Chapter 5 Volume 5 (1)

Chapter One The meaning of "Original" (1) <Original> The origin of things, such as a line or a road, must have a common point no matter from which end it is viewed. (2) "Original" is the beginning of things. If we study, we don't have to start from the first chapter, and sometimes we start from the best section. (3) "Original" is the internal basic part of things, such as boats have beams first, houses have foundations first, and some animals have hearts, some have brains, and others have other parts similar in nature to hearts or brains. (4) The "reason" is not the internal part, but the source of the initial generation and subsequent changes of things, such as children from their parents; fights are due to quarrels. (5) <Original meaning> is the reason why things change, and things that change change because of his will, such as city government, oligarchy, kingship and tyrant are all called "original" (HρJαι) 〈lord〉.The same is true of craftsmanship, especially the master craftsman's mastery of design. (6) "Principle" is what expresses the original meaning of things, such as hypothesis is the starting point of demonstration. (Because "reason" and "original" have the same meaning, so "original" has six meanings, and cause should also have six meanings.) In this way, the so-called "origin" is what things come from, or come from, or come from. The first point of explanation; some of these are contained in things, and some are outside of things; therefore "primary" is the nature of a thing, and so is the element of a thing, as well as thoughts and intentions, and how and The ultimate cause—because goodness and beauty are the original principles by which many things are known and changed.

Chapter Two The meaning of "cause" (1) is the material from which things are formed, such as statues are due to bronze, cups and saucers are due to silver, and materials of all levels including the like. (2) The general formula or model of things, that is, the basic definition of things (such as the ratio of 2:1 and the general number is the reason for the octave), and the general formulas and definitions of all levels included. (3) Change or cessation of change from the beginning, such as suggesting that man is the cause of a certain action, parents are the cause of children, generally speaking, the creator is the cause of what is created, and the cause of change is the cause of change . (4) The reason why things become things; for example, taking a walk for health. "What does a man walk for?" we say, "It makes him healthy;" and we think that by saying this we have answered the reason for walking.The same may be said of the various methods or means introduced for the attainment of an end, which promote the progress of another thing, such as the use of emaciation, or purging, or medicines or medical devices in order to obtain health; There are different methods, either as tools or actions, but the purpose is all for health.

These are the whole meaning of the so-called cause.There are often several reasons for the same thing. There may be several reasons for the same thing, and several different reasons that do not match the genus.For example, the cause of imagery is sculpture art and bronze, both of which are for nothing else but imagery; but the two are different, one is the cause of things, and the other is the source of change.And things can also be the cause of each other, such as gymnastics is the cause of health, it can also be said that health is the cause of gymnastics; one is the ultimate cause, and the other is the driving cause.Also, the same thing can be the cause of the opposite thing; with this, a certain thing happens, without this, but the opposite thing happens, for example, if we believe that the ship is in distress because there is no helmsman, then the ship's safety should be The cause of the helmsman; thus the "being on board" and "not being on board" of the helmsman become the cause of the ship.

Now, the reasons described, obviously, fall into four categories.The syllable from the letter, the finished product from the raw material, the body from fire, earth, and the like, the whole from the parts, the conclusion from the hypothesis; these are the causes from which all things are made.Some of these are the bottom layer (such as part) <material cause>, and some are how to be (such as the whole, synthesis, and general formula) <primary cause>.General authors, such as seeds, physicians, and counselors, should be the cause of all actuation or quiescence, <actuator>.The last type of reason is the ultimate and original good that all things aim at; for this reason, all things in the world have a purpose and each strives to achieve the ultimate good (extreme cause); as for whether we say this is the original good, or just Superficial goodness, that is not an important difference.These are the four categories of causes.

Although there are not many types in general, there are many individual varieties of causes. The meaning of "cause" is quite different; even if it is a kind of cause, some say it is "before" and some say it is "after". For example, physical education teachers and doctors are both the cause of health; another example is 2 :1 Proportion and number are causes of octaves; and some general cause which includes individual cases is the common cause of each case.There are also reasons for a certain attribute or a certain level of attribute. For example, one theory is that the sculptor created the elephant, and the other theory is that Parick tried to make the image, because the sculptor happened to be Parick who tried to; By extension, all general terms including attributes of various levels can also be the cause, such as "man" or "animal" in a broad way, which is also the cause of this image; because Parick tried to be a man, but Man is an animal.Some of the attribute causes are more distant and some are closer (for example, saying that "the white one" and "the literate one" is the cause of the image, rather than saying "Parick tried" or "the man" ).Besides these classes, causes, whether due to nature or due to attributes, are divided into active and active; for example, a house is made because of an architect, or a bricklayer is building a house.From cause to effect, there are also different expressions; for example, a certain thing can be said to be the cause of this statue, or a statue, or a general image, or it can be said that this image comes from this image. A piece of bronze, or out of bronze, or out of general material; attribute cause and effect are similar to this.Also, the attributes and the causes of nature can be said together; we can say neither "Parick tried to" nor "sculptor", but "Parick tried to sculptor".

