as a result of every war, the Manchus won and finally conquered them completely.There are 4 main tribes, as shown in the following table: When the Manchurians were suddenly invited into Shanhaiguan, they had conquered three million square kilometers of land in the Northeast.After the Manchus became the masters of China, this vast land became part of their dowry. Before the Manchurians expanded northward, the Slavs of the Russian Empire in Europe had expanded eastward across the Ural Mountains. The sparsely populated primitive nomadic tribes in the Siberian wasteland were no match for the Russians.From the beginning of the 17th century to the 1960s, the Russians established a series of colonial cities on the wasteland, the most important of which are the following cities: Mumusik in 1604 (Emperor Zhu Xujun of the Ming Dynasty reigned) 1619 Yeniseysk (Year of the Battle of Sarhu) Yakutsk in 1632 (the year before the second Jin entry) Okhotsk in 1638 (the year of the fourth fortification of the Later Jin Dynasty) Nerchinsk in 1658 (the year before Zheng Chenggong's Northern Expedition to Nanjing) Selenkinsk in 1666 (seven years before the Battle of San Francisco) Yakutsk is obviously one of the main strongholds of Russia's eastward and southward aggression. It is about 1,200 kilometers away from Amur.Russian adventurers, hooligans, murderers, and desperadoes, of course, also have heroes with lofty goals of expanding the territory for the country. Development, spying well surveyed the Heilongjiang River Basin that had just been conquered by the Later Jin Khanate at that time.后金汗国于一六四二年吞并了呼尔喀、达瑚尔部落，明年（一六四三），俄国第一批探险队从雅库次克出发，相差不过一年，但这一年已够确定中国在法理上对于黑龙江南北两岸广大地区的主权。 