Chapter 18 Chapter 17 Sales Channel Strategy

The sales channel strategy (place) is an important link in the marketing strategy, and it is the place in the 4P, which directly affects the realization of product sales.Products are transferred from producers to end users through certain channels, or through direct transactions between the two, or through marketing intermediaries with different functions.The product sales channel strategy not only affects other marketing decisions and the entire marketing strategy, but also affects the long-term cooperative relationship with other companies. Sales channels, also known as distribution channels, marketing channels or sales channels, generally refer to the entire channel through which products are transferred from manufacturers to final consumers (users), and are the passage through which commodity ownership is transferred from manufacturers to final consumers. organization structure.Sales channels in a broad sense include all enterprises and individuals involved in the production, distribution and consumption of a manufacturer's products, including suppliers, manufacturers, intermediate agents, assistants and end users.The narrow concept only refers to the intermediaries between manufacturers and end users.The manufacturer is the starting point of the sales channel, the final consumer is its end point, and there are intermediaries with different functions in between.They perform their respective functions in order to make products reach business users and final consumers, and work together to effectively meet market needs.

Sales channels are a set of interdependent organizational structures that promote the smooth transfer of products or services to consumers (users) through the market exchange process.It has the following characteristics: (1) The sales channel is a network system that combines a series of interdependent organizations.Its organizational members usually include producers, wholesalers, retailers and consumers, as well as some marketing support agencies, such as transportation companies, independent warehouses, banks, market research companies, advertising companies, etc.These organizations play their own marketing functions to achieve their common goals, cooperate because of common interests, and also have conflicts and conflicts due to different interests and other reasons, which require coordination and management.

(2) The core business of the sales channel is purchase and sale.The product transfers ownership or usage rights through one or more purchases and sales in the channel, and finally flows to customers.The number of purchases and sales determines the channel level and the number of organizations participating in the channel, forming a long or short sales channel.The length of the channel is usually determined by comparative interests. (3) The sales channel is a multifunctional system.It not only needs to give full play to various intelligences such as research, purchase and sale, financing, storage and transportation, and supply products and services at the right place with the right quality, quantity and price to meet the needs of the target market, but also to make long-term marketing efforts through various channels. , to open up markets and stimulate demand.Between systems, in the face of competitive channels, the marketing system also needs to have self-regulation and innovation functions in order to establish more accurate and effective links with market segments.

In the process of sales channel, every time the ownership of the product undergoes a transfer, it constitutes a sales channel level.According to different levels, it can be divided into zero-order, first-order, second-order, third-order and fourth-order channels.According to this, it can also be divided into direct channel and indirect channel, short channel and long channel.The type structure of the channel is shown in Figure 17-1 and Figure 17-2. (1) Zero-order sales channel: manufacturer→consumer.Direct marketing in which a manufacturer sells a product directly to a consumer.Its characteristic is that there is no middleman involved in changing hands.The main methods of direct sales are door-to-door sales, mail order, network direct sales and sales by manufacturers' own agencies.Direct selling is the main way of selling industrial products.Large-scale equipment, professional tools, and industrial products that require specialized services are almost all sold through direct sales channels.With the advent of the network economy, the scale of online sales is getting bigger and bigger, and the zero-level sales channel has become an important channel in the sales channel.The production and consumption of the service industry have the same time and space, which can be regarded as a zero-level sales channel.

(2) The first-order sales channel: manufacturer→retailer→consumer.In consumer goods markets, this intermediary is usually a retailer; in industrial goods markets, it can be an agent or distributor. (3) The second-order sales channel: manufacturer→wholesaler→retailer→consumer.The typical mode of the second-tier channel of consumer goods is resale marketing through wholesale and retail.In the industrial product market, these two middlemen are mostly composed of agents and wholesale distributors. (4) Three-tier sales channels: manufacturer→wholesaler→professional dealer→retailer→consumer.Some daily necessities with a wide consumption range, such as meat products and packaged convenience foods, require a large number of retail agencies to market, many of which are small retailers that are usually not served by large wholesalers.For this reason, it is necessary to add a level of professional distributors between wholesalers and retailers to serve small retailers.