But all these can be divided into six grades, and each grade belongs to two columns; (a) one column is for individual or genus or attribute reasons or includes attribute reasons in its genus, and these can be combined, It can also be cited separately; (B) The other column is the reason for "acting" or "capable of acting".Distinguishing the causes in terms of function, we can see that some individual people or things and the people or things they act on should exist at the same time or not at the same time, for example, this patient and this patient, or this Both the architect and the building being built exist at the same time; as for the (potential) cause that can act, this is not the case; the building does not die or perish at the same time as the architect.

Chapter three The meaning of "element" (element) is (1) (child) the basic internal composition of things, which cannot be analyzed into other types in terms of things; for example, the elements of speech are letters (phonetic notes), and the composition of letters For speech, after speech is decomposed into letters, it can no longer be decomposed.After things have been decomposed, if they want to decompose again, then the parts they divide are still of the same kind, just like water is divided, and each part is still water. As for the separation of a syllable, it is not a syllable (but some different letters).

(Ugly) Similarly, when people say the elements of an object, they refer to the category that analyzes the object into an indivisible category; the things analyzed in this way, whether there is only one type or multiple types, are called "elements". (Yin) The so-called elements (elements) of geometric proofs are also similar in nature to those of general proofs; all the basic regulations that have to be cited in empirical studies are called empirical elements; "synthesis theory" uses a middle term to connect the two item, to prove, there is such a property. (2) (d) People also transfer the word "element" to those single and tiny substances. This meaning is useful in many ways.In this way, everything that is small, simple and indivisible is called an "element".Therefore (chen)

In fact the "element" becomes a universal thing.These elements exist in the "complexity" (many) of all things with their "simplicity" (one), and each thing contains all kinds of elements or several kinds of elements.Some people therefore think that "unit" and "point" are the first meaning of things. (Si) Therefore, since the so-called "genus" (family) is universal and indivisible (about which we can no longer explain or explain it), some people say that genera are elements; It is more common, because where there are varieties, they must have the nature of the family and genus; and where the family and genus exist, the varieties appear as differences.The general meaning of elements is the basic composition of everything.

Chapter Four (1) If the K of the word ψKσιI is pronounced with a long sound, it should be the creation of living things. (2) The internal part of a living being from which growth proceeds. (3) Every natural thing begins its first activity from what it acquires from nature.Those things which are enhanced by contact with some other thing, or by organic union, (or by organic adsorption, as in an embryo), are called growth.Organic union is different from contact; the parts of organic union not only touch, but grow together in quantity and extent (though not necessarily equal in quality); as for contact, the two meet only. (4) The meaning of "nature" also refers to the original materials on which any natural objects are composed. These materials are unformed and cannot be changed by their own potential; for example, the "nature" of bronze is said to be the "nature" of bronze ware. Nature, the "nature" of woodware is wood, and so on; after these materials are made into products, their original substances are still preserved.That's it, people also call the natural elements that make up all things "nature", some people cite this element as "fire", some people cite "earth", some people cite "air", some people cite "water", Some people cite other such elements; some people cite several of them, and some people cite all four elements. (5) The meaning of "nature" is the essence of natural things. Some people say that nature is the original combination of all things, just like Empedocles said:

Existing things have no nature, It's just that the <Four Elements> get together and disperse once in a while, Nature leads to the names given to these mixtures. So that everything that is born of nature, either now is, or is about to come into being, we say that they owe their nature, except that they have acquired their general form or shape. Only things that have both can be considered to have nature, such as animals and their various parts; then the "nature" is not only the original substance, but also the "general formula" or "how to be", which is the creation. ultimate goal of the process.There are two meanings for those original substances, one refers to the original substance to which this particular thing is concerned, and the other refers to the original substance in general; It should be said that water is the original substance, because all fusible substances (including bronze) are water. (6) Extending the meaning of nature in this aspect, then every how is can be called nature, and the nature of every thing belongs to a certain class of how is (the thing that becomes a thing). From what has been said above, it is clear that the basic meaning of "nature" and its strict interpretation are the inherent "how" of things with such a source of change; matter is called "nature" because Movement is made by it; the process of growth is called nature because it is from which movement develops.In this sense, nature is either latent in things or realized in things, nature is the origin of all things in nature. Chapter five We say "necessary" (necessary) (1) (A) a thing, without this condition, cannot survive; for example, an animal must breathe and food; because without these, it cannot survive; (B) without this condition , good cannot survive, and evil cannot escape; For example, we must take medicine if we want to cure diseases, and people must sail in the Aegean Sea if they want to make money in business. (2) Anything that "necessarily (necessarily)" hinders or restrains nature should be a simple thing, and such a thing exists only in one state.It cannot be said to exist in this state as well as in that; if so, it would in fact have more than one state.Therefore, whatever is immutable and eternal, by virtue of its simplicity, nothing can be compelled, and nothing restrains its nature. Chapter Six The meaning of "one" (Yuan Yi) is (1) to be one due to attributes, and (2) to be one due to nature (from oneself). (1) Those whose attributes are one: for example, Corris can be related to "civilized" and "civilized Corris" (in this way, they all refer to the same thing); With righteous Corisco.All of these are one in attributes; civilization and integrity are attributes of the same being, civilization and Corishco are attributes of the other.Similarly, "civilized Grisco" and "Crisco" are one, since the word "civilized" in that phrase is an attribute of the other word Grisco; and "civilized Grisco" and " The upright Grisco" should also be one, since parts of both phrases are attributes of the same subject.Those who explain the attributes of a family or any common noun are also similar to this, for example, "people" and "civilized people" are one; because "civilization" can be the attribute of ordinary people, or it can be a certain person (such as "Corris available") attribute.However, although these two attributes belong to humans, there are differences between them. Those belonging to human beings are unified in the noumenon including families and genus, while those belonging to Corisco are united in the state or endowment of individual noumenon.This is how things are one by virtue of their attributes. (2) Things are one by nature, (a) Some are called "one" because they are continuous, for example, sticks are bound together in a bundle, and wood is glued together; The curved one is still called "one" because it is continuous, and like the parts of the body, the arms and legs are also called one.What is naturally continued about these should be more unique than what is continued by technology.Things that have continuity can only have one movement, not divergent movements; a movement should be indistinguishable in terms of time.Things that continue in nature are not one by contact; put wood together, touching each other, and you cannot say that it has become one wood, or one thing, or one continuation.If things are called one by continuation, even what is bent is one, and what is not bent is more one, as the shin and the leg are more one than the thigh.A straight line is more one than a curved line.We say that the curved line is one, but it is not one, because all parts of it can move at the same time, or not at the same time; the straight line is simultaneous, and the broken line can be in motion for a period of time. (b) (S) In another sense, things are called "one" because their bases are the same; these bases are sensuously the same and indistinguishable kind.The so-called bottom refers to the innermost or outermost layer of the ultimate state of things.From one point of view, wine is one, and water is also one, and the two cannot be further analyzed; from another point of view, oil and wine are both liquids, and as liquids, the two can be combined into "one"; Broadly speaking, all soluble substances can be included, because their bottom layer is the same; they are all water or air. (Ugly) Although those things are distinguished by opposite differences, if they are all in the same genus, they are still called one, because the bottom layer of their