俄国人出动的次数和乘隙深入后金汗国——中国国境的情形，我们借下表说明： 俄国人的运气不好，不仅是脚步迟了一年，而且它遇到的不是明政府奄奄一息腐烂透了的弱小中国，而是清政府正走上坡，朝气蓬勃的强大中国。俄国第一批和第二批行动队不过穿过中国东北的荒原地带，没有被清政府发觉，但是第三批行动队在施代巴诺夫领导下，在精吉里河口建筑城堡，兴高采烈地打算长期占领时，正式跟中国的力量接触。中国宁古塔（黑龙江宁安）军区参谋长（宁古塔章京）沙尔呼这，率领四十五艘军舰，逆黑龙江而上，给他代巴诺夫迎头痛占，施代巴诺夫全军覆没，他自己也于稍后被杀。俄国的侵略当然不会因这小挫折而停止，第四批在外蒙古之北建筑尼市楚城，但被中国逐走。但俄国人不久就又回来，中国人未加过问。第五批在黑龙江北岸，建筑雅克萨城要塞和卫星城堡，这批凶恶的俄国民徒把当地土著索伦人当作奴隶，奸淫妇女，并抢劫他们的辛苦猎取的貂皮。索伦人报告中国官吊，但当时清政府正困于三藩的战争，没有力量北顾。 俄国人作威作福二十年，三藩战争结束，台湾也跟着收复。玄烨大帝对雅克萨城采取行动，一六八五年，中国边防军司令（都统）彭春，率大军包围雅克萨城，用一百五十门野战炮和四十门攻城炮，日夜轰击。四天后，守将图尔布青投降，中国允许他率领残余部队，向尼布楚撤退。——当俄国人再回到尼布楚时，中国没有再把他们驱逐，是一个大失策。等到俄军撤退后，中国纵火焚毁雅克萨城，也跟着撤退。 图尔布青在撤往尼布楚途中，遇见由尼布楚开向雅克萨的增援部队，携带着重武器，告诉他驻屯尼布楚的俄国大军随时可以接应。这使图尔布青懊悔不迭，他立刻同援军重返故地，于雅克萨城被中国焚毁后第十七日，再重筑新的雅克萨要塞。 中国接受这个挑战，明年（一六八六），宁古塔军区副司令（副都统）萨布素，再围雅克萨城。除用巨炮轰击外，并且使用从台湾调来参战的藤牌兵团攀城。图尔布青战死，守军只剩下一百余人，陷落就在旦夕。就在这时候，中国军队奉到停止攻击的命令。因为中俄两国外交人员正在北京接触，俄国要求先行停火，玄烨大帝允许。 一六八九年，中国代表团团长钦差大臣索额图，俄国全权公使陆军上将费要多罗，在尼布楚谈判，双方都戒备森严，双方的态度也都非常强硬，而中国代表更甚。索额图有两次在大怒下拍桌子而去，要下令担任警卫的边防军攻城，俄国代表终于采取妥协态度，遂签订下列的《尼布楚条约》： 一、外兴安岭之南属中国，之北属俄国。 二、额尔古纳河之东属中国，之西属俄国。 这是一个重要的条约，使中、俄得到和解，为中、俄两国带来一百七十年的和平，跟十一世纪中国与辽帝国澶州和解带来一百一十四年的和平同样重要。俄国对遥远的东方固然力不从心，而中国如果长期从事于东北荒凉寒冷地区的战争，也将精疲力尽。 中国习惯于把所有的外国都当作藩属，因为事实是这样。《尼布楚条约》是中国第一次以平等地位跟外国签订的条约，但获得的利益却十分巨大。当时中国的力量，事实上只能到黑龙江北岸，还伸展不到外兴安岭和鄂霍次克海。俄国向南侵略，是由冰雪荒原，进入流奶与蛮之地，永不会自动停止。而中国不然，汉人那时仍以辽东半岛为主要范围，有耕种不完的肥沃土壤，满洲人则争先恐后入关去当中国的主人，没有人傻到从流奶与蜜之地，投身到冰雪荒原。这可从对雅克萨城的处理上看得出来，中国人把它焚毁而退，俄国人却把它当作宝贝，建了又建。所以，《尼布楚条约》对俄国是一种阻堵，对中国是一种保卫。 十三塞北疆土的开拓——内蒙古 蒙古只有一个，本没有内外。因为跟中国合并的时间有先后，遂被分割。先跟中国合并的南半部称内蒙古，后跟中国合并的北半部称外蒙古。 蒙古人于十四世纪被中国明政府逐出长城后，一直不停地内战。虽然达延汗于十六世纪一度予以统一，但他的后裔又分为四部，那就是：察哈尔部、鄂尔多斯部、土默特部、喀尔略部。不过这只是指达延汗的血亲后裔，另外还有两个相当大的部落，跟这四个部落同时并存的，一是住在东北北部嫩江流域的科尔沁部，一是住在东北西部西辽河流域的喀喇沁部。