(5) The fourth-order sales channel: manufacturer→national wholesaler→regional wholesaler→retailer→consumer.There are also four-tier and higher-level sales channels, but they are relatively rare. Generally speaking, the more channels there are, the more difficult it is to coordinate and control, which will bring many problems to channel managers.In actual marketing, the level is not so clear, maybe the wholesaler is also engaged in retail business, and the professional dealer directly retails. According to the hierarchical structure of sales, the concept of direct channel, indirect channel, short channel and long channel can be obtained.

The direct channel refers to the type of channel in which the product is directly sold from the producer to the consumer (user) without the participation of an intermediary.Indirect channel refers to the type of channel in which one or more levels of intermediaries participate, and products are sold to consumers by one or more business links.The zero-order channels mentioned above are direct channels; the first-order, second-order, third-order, and fourth-order channels are collectively referred to as indirect channels.For the convenience of analysis and decision-making, some scholars define the first-order channel in the indirect channel as the short channel, and the second-order, third-order, and fourth-order channels as the long channel.Obviously, short channels are more suitable for selling products or services in a small area, while long channels are suitable for selling products or services in a larger range and more segmented markets.

This refers to the number of intermediaries selected in the same link or level of the sales channel to divide the width structure of the channel, the more is wide, and the less is narrow.Whether to choose a wide sales channel or a narrow sales channel depends on the company's strategic goals, product characteristics, market characteristics, and customer dispersion.Generally speaking, the wholesale link is narrow and the retail link is wide.In the retail link, different commodities have different widths, and the width structure of sales channels has the following three types: (1) High-width sales channels.That is, the sales channel formed by the manufacturer through as many wholesalers and retailers as possible to distribute its products.A high-breadth channel often increases market coverage, or enables a product to enter a new market quickly, making it available to a large number of consumers and users anytime, anywhere.Convenience products in consumer products (such as convenience food, beverages, daily necessities, etc.) and industrial products (such as office supplies) generally use high-width channels.

(2) Medium-width sales channels.That is, the sales channel formed by the manufacturer selecting a few similar middlemen to distribute its products according to certain conditions.The medium-breadth channel is usually composed of several middlemen with a relatively complete market, which can effectively maintain the brand reputation of the manufacturer and establish a stable market and competitive advantage.This type of channel is mostly used by manufacturers of optional and special products in consumer goods, spare parts of industrial varieties and so on. (3) Exclusive sales channels.That is, the sales channel formed by the manufacturer choosing only one wholesaler or distributor to distribute its products in a certain regional market.Exclusive sales channels are narrow channels.Exclusive agency (or exclusive distribution) is conducive to controlling the market, strengthening the product image, competing for the cooperation of manufacturers and middlemen, and simplifying management procedures, mostly due to the specificity of its products and markets (such as specialized technology, brand advantages, dedicated users, etc.) adopted by the manufacturer.

The sales channel is a link composed of various complex links. Its main function is to continuously pass products or services from manufacturers to consumers, so as to realize the effective transfer and circulation of goods or services.The middle elements include manufacturers, company offices, wholesalers, retailers, agents, etc.Specifically, sales channels have the following three functions. 1. Concentration and redistribution of products As shown in Figure 17-3, the most direct and primary role of intermediaries is to gather products from manufacturers and repackage, combine, and distribute them according to specific requirements of customers.Not all companies have the ability and resources to sell directly, which is the value and reason for the existence of intermediaries.Even those manufacturers who have the ability to establish their own sales channels can expand their market coverage with the help of middlemen's resources and their highly specialized advantages.