genus is unified. For example, horses, humans, and dogs are all animals, so belong to one [category]; this is similar to the principle of the unity of the substratum of matter mentioned in the previous section.Sometimes this unity is sought in higher genera, (if they are the lowest species in the genera)—such as equiangular triangles and equilateral triangles, because they are both triangles, and are the same as figures; but They are not the same when it comes to triangles. (C) If one obtains the same definition in order to seek its "how is", such two things are also called one.In this way, regardless of whether things increase or decrease, as long as they are not separated from the definition, they are still one. For example, if a plane diagram conforms to the definition of a schema, it should be one.Generally speaking, those things, especially physical objects, whose substance is indistinguishable in time, space, or definition, are always said to be one.Things that cannot be distinguished are called one, so long as they are not yet distinguished; for example, two things, if they are indistinguishable as man, are both of the same kind as man; Measurement is the same category as measurement. Now we can distinguish that some things are called one because they are combined or compared with other things that are one; but some are called one because of their original meaning, such as the essence being one, which is one of them.This "one" can come from continuation, form, or definition; if the continuation, form, or definition is not one, we can't count them as "one", but count them as "many".If anything has quantity and continues, we do not call it one unless it is a whole and has a unified form; for example, seeing that the small pieces of skin have been gathered together, we cannot say that this is "one" [Shoe]; we can only call it "one" when these small pieces have been sewn into a shoe and have the type of a certain shoe.It is for this reason that, of all lines, the circle is the truest "one" because it is "perfect." (3) The reason why one is "one" is the starting point of number; we are the first to recognize that each level of things must begin with the first measurement; so "one" is the beginning of all levels of known things. But each "unit" is not the same in all levels of things.Here a quarter note, there a vowel <vowel> or a consonant <consonant>; there another unit of weight or another unit of movement.But all "ones" are always indistinguishable in quantity and number.Now, what is indistinguishable in quantity but has no position is called a "unit"; what is indistinguishable in any direction but has a position is called a "point"; what can be distinguished in a quantity is called a "unit". It is "one line"; two dimensions are "one side"; three dimensions can be distinguished as "one body". The order is reversed to explain volume, surface, line, point, and unit. Also, some things are united by number, some by species, some by family and genus, and some by comparison; from number, one to matter; from species, to definition; from family to genus, to one One is in the category (the same family and genus are explained with the same cloud predicate); from the comparison, the third and fourth things are compared.The unity of the latter is always connected with the former; for example, what is one to number is also one to species, but what is one to species is not necessarily also one to number; what is one to species is also one to genus, but what is one to family What is one in genus is not necessarily one in species: what is one in family and genus is also one in comparison, but what is one in comparison is not necessarily one in family and genus. Obviously, "many" signifies relative to "one"; some things are called many because they are not continuous, some because their matter—inner or outer—is divisible into different kinds, and others Some because there is more than one definition describing their ontology. Chapter seven Things called "is" (actually) are divided into (1) "is" of attribute (2) and "is" of nature (absolute). (i) Due to attributes, for example we say "this upright author is civilized", "this man is civilized" and "this civilized man is man", just as we say "this civilized man builds houses", because this The builder of the house is "just" civilized, or the civilized man is "the builder of the house"; what is meant here by saying "one thing is the other" is that "one thing is the property of the other".The same is true of the cases we mentioned earlier; when we say "man is civilized" and "this civilized man is man" or "the white man is civilized" or "the civilized man is white" , the attributes cited in the last two sentences belong to the same thing; the first sentence "this is" is a white person, and the attribute "is" is civilization; as for "this civilization is a person", it is " "Civilization" is an attribute of man. (In the same sense, "not white" becomes "yes" like "white" means "yes") In this way, when one thing is said to be another in terms of attributes, it can be because they originally belonged to the same thing. , so it becomes what it is, or it is "is" because the attribute belongs to it, or it is "is" because the subject itself with an attribute takes it as a predicate. (2) The classification of the main "is" is similar to the classification (category) of predicates. As many categories as there are predicates, there should be as many categories of "is".Some say what the subject is, some explain its quality, some say quantity, some say relationship, some say active or passive, some say where, some say when, in fact there must be a meaning that fits one of these explanations.As for the difference between saying that this person is recovering from health or that this person is recovering from health, and saying that this person is walking, or cutting, or "this person is walking or cutting", I will not discuss it here. Set your mind; the rest are like this. (3) Also, "is" and "now is" indicate that a record is true, and "not is" indicates that a record is not true and is false—this is similar to right and wrong; for example, "Socrates is a civilized ", which shows that this is true, or such as "Socrates is not white", also shows that this is true, if it is said that "the diagonal of a square cannot be measured by its sides", here shows Anyone who says "yes" becomes a fake. (4) Also, "when it is" and "actually" indicate that some of the things we mentioned are potential "is", and some are fully realized.We have always seen both the potential and the realized; we have always known both the real and the real; Things that can be stabilized are also considered to be stable.It can also be discussed with the ontology; we say that Herme <Artisan> is in the marble, or the half line is in the whole line, and the immature particles are also said to be the valley.As for when a thing is said to be potential and when it is not potential, I shall tell elsewhere. Chapter eight What we call noumenon (1) are simple bodies, such as earth, fire, water, etc., and things generally composed of such simple bodies, including animals, ghosts and gods, and their various parts.All these are called substances, because they do not predicate other subjects, which other things predicate for them. (2) Those internal things, although they do not refer to the subject, are the reasons for things to become "real". For example, the soul is the reason for animals to become "real". (3) It is the parts that exist in those things. With these parts as limits and marks, things can become independent entities. If these parts are destroyed, those things will also be destroyed. Standing, if the line is lost, the surface will not be formed; those people also think that there is a similar nature in "number"; because they say that if the number is lost, everything will not exist, and everything is due to the number to form its limit. (4) "How is", its formula is the definition, which is also called the noumenon of each thing. In this way, "ontology" can have ambiguity: (a) those that belong to the lowest level and cannot be explained by other things, (b) those that can be separated and independent since they become a "this"— -The second meaning here does not refer to each independent shape or form. Chapter Nine The meaning of "same" (1) is in terms of attributes, for example, "white" and "civilized" are the same as the attributes of something; "human" is the same as "civilized" because one thing is another The attribute of a thing; "civilized" is the same as "human" because "civilization" is an attribute of "human". The compound of the same body of "reality" should be the same as each monomer, and the reality of each monomer should be the same and the same as the compound of reality, "this person" and "this civilized" are the same as "this civilized person"; "This" is also the same as those.These statements, therefore, have no universality; it is not true that you say "all men are civilized"; (for universality comes from the nature of things, and properties are only incidentally subordinate to things;) these statements can only be different applied to individual things. "Socrates" and "civilized Socrates" may be considered the same; but Socrates cannot be the subject of anyone other than Socrates, so we cannot say "every Socrates" as we say "everyone". ". In addition to the above-mentioned fate, the other meaning of "same" is (2) from the nature, where "one" has several meanings, and "same" can also have several meanings, and substances can be classified as one, or The number is one, or one because of what it is, and everything is one because of it, which is the same.The same, therefore, is the "unity" of more than one thing, or of one thing taken as more than one; . Things are called "different" if the definition of their kind, or substance, or how they are is more than one; in general, the meaning