这六大部落中，喀尔喀部的人口最多，察哈尔部的力量最强。 本世纪（十七）初叶，察哈尔部的林丹汗，雄心勃勃地想效法他的祖先达延汗，创立蒙古再统一的伟大事业。一六一九年，他致函刚成立不久的后金汗国可汗努尔哈赤，信上开头就说：“统兵四十万蒙古国可汗，问候水畔三万人大金国可汗努尔哈赤。”努尔哈赤看了大感沮丧。但林丹汗的才干跟他的雄心不能配合，他对内完全采取高压政策，以致引起反感。二十年代时，嫩江流域的科尔沁部，首先脱离林丹汗的统治，于一六二四年跟后金汗国结盟。明年（一六二五）林丹汗向科尔沁部进攻，努尔哈赤亲自统率精兵赴救。林丹汗不敢作战，自行撤退。这一次虎头蛇尾的军事行动，促使科尔沁部感激后金汗国不止，作更彻底的归附。 三年后（一六二八），西辽河流域的喀喇沁部，不堪压迫，也叛高林丹汗，投降后金。四年后（一六三二），后金汗国第二任可汗皇太极，跟投降过去的蒙古部落，组织西征联军，对察哈尔部发动总攻，林丹汗大败，向西逃亡。土默特部和鄂尔多斯部，先后向后金投降。林丹汗逃到距青海湖尚有十天行程的大草原上病死，他的残部在青海一带仍支持三年。到一六三五年，终于也向后金屈服。 满洲人把上述的这些被征服的蒙古部落和土地——塞北全境，称为内蒙古。把漠北还没有合并的喀尔喀部称为外蒙古。后来满洲人入主中国，这种称谓和区分，一直保留下来。 清政府对蒙古人跟汉人不同，有下列的两大特点： 其一取消蒙古固有的部落制度，改为盟旗制度，限制迁移，以便予控制。盟旗的行政系统，如下表显示： 盟旗制度完全仿效满洲人的八旗制度，满族八旗：正黄旗、正白旗、正红旗、正蓝旗、镶黄旗、镶白旗、镶红旗、镶蓝旗（镶旗是：黄白蓝三旗镶红边，红旗镶白边）。这是努尔哈赤创立的图腾结构，所以满洲人没有地的籍贯，只有旗的籍贯，是一种全民皆兵的新户籍制度，全体满洲人是一个大奴隶集团，被划分为八份，人民受到层层节制，不能离旗独立。自入关后，原意渐失，演变成为一种单纯的军事制度。但同类型的蒙占盟旗制度，却一直保存到二十世纪，仍然存在。盟旗制度的特点就是八旗制度的特点，蒙古人被纳入组织后，局限在一块狭小的地区，不能选择居住地和牧场。旗跟旗之间也不能有横的来往，连流动于各盟旗间的小贩，都严厉禁止，目的当然是防止他们暗通消息，集结叛变。“逐水草而居”的时代从此消失，即今遇到荒旱，非清政府批准，不能移动。 其二对蒙古人实行愚民政策，阻止他们接受汉民族文化。清政府统治蒙古，有两个秘密武器，一是利用喇嘛教，使蒙古人沉湎在宗教里面，不知不觉中丧失战斗精神，这方面的效果是可惊的。另一是把公主大批的嫁给蒙古酋长——他们本来称可汗，投降满洲人之后，被改封为藩王或公爵，合称为“王公”。满洲人的皇姑、皇妹、皇女之流，大多数都嫁给蒙古王公，从没有一个嫁给汉人的。清政府的政策是，用科举控制汉人，用婚姻控制蒙古人，结果证明完全成功。公主的儿子自幼随着母亲在外祖父或舅父的皇宫中游戏，长大后自然有一种向心力。纪元前二世纪大政治家娄敬，向当时的皇帝刘邦建议的和亲政策可收的效果，现在完全应验。本世纪（十七）九十年代，玄烨大帝在多伦诺尔（内蒙古多伦）用盛大的宴席招待蒙古高阶层时，发现很多蒙古王公都是他的外甥或外孙，又几乎都是在北京皇宫里长大的，不禁大为得意。但清政府虽赐给这些王公们财富和荣耀，巩固他们对人民的统治尊严，却对他们仍深谋远虑地细心防范，不准他们跟汉人来往，不准学习汉文，不准保管汉文图书，不准请汉人担任教师，不准子弟进入汉人学校，不准看汉人的戏剧。目的使蒙古人永远愚昧无知。从此，面积约一百万平方公里的内蒙古，自本世纪（十七）起，也作了满洲人嫁妆的一部分，带到中国，永远成为中国的领土。 十四漠北疆土的开拓——外蒙古 比内蒙古还要庞大的外蒙古，在喀尔喀部统治之下，仍独立于瀚海沙漠群之北。已迁到北京的清政府无意向北发展，他们对拥有内蒙古广大的领土和西伯利亚外兴安岭以南广大的领土，已心满意足。可是一个意外的事件，却使外蒙古自动地请求跟中国合并。这个事件起因于以伊犁（新疆伊宁）为首都的准噶尔汗国，于《尼布楚条约》签订的前一年（一六八八），向外蒙古喀尔喀部发动攻击。 