2. Information collection and feedback In the process of product circulation, various intermediaries can obtain information about customers, markets and competitors, collect and organize them and give them back to the company.In fact, distributors and retailers are extremely important sources of information for companies.They are closest to the market and can keep in constant contact with end customers to obtain various information about them.At the same time, many distributors and retailers also sell products from competing manufacturers, which helps them understand how customers really respond to various products. 3. Flow of funds The last important function of the channel is to realize the flow of funds in the channel.This allows the company to ease the financial pressure.Generally speaking, the capital flow function of the sales channel is mainly realized through several methods such as payment, credit, and financing.The specific analysis is as follows: ■Payment: Refers to the payment for goods flowing from the final customer to the company through the sales channel.In the process of product circulation, various, flexible and convenient payment methods are provided due to the existence of middlemen. ■Credit: Distributors and retailers provide the company with important credit.The payment for the purchased product is almost always based on the date of purchase, rather than the time when the product is finally sold. This practice is of great significance to both the company and the upper-level distributors, allowing them to accurately estimate the flow rate of advanced traffic. size. ■Financing: Financing through the efforts and credit of sales channel members expands the source of funds needed for the product circulation process, making the channel rich in funds and facilitating wider product promotion. 1. The role of middlemen to consumers In the traditional consumer market, intermediaries provide various explicit and implicit services to consumers. First of all, it can help consumers search and evaluate, and then consumers can choose suitable retail stores for shopping according to their own judgment and standards.Moreover, intermediaries provide consumers with appropriate services through quality control and product evaluation, such as flea markets, discount stores, specialty stores, and many other retail services.Different types of evaluation and search standard services provided by intermediaries can facilitate consumers' product selection and combination. Second, help locate needs and select appropriate products.Due to information asymmetry, consumers are unlikely to have a lot of knowledge and judgment on products, and middlemen are required to provide value-added services to help consumers make decisions.For example, many hardware sellers, while displaying different hardware, explain relevant knowledge to customers and provide selection opinions based on customer needs and affordability.Therefore, intermediaries not only provide product information, but also need to help customers identify their specific needs. Again, consumer risk can be reduced.Since it is impossible for consumers to know all the information about the products, the purchased products will be different from their own needs. Therefore, in the transaction, consumers face many potential risks. Middlemen can help consumers through their own product expertise and experience. reasonable selection and use of products. Finally, provide product packaging and shipping services.Many intermediaries provide consumers with convenient services and reduce the transportation costs paid by consumers for purchasing products.Obviously, there is a big difference between a supermarket that is only 2 kilometers away from a consumer's home and a supermarket that is 20 kilometers away.The most typical example is FedEx Corporation of the United States, which uses information technology to assist the company to provide customers with fast mail services and become a professional delivery service intermediary. 2. The role of middlemen on producers Intermediaries can help producers obtain and disseminate product information and understand product usage.Manufacturers often rely on a variety of intermediaries including retail stores, catalog mailing companies, and advertising agencies to inform consumers about their products. Intermediaries can also help producers promote sales and influence consumers' purchasing decisions.Middlemen have many ways to influence consumers' buying behavior, such as product placement, advertising, and special discounts.In order to promote their products, producers generally establish a close cooperative relationship with retailers, so that when retailers influence consumers, their products can be in a favorable position. Intermediaries can provide producers with consumer information.Due to direct transactions with consumers, intermediaries have a large amount of data and information such as consumer evaluations and purchases, especially the use of POS systems in the retail industry, allowing retailers to collect a large number of