of "different" is the opposite of "same". "Different" is applied to (1) those things that are different from each other but are still the same in some respects, such as in families, genus, species, or comparisons, each is different but not all the same, (2) Those things that are different or even opposite to each other are applicable to all other things on the body. Things that have the same attributes in all aspects are called "similar", those things whose nature is the same, and whose attributes are more identical than different are also called "similar"; , most of the attributes, or the more important variable attribute among the attributes (one of the two ends of each pair of attributes) are common to the two, and these two things are also "similar". The meaning of "not like" is opposite to "similar". Chapter ten The word "opposite" (anti-opposite) is applied to the opposite (contradiction), with antithesis, with correlation, with absence and possession, as well as the two ends of generation and dissolution from occurrence and direction evolution; the quality of all things Sexualities, the two poles of which can be contained in the same thing but cannot be present at the same time - either in themselves or in their constituents - are called opposites.A thing cannot be gray and white at the same time; so the primary colors of gray and white are "opposites". The word "relative" (pairing) is applied to (1) the attributes of different families and genera, which cannot be attributed to a subject at the same time, (2) the two things with the greatest difference in the same family and genus; (4) the most different things governed in the same function, (5) between things, in terms of genus, or species, or in terms of their As far as it is concerned, the term can also be used with the greatest difference.In addition to the above-mentioned kinds, everything possesses the antithesis of the above-mentioned kinds, and bears or produces, or may suffer and produce, or is receiving and producing, or accepts and rejects, or is holding and depriving. Those antitheses mentioned above are also called opposites.Because "one" and "is" have many meanings, and other nouns are derived from them, so the words "same", "different", and "relative" must also be consistent and have many meanings, so they must also be used in each category. have different meanings. "Different species" applies to things that are not related to each other in the same family, or things that are different in the same family, or things contain some relativity in their ontology, and contain relative characteristics that make each of them an independent species. (including all relativity or the so-called basic relativity); in this way, those things in the same genus (category) can be defined separately (for example, humans and horses are both animals, and they Each definition is different), and those things that are the same but still different, these are also called "varieties". The various meanings of "the same species" are just opposite to the above-mentioned "different". Chapter Eleven "Before" and "after" are applied to (1) (a) things are closer to certain starting points (assuming that each level of things has its own starting point, that is, the quasi-starting point), this starting point may come from nature, and An absolute thing shall prevail, or a certain thing or a certain place or a certain person shall prevail; if something is said to be prior to something in spatial position, that is to say, it is closer to a certain place, and this certain place may be determined by the natural system (such as in in the middle or in the last position), or by one of its contingencies; to say that something is "after" is to say that it is farther than that which is to be judged. (b) Other things are said to be "before" in time; some because they are more distant from the present, i.e. past events, the Trojan War "before" the Persian War, because it was farther back; some because it was more recent For the present, for future events, such as saying that Nemea "precedes" Bezesia, we take the present as a starting point, and everything that is closer to this starting point is said to be "before". (c) Other things, because they are closer to the prime mover, are said to be "before" in terms of change, for example, children "before" adults; As for the movement of the prime mover, it starts from itself and is absolute. (d) Other things, because their power surpasses, they say "before" in terms of power, that is, the one with greater power is "before"; in this way, everything that is "behind" must follow the meaning of "before". ; "Before" <innate> makes the movement, and "after" <nourishment> moves; here, the meaning is the starting point. (e) Other things are said to be "before" in terms of "sequence"; these are arranged according to certain rules and based on a certain thing. For example, in a chorus, the second singer comes first. Thirdly, on the harp