喀尔喀是蒙古请部落中，人口最少，但占地却最广的一个部落，又分为下列三个汗部： 一车臣汗部（外蒙古东部，牙帐设今温都尔汗） 二土谢图汗部（外蒙古中部，牙帐设今哈尔和林） 三札萨克图汗部（外蒙古西部，牙帐设今贝格尔） 所谓喀尔喀部，只是一个部落的总名称，不是一个具体的行政组织，更没有一个共同领袖。事实上三个汗部独立并存，各有各的可汗，互相间不停地打斗。 准噶尔汗国是四卫拉特之一准噶尔部建立的国家，参考上上世纪（十五）第四节附表及第六节，我们会记起当时声势煊赫，生擒过中国酒肉皇帝朱祁镇的瓦拉部落。瓦拉自从也先可汗死后，失去领导中心，这个突厥民族的部落分裂为三部：土尔扈特部、准噶尔部、杜尔伯特部——稍后被辉特部取而代之，他们向西迁移到现在的新疆北部。而另一支蒙古人的和硕特部，也侵入到新疆北部，跟他们混合。于是，遂被笼统的称为四卫拉特。卫拉特，即瓦拉的转音。 本世纪（十七）二十年代，和硕特部在固始汗率领下，侵入现在的青海省，建立一个庞大的和硕特汗国。土尔扈特部也移向中亚，深入欧洲。新疆北部的故土上，只剩下准噶尔部跟辉特部。我们用下表列出这四个卫拉特可汗的世系： 本世纪（十七）六十年代，准噶尔汗国——也就是准噶尔部的第二任可汗僧格，被他的两位哥哥谋杀，由僧格的儿子索诺木阿拉布坦继位。僧格的弟弟噶尔丹正在西藏当喇嘛，喇嘛教领袖达赖送他回国安定内部。噶尔丹回国后，把两位哥哥以及侄儿索诺木阿拉布坦一齐杀掉，自己当上可汗。他不久就并吞了回部（新疆南境），又并吞了青海的和硕特汗国，使他的国土扩张到二八十万平方公里。 噶尔丹可汗雄才大略，他的下一个猎物是外蒙古。 外蒙古的喀尔喀部不能团结如故。一六八四年，土谢图汗攻杀了礼萨克图汗，把札萨克图汗美丽的姬妾和大批部众抢了去。中国清政府派藩属事务部部长（理藩院尚书）阿拉尼会同西藏喇嘛教领袖达赖的使节席勒图，在伯勒齐尔城（甘肃安西），召开和解会议。和解会议并不能使他们和解，反而发生了一件礼仪上的重大纠纷。蒙古地区喇嘛教主教库伦活佛（哲布尊丹巴胡土克图。库伦，今蒙古乌兰巴托），他是土谢图汗国的弟弟，在和解会议上，曾经跟达赖的使节席勒图以平等的身份，同席而坐。噶尔丹可汗得到报告，认为抓住了借口，于是他义愤填膺地宣称，库伦活佛犯了不敬达赖的滔天大罪，必须予以重惩。 和解会议后的次年（一六八八），噶尔丹可汗自前进基地科布多（蒙古科布多）出发，向外蒙古攻击。喀尔喀的三个汗部大败，溃不成军，不得不停止内斗，紧急会商救亡措施。他们面前只有两条路，一是归附俄国，一是归附中国。这是一项重大的决定，这决定势将引起数百年甚至数千年的历史反应。库伦活佛坚持归附中国，他说：“俄国不信佛教，穿的衣服也奇形怪状。中国一片和平景象，又信佛教，穿的衣服看起来好像神仙。而且中国繁华富庶，有用不完的财宝，绸缎锦绣更多，依靠他们，生活一定愉快。”除了这些理由，还有一个更重要的没有说出来的理由，就是他跟玄烨大帝间的私人友谊最笃。三部可汗一致接受他的意见。 玄烨大帝一面命三部撤退到内蒙古，发给临时急赈救济。一面向噶尔丹可汗呼吁放弃使用武力，退出外蒙古。噶尔丹答应放弃武力，但必须中国先行交出罪犯库伦活佛，以及土谢图汗。这是中国无法接受的，噶尔丹遂继续东进，横穿外蒙古高原，抵达二千五百公里外的克鲁伦河下游。明年（一六九○），大军更深入内蒙古，直抵距北京只有三百五十公里的乌兰布通（内蒙古克什克腾旗南）。噶尔丹可汗企图用压力使中国屈服，他犯了横挑强邻的错误。 玄烨大帝亲自统军出长城攻击，皇子胤礻是担任先锋，到达乌兰布通，发现准噶尔兵团的主力——驼城。驼城是弓箭战争时代的产物，把骆驼的四脚绑住，卧倒在地，加上木箱和用水湿透了的毛毯，即成为可以阻止骑兵冲突的坚强堡垒。但如果用来对抗新武器大炮，就太落伍了。胤礻是用炽烈的炮火轰击，骆驼大半死掉，驼城崩溃，噶尔丹可汗乘夜向西撤退。 可是噶尔丹已无法摆脱恶运，他的侄儿即索诺木阿拉布坦的弟弟策妄阿拉布坦，在汗国的首都伊犁（新疆伊宁）宣布即位，下令通缉弑君篡位的叛逆噶尔丹。