useful information about product purchase behavior and needs. information, which is exactly what producers lack and need. Due to the wide variety of consumers, it is inevitable that fraud and theft will occur. As a professional organization, intermediaries can share such risks for producers, and the transactions between producers and intermediaries have low risks due to the standardization and scale. In addition, intermediaries coordinate the needs of both consumers and producers.When there is a conflict between the needs of consumers and producers, the intermediary must coordinate between the two to make both parties acceptable. For example, producers want to show and introduce their products more, increase product popularity and expand the market; consumers hope Show some of the products you need more, and ignore other products to save the cost of searching.Therefore, intermediaries not only need to reduce transaction costs, but also provide many other additional services and social functions. 1. Integration of channel system The traditional sales channel is a highly loose network combined through temporary contracts.Modern sales channels are gradually developing towards a stable and closely integrated direction, which is mainly manifested in the following forms: (1) Vertical marketing system.The vertical marketing system is a unified combination of producers, wholesalers and retailers.Through the combination of property rights and special agency relationship, an entity with the same market effect target and performance target is formed.The vertical marketing system has become the main marketing system model in the consumer market in the United States, accounting for 70% to 80% of the total consumer market turnover.According to the ownership relationship and control degree among its members, it can be divided into three types, specifically: one is the corporate vertical marketing system, that is, a company combines production and distribution under a single ownership, and the owner can be a large industry. companies or large retail companies.For example, Sears, which is famous for its retail industry in the United States, 50% of its supply comes from the production enterprises in which the company holds shares.The second is the management vertical marketing system, which is a marketing system with stable and cooperative relations organized and established by enterprises with strength, scale and brand advantages.Companies such as Kodak, Gillette, Procter & Gamble, etc. can obtain active cooperation from distributors in terms of product display, shelf space and promotion.The third is the contractual vertical marketing system, which refers to a contract-based marketing system formed by enterprises with independent property rights at different levels of production and distribution.Including voluntary chain organizations initiated by wholesalers, retailer cooperative organizations, and franchise organizations. (2) Horizontal marketing system.It refers to a marketing system in which two or more companies jointly develop marketing opportunities and jointly undertake through horizontal alliances. (3) Multi-channel marketing system.Multi-channel retail organizations are also called commercial syndicates. This kind of marketing system has both cooperation and competition, which can expand the market share of enterprises. 2. Digitization and networking of the channel system With the high development of computer information technology, especially with the popularization of Internet applications, e-commerce has become the main way of human trade activities in the 21st century.The rapid development of e-commerce has brought global trade and marketing into a new era, that is, the era of network marketing where "there is no order without EDI (Electronic Data Interchange)".Enterprises must make use of and adapt to the technological advantages, information advantages and network advantages provided by the era of knowledge economy to realize a fundamental change in the way of trade. The departments are closely combined to jointly engage in e-commerce under the network environment. 3. "Direct channel" based on network technology E-commerce includes both business-to-business trade and business-to-consumer trade.With the popularization of various modern communication facilities, especially the increasing number of residents with computers and Internet access, the "direct channel" that directly connects producers and consumers through various electronic media will increasingly become an important part of the channel model. main body.This change in the channel model not only brings opportunities for the development of production enterprises, but also brings convenience for consumers to shop.While transforming the original channels, enterprises are accelerating the construction of "direct channels" based on network technology and characterized by cross-time and space, interactive, anthropomorphic, and high-efficiency, so as to adapt to the fast, convenient and rich experience of end consumers. individual consumer needs. The emergence of "direct channels" has undoubtedly weakened the status and role of middlemen. Sales channels are composed of various intermediary organizations, among which the most basic and traditional intermediaries are wholesalers, retailers and agents.It is very important to understand the operating characteristics of these three types of intermediary organizations to determine the overall marketing strategy. Wholesalers are the intermediate links at the starting point of commercial circulation.Wholesalers purchase goods from manufacturers and resell them to other wholesalers, retailers, industrial users, or various non-profit organizations. 