the last string precedes the last string; for in the chorus the first singer leads, while on the harp the middle string is in tune. In addition to the above-mentioned meaning called "before", (2) another meaning is that what is "before" cognition is also absolutely regarded as "before"; these "before" in definition are not correspondingly sensed. "prior to".generally by definition "precedes"; As for the feeling, the individual is "before".Also, in terms of definition, attributes "before" the whole, for example, "civilized" should "before" "civilized man", because a definition cannot form a whole without various parts; but "civilized" must have a civilized man Only then can it be manifested. (3) The attribute of all things that "before" is also called "before", such as straight "before" flat; because straight is the attribute of line and flat is the attribute of surface, <line should precede surface, so Straight should also precede flat>.Some things are called "before" and "after" and that's it. Also, (4) Things are different due to their nature and noumenon. Things can exist independently of other things, but other things must depend on them before they can exist.—— This distinction was made by Plato.If we consider the meanings of "actually", then, first, the subject should be "before", that is, the noumenon should be "before"; secondly, some things can be preceded by potentiality; It becomes "before" because of its full realization; for example, according to the theory of potentiality, the unfinished line "before" the whole line, the part "before" the "complete", and the material "before" its synthetic substance; but according to its full realization, These are then "after"; for those constituent parts can exist independently only after the dissolution of the whole.So sometimes everything is called "before" and "after" because it fits into this fourth sense.Some things, in terms of creation, can exist without relying on other things, and the whole does not depend on the "construction" of parts;Other situations are similar. Chapter Twelve Potential (energy), the meaning of "potential" is (1) the source of change, this ability does not exist in the passive thing, but exists in another thing, or exists in the dynamic thing but not in the state of passive change For example, architectural technology is a kind of ability, which does not exist in that building. As for healing, it is also a kind of ability, which can be found in the patient, but when the patient develops self-healing ability, on the one hand, although He is a patient, but on the other hand he is his own physician.Generally speaking, "energy" is the source of making other things change (or making them change by treating themselves as other things), (2) it can also be said to be the source of one thing being changed by another thing (or to be moved by itself as by another thing).Thus, as soon as a patient suffers some pains, we say that he has patience; and this we say sometimes of any pains he has endured, and sometimes only of that part of his power of patience which is conducive to the recovery. (three) The ability to do a job well, (or to be able to do it satisfactorily) can be said to be "capable". We sometimes say to those who can only walk but cannot walk well, and can only speak but cannot speak satisfactorily. They "can't" walk and "can't" talk. (4) The same is true for passive changes. (5) If something is absolutely immovable, unchanging, or not easy to deteriorate due to certain qualities, this is also called "energy"; For things are broken, crushed, or bent, or generally destroyed, not because they have "energy" but precisely because they lack some "energy," or lack of something; If it can be unaffected, or hardly changed even though it is affected, it shows that it has a kind of "energy", so it has reached a certain positive state, and can see itself in passive changes. Since "can" has these different meanings, the meaning of "capable" (a) refers to a certain thing that can make other things, or regard itself as another thing to start a change (anything that can make a moving thing Things return to static, which is also the righteousness of the capable); (B) The other meaning is that for this thing, other things have these "energy" (that is, the energy of passive change); "Capable", no matter it becomes good or bad, (even if it is changed to perish, we also call it "capable" change, without this "competent", it will not be able to perish by itself; in fact , this should be that it has a certain tendency, reason and principle that makes it able to endure extinction; sometimes it can also be understood in this way, it either acquires something or deprives it of something, "so it tends to perish;" but "Deprivation" can be regarded as the "deprivation" of obtaining a certain "deficiency", and the loss of something is equal to the "deprivation" of gaining something; in this way, things can have "capability" on both sides, including the positive "something" 〉与反面的有〈即有某物之褫夺〉；如果"阙失"不从反面来看作"有"，"能者"便得应用两个不同的含义）； （丁）又一义是事物之称"能者"，因为没有其它事物，（或自己作为其它事物）具有可以毁灭它的"能力"与原理。