噶尔丹撤退到科布多城后，不能再西进。他向俄国求援，愿作俄国收复雅克萨城的先锋。俄国因跟中国刚签订了《尼布楚条约》，所以对噶尔丹的提议，不作回答。 噶尔丹不是容易屈服的人物，他驻屯科布多整补训练，五年后的九十年代一六九五年，作最后的冲刺，跟遥远东方三千公里外，嫩江河畔的内蒙古科尔沁部，秘密结盟，向喀尔喀部（外蒙古）发动夹击。他希望用闪电战术一举消灭喀尔喀部，重新控制内蒙古，建立他的新汗国。当噶尔丹再度进攻，东进二干余公里，抵达克鲁伦河时，中国三路迎击的大军早已进入攻击的位置。次年（一六九六），玄烨大帝亲自北上一干公里，到克鲁伦河畔的车臣汗牙帐（蒙古温都尔汗），指挥作战。噶尔丹望见了中国皇帝的黄龙大旗，才发现被科尔沁部出卖，中了中国的诱敌之计，他急令撤退，用最迅速的方法脱离中国东路和中路两个兵团，日夜奔驰二百五十公里，到了库伦（乌兰巴托）东南三十五公里的昭莫多，正在庆幸终于脱险之际，却不知道恰恰进入中国西路兵团司令官（抚远将军）费杨古的口袋阵地。噶尔丹大败，他的妻子阿奴皇后跟她的丈夫一样的勇敢善战，她身穿钢盔铜甲，率领精兵突围，死于巨炮的轰击之下。 噶尔丹虽全军覆没，仍拒绝投降。他退守科布多，但已不能再组织一支战斗部队。明年，却本世纪（十七）最后第三年（一六九七），他服毒自杀。喀尔喀三汗部仍回外蒙古故地，不过形势已经不同，外蒙古和噶尔丹辖下的科布多、乌梁海两地区，面积共一百八十万平方公里的土地，自此纳入中国版图。 十五东西方世界 一六○○年（明政府平定贵州杨应龙民变），（一）英国设立东印度公司，积极向东方侵略。是年，远征军攻陷孟买，莫卧儿帝国无法抵抗。（二）日本毛利辉元攻德川家康，失败。前期武家时代结束。德川家康在江户（东京）设幕府，号令全国。江户时代及后期武家时代开始。 一六一五年（明王朝第十四任皇帝朱诩钧召见群臣，大喝“拿下”），日本江户幕府征夷大将军德川家康，攻陷大阪，丰臣秀赖与母亲同时自杀。 一六一六年（后金汗国建立），英国作家莎士比亚，西班牙作；家塞万提斯，于本年四月二十三日，同一天逝世。 一六一八年（努尔哈赤以七大恨告天，出兵攻明王朝），波希米亚王国拥立腓特烈五世当国王，神圣罗马帝国皇帝鲁独尔夫，下令讨伐，欧洲三十年战争起。 一六二八年（陕西大旱，饥民张献忠、李自成聚众起事），英国国会向国王查理一世提《权利请愿书》，要求非经国会同意，不得拘捕人民。查理一世被迫签字。 一六二九年（后金第一次人塞。袁崇焕被诬陷下狱。高迎祥被推为闯王），查理一世下令解散国会，独裁专制如故。 一六三五年（后金汗国最后一年，明年即改称清帝国），日本征夷大将军德川家光，下《锁国令》驱逐所有外国人，也禁止日本人出国，只准少数中国和荷兰商船，可到长崎。此后二百一十九年间，史学家称为锁国时期。 一六四○年（中国全国大旱大蝗，人与人相食），英国军队因索欠饷叛变，国王查理一世无奈，再召集国会筹款。 一六四一年（清军攻陷锦州），英国国会向查理一世提出《大抗议书》，指责他种种的不法行为。 一六四二年（清军第五次入塞），英国革命爆发。 一六四六年（明王朝第十九任皇帝朱幸键兵败被擒，斩于福州），英王查理一世兵败被擒。 一六四九年（清政府正追击明政府的残军，一连攻陷南昌、湘潭），英国国会法庭判决查理一世死刑，斩于断头台。宣布成立共和国，选举克林威尔担任执政。 一六五八年（郑成功北伐，围攻南京失败），克林威尔逝世。 一六六○年（明王朝灭亡前一年），英国迎立故三查理一世的儿子查理二世当国王。 一六八五年（中国攻陷雅克萨城），英王查理二世逝世，他的弟弟詹姆士二世继位，藐视国会，宣称国王有权干涉国会制定的法律。 一六八八年（《尼布楚条约》签订前一年），英国发生不流血革命，新教徒秘密迎接查理二世的女儿玛丽、女婿奥伦治公爵，从荷兰人主英国。詹姆士二世逃亡法国。 一六八九年（《尼布楚条约》签订），英国国会通过《权利法案》，英国专制政治从本年起，完全消灭，这是英国对世界又一伟大的贡献。