1. Characteristics of Wholesalers Compared with retailers, wholesalers have the following characteristics: (1) Wholesale business is mainly for bulk purchases and sales, with a large business volume and a large market area covered by the business. (2) Since the wholesaler does not directly face individual consumers, it is not very important whether the wholesaler is located close to the commercial center, but the convenient transportation and communication conditions are more important. (3) The customers of wholesalers belong to the industrial market, so the promotion methods of wholesalers mainly rely on sales promotion by personnel, and rarely advertise. (4) Wholesalers usually sell competing products of several similar companies within their exclusive product lines, including high, medium and low-end products of all national brands, manufacturers and imported brands.Generally speaking, a manufacturing company cannot expect a wholesaler to specialize in the products of a certain company. 2. Types of Wholesalers Wholesalers can be classified from different angles. Classified according to the scope of business: (1) General merchandise wholesalers.It operates a wide range of commodities, including textiles, stationery, hardware, small electrical appliances, washing products, and cosmetics.The wholesalers are mainly small department stores, grocery stores, hardware stores, and small electrical appliances stores, and are the wholesalers closest to retailers. (2) Wholesalers of major commodities.This type of wholesaler specializes in a certain category of commodities, and operates a complete range of designs, varieties, brands, and specifications of such commodities, such as wholesalers of sugar and wine and textiles. (3) Professional wholesalers.This type of wholesaler has a high degree of specialization and specializes in a certain variety of a certain type of commodity.This type of wholesaler is closest to the production enterprise, and is the first wholesaler of a single variety of bulk goods.They gather similar products from different enterprises, and then wholesale them according to the needs of customers in different regions.Although the range of commodities they operate is single, the scope of business activities and market coverage are large, and they are usually national or even world-class wholesalers.Such as oil, timber, grain wholesalers. According to the functions undertaken and the number of services provided, they can be divided into two categories: (1) Fully functional wholesaler.That is to say, it is not only engaged in the purchase and sale of commodities, but also undertakes the transportation, storage and distribution of commodities, and also provides financing activities to manufacturers or retailers. (2) Wholesalers with limited functions.In order to reduce the occupation of operating funds and reduce risks, this type of wholesaler only undertakes part of the functions of a typical wholesaler.There are underwriting wholesalers who first receive orders from customers and then order from the manufacturer; there are cash-order wholesalers who pick up and pick up the goods at the customer's door and settle in cash; there are also shelves that are directly set up in retail stores to manage delivery, shelving, and holding. Shelf wholesalers for inventory and financing, etc. In addition, according to the geographical scope of business, there are wholesalers engaged in international trade import and export, national wholesalers engaged in commodity wholesale business nationwide, and regional wholesalers engaged in local wholesale transactions. 3. Selection of wholesalers When selecting wholesalers, manufacturers should formulate selection criteria for wholesalers based on their own product characteristics, market distribution scope, and financial status. (1) It is necessary to consider whether the geographical distribution area of ​​the wholesaler's business scope is consistent with the target area of ​​the enterprise.When most companies launch a certain product, they first sell successfully in a limited market, so they should choose regional wholesalers rather than national wholesalers. (2) It is necessary to consider whether the scope of commodities operated by wholesalers and the distribution of customer groups are consistent with the target customers of the company's products.For example, ordinary shampoo manufacturers choose general commodity wholesalers because