又（戊）所谓"能者"，只是偶然发生的，可有可没有，可遇可不遇的某种"能"。在非生物中这也可碰着，例如乐器倘音色良好，我们称这支竖琴"能说话"，另一支音色不好，我们就讲它"不能说话"。 "无能"是能的阙失，亦即是将上述有关"能"的各义取消——这"能"可以指一般的能或某些方面应具备的能，或在某时期有关的能；由于这些意义我们就懂得，于一孩子，一成人与一阉人没有子女时，该说谁于生殖"无能"。又于上述各种的"能"就各该有一相反的"无能"——包括产生动变的"能"和将这些动变做好的"能"在内。 由于这样的"无能"，有些事物就被称为"不可能"，其它事物则在别的含义上被称为"不可能"。"可能与不可能"两词被应用如下："不可能"者，凡所相反的必确，例如一个正方形的对角线可以用它的边来计量应称为"不可能"，因为这一叙述是一个谎话，相反的论题不但真确而且是必然的；若说这是可计量的，那就不但是假的，更必需是假的。与此相反，"可能"的相反并非必假，例如说人应得有座位，这是可能的；可是说他并末得有座位，却不是必然假的。如上所述，"可能的"一义就是那个并非必假的。另一义就是那个真的； 又一义是那个可能是真的。 在几何中，"能"〈方〉的含义是变更了的。这里的"能"或"可能"，没有力的含义。 力能是"能"的基本类型；这就是使别一事物动变之源（或使自身动变如使别一事物一样）。其它事物之被称为"能者"，有些是因别事物对它保持有某"能"，或则因为对它没有某"能"，或则只在某一特殊方式上，对它有此"能"。关于事物之"无能者"亦然。所以基本类型的"能"〈潜能〉之正当定义就是使别一事物动变之源（或使自身动变如使别一事物）。 章十三 量〈量元〉的命意是凡事物可区分为二或更多的组成部分，已区分的每一部分，在本性上各是一些个体。——量，如属可计数的，则是一个众〈多少〉，如属可计量的，则是一个度〈大小〉。对那些可能区分为非延续部分的事物而言的为众； 对那些区分为延续部分的事物而言为度。关于大小，那些延续于一向度空间的是长，二向的是阔，三向的是深。这些如众有定限即为数，如长有定限则为线，阔为面，深为立体。 又，有些事物因其本性而称为"量"，有些则因其属性； 例如线之为量由于本性，而文明之为量则由于属性。由于本性而为"量"的，有些得之于本体，例如线（某些本体的定义就含有量元〈每一段线的定义与全线的定义是一样的〉）；有些则得之于本体的某些秉赋与状态，例如多少、长短、阔狭、深浅、重轻以及其它。"大与小"和"较大与较小"，在它们本身和相互间，原本是量性事物的特质，但这些名词也移用到其它事物。由于属性而为"量"的，如"文明"与"白"，因为那具有文明的事物与白色的事物本身具有量性，因而它们也得了量性；有些则是在运动与时间上得其量性，因为运动与时间一类的事物原应是一类量元，凡以运动与时间为属性的总是延续而可区分的。这里我不是指那被运动的事物，而是指那在其中运动的空间；因为空间是一个量元，所以运动亦当是一"量元"；又因为空间是一量元所以时间亦当是一量元。 章十四 "质"〈素质〉的命意（一）是本体的差异，例如人是具有某些素质的动物，因为他是两脚的，马也是具有某些素质的动物，因为它是四脚的；圆是一个具有特质的图形，因为这是没有角的，——这些显示主要差异的就是质。这是质的一义。（二）其第二义应用于数理上的不动变对象，列数各有某些素质，例如不止一向度的组合数，若平面〈两向〉与立体〈三向〉就是二次与三次数的抄本；一般地说数的本体，除其所固有的量性外，还各有素质；每一本体是指那事物之一成不变者，例如六是二的倍数、三的倍数等，这不是六的本体，六之一成为六，而不复变为非六者，才是六的本体。 （三）能动变本体之一切秉赋有所变化（例如冷与热，黑与白，重与轻和其它类此的）而物体也跟着演变者，这些秉赋亦称素质。（四）各种品德之称为"素质"者，通常就指善与恶。 这样，"质"实际有两类含义，其中之一应为本义。 "质"的第一义就是本体的差异，列数的素质就具有这类基本差异，这些差异有关事物的怎是，但这些限于不在动变中，或不作动变论的事物。第二义是事物在动变中所起的质变与动变差异。品德的善恶属于这类；质变为这些动变表明了差异，有些活动良好，有些活动卑劣；在一方向的活动可以成德达善的，在另一相对的方向活动，就堕德济恶了。以善恶为素质的，尤于生物为然，于生物中，尤以有意旨的生物为然。 章十五 事物之"关系"〈相关〉，（一）如倍与半，三倍与三分之一，一般说来，就是那些相互以倍数或分数为函受的事物以及那些相互为超过或被超过的事物；（二）如那些能热的与能受热的事物，那些能剪切的与能被剪切的事物，一般说来，就是主动者与被动者；（三）如计量与可计量的事物，认识与可认识的事物，感觉与可感觉的事物。 （一）第一类的关系辞有因"数与数"及"数与一"的有定或未定的关系而言者，如"倍与一"是已定的数关系，至于说"若干倍大"，虽则也是一个数关系而它与一的关系则未完。说这是某物的一半大，这是一个已定的数关系；说这是某物的ｎ＋１ｎ倍则对另一物是未定的数关系，犹如若干倍大与一的数关系未定一样。那些超过与那些被超过的，在数关系上是未定的；因为数总是可计算的，数不能用来说明不可计算的事物，可是那些超过与被超过的关系只是多了些，或少了些；这多些或少些是未定数；因为从那另一事物的相等数起，凡以上或以下所有不等数都可以说是超过与被超过。所有这些关系，用数来说明，又用数来决定。这些在另一路径上想就是"相等"、"相似"以及"相同"。因为所有的数都以一为比照，凡本体是一的即相同；凡素质是一的即相似；在量上是一的即相等。一者数之始，数之准，所有这些关系虽路径不同，而必有数存于其间。 （二）凡活动的事物相应有一主动或被动的潜能与这些潜能的实现；例如能热与能被热的相关，因为这个"能"使那个热；而这个热与那个被热的相关，以及这个剪切与那个被剪切的相关，是因为它们正在实现着这些事情。但数关系的实现只见于某一特殊意义，这已在别处讲起；在动变的意义上，数并无实现。能的关系，有些是相应于某一段时间的，例如曾经制造的与已被制造的事物，以及将要制造与将被制造的事物之间是有所相关的。一父亲被称为是这一小孩的父亲，就是曾经主动与受动的关系〈即过去的关系〉。又，有些相关辞的涵义指能的褫夺，即"无能"一类的名辟，例如"不能见"。 所以包涵"数"与"能"的关系辞，都是因为它们的本体包涵着别事物的关系，并不是别事物联系上它们的怎是。可是（三）涉及可计量或可认识或可思想的事物之被称为"相关"，则是因为别事物联系到它的怎是。我们说那些可想到的就指有一个思想想到那事物，但这思想与那个因彼而成其为所思想的原物则不必相关；要是那样，我们就得一事物作两回说了。思想是想到某些事物；相似地，视觉是视见某些事物，这并不指那个"因彼而成其为所视见的"（虽则这样说也是真确的）；实际上，这只是与颜色或类此的〈引起视觉的〉关系。若照另一方式来讲，同一事物就得作两回说了，—— "视觉是视见那个被视见的"〈颜色〉。 事物之因它们的本性而被称为"相关"的，有时就如上述这些含义，有时是因为包括它们的科属是一个关系辞，所以它们也成为相关；例如学术是关系辞，因此学术中的一门，医学也成为一个关系名辞。还有些事物因为它们所具有的品质而被称为"相关"，例如相等性是相关的，因为"等"是两事物间的关系，相似性也如此，因为"似"是两事物的关系。 另有些事物因属性而"相关"，例如一人与某物相关，只因他碰巧是某物的一倍，而倍是一个关系辞；又或白之成为一关系辞，只因碰巧那一物既是某物的倍而又是白的。 章十六 凡被称为"完全"的（一）是在这以外，再找不到它的部分，一个零件也找不到；例如每一个事物的"全期"就是说在这时期以外，你再也找不到旁的时间属于此期。（二）是这事物的优越没有可被超过的；例如说我们有一个"完全的"医师，或一个"完全的"笛师，他们精湛于各自的本行，是无以复加的了。转到坏的一方面，我们说一个"完全的"流氓或一个完全的窃贼；有时我们竟也说他们"好"，如"好一个窃贼"，"好一个流氓"。优越是完全；每一事物，每一实质，所擅的形式苟已无复任何自然的缺陷，它们就是"完全的"了。 （三）是事物之已臻至善者，被称为完全，善终即是完全。如将以终为极的意义转到坏的方面说，一事物已被"完全"搞坏了，"完全"毁灭了，就意味着已毁到一点子也不剩。因此辞藻上就以死为终；死与终均为事物的结束。最后目的也是一个终点。——这样，事物在它们的本性上被称为"完全"就是这些含义；有些是因为它们已属全善而无复缺陷，无复遗漏，亦莫能超越；另一些是因为它们优于品级，一切齐备，不待外求；再有些是依于上述两项的"完全"，或持有其义，或分沾其旨，或附丽其事，或联类相及，也因而被称为"完全"。 章十七 限〈定限〉的命意（一）是每一事物的末点，在这一点以外，再不能找到这事物的任何部分，在这一点以内，能找到这事物的每一部分；（二）是占有空间量度各物的外形； （三）是每一事物之终极（极是事物活动之所指向，不是活动之所出发；但有时也可包括两者，〈以始点为初限，终点为末限〉）；（四）是每一事物的本体与其怎是；因为这是认识之定限，既是认识之定限，亦即事物之定限。所以，明显地，"限"有"始"的各义而更有其它含义；"始"是"限"的一端，而每个"限"并不都是"始"。 章十八 "由彼"〈由何〉有几种命意；（一）是每一事物的通式或本体，例如说"人之善也由彼"，这"彼"就是"善"性，（二）是由以找到物性所在的近层，例如颜色由表面上找到。 这样"由彼"的基本含意是事物的通式，次级含义是物质与其切身底层。一般说来"由彼"与"原因"有一样多的含义。 我们常不经意地说（三）"他何所为而来"，或说他"由何"目的而来？以及（四）他"由何"而相涉，或"由何"而误涉？ 或其相涉或误涉的"原因"何在？又（五）"由彼"应用于位置，例如说他"由彼"而立〈他"为了"那个立场站住〉或他"由彼"而行〈他"缘着"那个走〉，所有这些短语都指位置与地点。 因此"由己"也应有相似的几种命意。事物之属于"由己"者如下：（一）每一事物的怎是，例如今日加里亚之为加里亚者"由己"，昔之加里亚亦然；（二）凡"什么"之中，都有"由己"者存在，例如，加里亚之为一动物者必"由己"，因为动物就存在于他自己的定义；加里亚是动物中的一个。 （三）凡事物之任何质性直接得之于己，或部分受之于己皆称"由己"；例如一个表面的白色是"由于自性"发白；一个人活着是"由己"而活着，因为生命所直接寄托的灵魂是人的一个部分。（四）那些事物除了于它自身外，找不到其它缘因的亦称"由己"；一人有多种缘因，——如动物，如两脚动物——但人总是"由己"而为人。（五）一切质性之专属于一事物者，或分离于自性之外而可当作是专属的质性也可称"由己"。 章十九 "安排"的命意是指那些从部分合成的事物，各因其地位、能力、种类而加以安置；各个部分自有其应处的部位，"第亚色茜"（διαθEσιI）这字的原义就是使事物各得其所。 章二十 "有"〈持有过程〉的命意（一）是持有者与其所有物的一种活动，类如一个动作或动变。因为一个制造与一个被制造之间，应有一个"制造过程"；这样在那个有一衣服，与他所有的衣服之间应有一个"希克雪斯"（EξιI）〈持有过程〉。实际上，这一类的"有"显然是不能有的；因为，如果容许这样的"有"，"有"将累进至于无尽。（二）"有"或"固有"〈习惯或常态〉的含义就是安排，从安排来解释，有的安排得好，有的安排得不好，有的作内部安排，有的是依外物为参考而安排；例如健康是一个"常态"，也是如此的一个安排。 （三）假如只是如此安排的一部分，我们也说是一个"希克雪斯"〈常态〉；因为部分的好处亦必为整体所"固有"。