their customers are widely distributed, and they are convenience products that can be sold in small department stores or supermarkets; high-end shampoo manufacturers with special effects choose professional wholesalers. (3) The marketing capabilities of wholesalers should be considered.It mainly refers to whether the wholesaler has a wide range of business contacts, whether the quality of personnel is high, whether the sales promotion ability is strong, and whether the business scale is large. These factors determine the realization of the value of the product. (4) The ability of wholesalers to grasp and feedback market information should be considered.Manufacturers usually do not directly contact end users, but they need information feedback from users to adjust product and marketing strategy combinations. Therefore, enterprises tend to prefer wholesalers who have professional market supply and demand information and customer feedback information. (5) The cooperative spirit and ability of wholesalers.Manufacturers always hope to choose wholesalers who are willing to cooperate as sales channels. The essential difference between agents and brokers and commercial wholesalers is that they do not have ownership of the goods. They are only acting as a bridge between buyers and sellers, signing contracts on behalf of one party, and for the purpose of earning commissions, so they are also called intermediary merchants. The business scope of agents is generally narrow and highly professional. The function they undertake is to assist in the transfer of commodity ownership, and does not involve the physical distribution, financing, risk-taking and other functions undertaken by commercial wholesalers.However, agents rely on their professional market and commodity knowledge, extensive customer contacts in the industry, the ability to quickly obtain information, and strong negotiation and sales capabilities, which are needed by the society and also by enterprises to develop markets. 1. Broker A broker is a matchmaker between buyers and sellers, or assists in negotiations between the two parties, and charges a commission from the second party who hires them.In Western countries, commodity brokers mainly deal in food and agricultural products.The production and sales of agricultural products and food are seasonal, and farmers and small commodity manufacturers have limited production scale, so it is not worth having their own sales force, so commodity brokers are a more suitable choice. 2. Agents of manufacturing companies The agent of the manufacturing company is also called the manufacturer's representative. The main task is to sell products for the contracted manufacturer, and usually has no right to decide the transaction conditions and prices.They usually sign contracts with two or more manufacturers that produce complementary products in the sales area allocated by the manufacturers, and promote products for the manufacturers according to the price policy, order processing procedures and various guarantees agreed with the manufacturers.It can be seen that the manufacturer's agent is more like its salesman. According to whether they enjoy exclusive franchise rights in the agreed area, they can be divided into exclusive agents (who enjoy exclusive agency rights for certain products within a certain period of time in the agreed area), general agents (who do not enjoy exclusive exclusive rights, and the principal entrusts them in the same area) Multiple agents, you can also sell directly yourself). The manufacturer's agent is mainly applicable to the following situations: (1) Small businesses, new businesses or corporate products are very limited, and they do not have the strength to hire field salespeople. (2) When a large enterprise develops a new regional market, due to many uncertain factors, it can generally hire an agent first, and then send its own salesperson or set up a sales office after the market is opened up.If the number of potential buyers is limited, you can still entrust an agent to promote. 3. Sales agent Sales agents are usually authorized to sell all the products of the manufacturer, and have a great influence on the transaction conditions and sales prices. The scope of their sales and promotion is generally not restricted by region. Generally, a manufacturer can only use one sales agent and not Commission another agency or set up a sales agency yourself.The use of an agent by the manufacturer actually entrusts all marketing work to the sales agent, who becomes the sole agent for the product.Enterprises generally seek sales agents when they need to concentrate on solving production and technical problems, or when they feel that their marketing capabilities are limited.Sales agents are usually large in scale, not only responsible for sales promotion, but also responsible for advertising and promotion, participating in domestic and foreign exhibitions, investigating changes in market demand, and making suggestions to manufacturers on product design, style, and pricing. 4. Purchasing agent Purchasing agents purchase, receive, inspect, store and deliver goods for the client according to the agreement.For example, apparel markets often have a large number of resident buyers who specialize in sourcing marketable apparel products for retailers in smaller cities. 5. Commission merchant Commission merchants are mostly engaged in consignment sales of fresh agricultural products in Europe. They have their own storage space and warehouses in the wholesale market, they can replace the client to store and keep the goods, and have the responsibility to replace the client to find potential customers, and use better price facilitates the transaction. 6. Import and export agents Import and export agents specialize in finding sources of supply and demand from abroad or selling products to foreign countries on behalf of clients. 7. Trustee A trustee is a legal entity that accepts entrustment from others, buys, sells or consigns items in its own name, and obtains remuneration.The specific forms generally include trust companies, consignment stores (accept customers’ entrustment in the form of consignment, and handle transfer and sale on behalf of them, mainly durable consumer trusts), trade warehouses (acting as an agent between transactions, that is, buying and selling on behalf of customers, purchasing on behalf of customers, and selling on behalf of customers, and at the same time It also has other service functions, such as storage, transportation), auction house. Retailers are composed of enterprises and individuals engaged in retail operations. They directly face the individual consumer market and are the export of sales channels and the last link in commodity circulation.The customers that retailers face are very scattered, and their business forms are also very diverse. Before the reform and opening up, my country's retailers can be divided into department stores, specialty stores, non-staple food and grocery stores scattered in residential areas according to the scope of commodity business. After the 1980s, a large number of major retail business forms from western countries were introduced and combined with our country's original retail business forms. 1. Department store A department store is composed of multiple commodity departments, and deals in a wide variety and wide range of commodities.Traditional department stores mainly deal in high-end soft goods, such as clothing, textiles, and cosmetics, and later added hard goods such as hardware, furniture, sporting goods, and household appliances. Department stores are generally large in scale, with a complete range of designs and colors for each major category of merchandise, gorgeous interior decoration, and particular attention to merchandise display and window layout.Department stores generally have more sales assistants who can provide commodity consultation and provide a wide range of services. When a manufacturer chooses a department store as a sales channel, it first examines whether the image of the department store in the minds of local consumers is consistent with the image of the company's products.Secondly, it is necessary to examine the variety of goods sold in the department store, customer situation, facilities, appearance, quality of employees and location. 2. General store General stores are essentially small-scale department stores, but there are fewer varieties of commodities in each category, lower grades, and fewer service items provided. 3. Discount stores Discount store is a retail method developed after World War II, and its outstanding feature is to sell a large number of goods at a much cheaper price than general stores.In order to achieve the goal of low prices, discount stores adopt the following measures: chain operation, location away from urban areas, simple decoration, and self-service shopping.In recent years, due to fierce competition, discount stores have expanded their business scope, provided more services, and developed into professional stores. 4. Specialty stores The specialty store is characterized by operating a single category, with a complete range of designs, colors, varieties and specifications. 5. Convenience store Convenience stores are small stores close to residential areas.The business hours are long, mainly selling fast-moving goods and services such as convenience goods and emergency supplies.In recent years, it has expanded rapidly in the form of franchising. 6. Supermarket A supermarket is a general food retail store.Supermarkets create a consumer self-service retail operation mode, and are characterized by large-scale, fast turnover, low price, and low cost. The development trend of supermarkets now is to have larger areas and more varieties, and to expand to other industries such as sports equipment, pharmacies, toys, etc. 7. Warehouse store or wholesale club The biggest feature of warehouse stores is that they are sold in packages, and the markup rate is lower.Warehouse stores encourage bulk shopping, targeting both individuals and small retailers. Non-store retailing is a retail method that has developed rapidly in western countries in recent years. Some people predict that in the 21st century, non-store retailing will account for 1/3 of the total retail sales. 1. door-to-door sales A door-to-door sales pitch is when a marketer goes door-to-door, door-to-door, office-to-office, or holds a home sales meeting.For example, the Avon company in the cosmetics market is a model.Its characteristic is to use friends, neighbors, relatives and other relationships to reduce resistance, increase affinity, and use non-professional salesmen to sell in their spare time. 2. Vending machines Vending machines are now widely used to sell beverages, newspapers, candies, cigarettes, etc.Its biggest advantage is convenience, 24-hour work, and wide distribution, but the machinery and equipment are expensive and may be damaged, making it inconvenient to return. 3. Direct marketing Direct marketing is a marketing system that uses the interaction of one or more advertising media in order to generate measurable responses and agreements anywhere.In short, it refers to the use of various media to promote products to consumers, transmit information, and then give order replies through the Internet, telephone, or letters, and the ordered goods are delivered to customers by mail, and payment is made by credit card or check.The "direct" of direct and compound marketing means that consumers can directly respond to the promotional effects of operators, and they can order goods immediately when they want to buy goods.Direct marketing generally uses the Internet, radio, television, telephone and other media to implement promotions to consumers.Marketing methods include sending online marketing, mailing advertisements, mailing catalogs, telemarketing, TV marketing, etc. 4. Mail Order Catalogs Consumers can now buy almost anything from mail order, from the ubiquitous books, music and polo shirts, to the myriad of London taxis, English country estates or diamond-encrusted bras.About 13 billion catalogs are mailed out in the United States every year. According to this figure, every man, woman and child in the United States will receive an average of 51 catalogs.Typically, a household receives a new mail-order catalog every four to five days. 5. Telemarketing Telemarketing is the use of telephone to sell goods directly to consumers.It includes outgoing sales calls as well as incoming calls, which are 800 toll-free or 900 pay calls. Outgoing telemarketing is an attractive direct marketing technique because postage rates continue to increase, while long-distance rates continue to decrease.In addition, the continuous increase in the cost of sales has also forced marketing managers to start using telemarketing practices.While the marketing manager is looking for ways to control costs, he also pays attention to how to quickly find potential customer groups, not to talk too much with too serious buyers, and to maintain a close and friendly relationship with regular buyers.At the same time, they will also have a relatively long telephone communication for the performance of the upcoming transaction. Many consumers find this type of telemarketing to be quite intrusive, and they resent receiving chattering calls at inappropriate times for everything from magazines to aluminum extrusions.If the call was computer voice, consumers would be even angrier.Despite the dismal image of telemarketing, dial-out telemarketing has become an extremely sophisticated business.Especially since advanced technology allows telemarketing companies to have greater precision in finding potential customers and sales leads. In the dial-in telemarketing campaign, the 800 or 900 number used is mainly used as an ordering line, providing customer service, and looking for sales leads in it.Dial-in 800 telemarketing has worked successfully with instant call back campaigns on TV, radio and print for 25 years.But recently, the 900 number, which consumers have to pay for, has become more and more popular with marketing companies, because this method allows companies to find their own target customer groups while saving costs.One of the benefits of a 900 pay call is that it allows marketers to find qualified callers.Although the payment method will reduce the overall call volume, the incoming calls are often customers who are really interested in the product. 6. E-retail E-retailing includes 24-hour home shopping TV networks and online shopping via computers. 尽管电子零售业务的利润空间还不尽如人意，却并未因此而影响到传统零售商将业务向在线空间迁移的热情，许多传统零售商，尤其是曾尝试过邮购业务运营的商家，仍对在线业务趋之若鹜。 因为对传统零售商而言，电子零售吸引他们的并非仅仅限于此前被大肆渲染的虚幻的高额利润，更重要的是网络为传统零售商提供了摆脱时空限制、实现与客户更好交流、并为其提供更理想的购物服务渠道。在这方面，电子零售无疑有着传统零售无从比拟的巨大优势。 另外，电子零售模式的出现有助于商家借助价格优势吸引更多客户，因为在线购物用户可以很方便地通过鼠标点击，比较不同商家同类商品的价格。 7.电视购物 电视购物是直接回应营销中很特殊的一种形式。这些节目会展示商品，收视者可拨免付费电话直接向厂商以信用卡的方式订货。随着忠诚顾客群的扩大，电视购物已快速成长为数十亿美元的消费市场了。事实上，电视购物可以将销售讯息传达到拥有电视机的每一户家庭里。 这些业者预见到家庭购物电视网将会在未来的互动式和多重媒体服务中，扮演一个非常重要的角色。而未来的家庭购物服务也会把消费者的电视转变成一台智慧型的电脑和现金收银机，可让消费者从中观赏付费电影和体育节目、进行电视购物以及其他类似活动。事实上，美国佛罗里达州的收视用户现在已经可以从电视上浏览某一家超级市场2万种以上的商品目录，以及某药房所卖的7500种药品项目。只要使用遥控器，就可以轮替观赏这些商品，找出其中的指示用法或了解其中的成分。 8.互联网网上购物 网上零售就是以个人电脑上网浏览购物网站、网上购物，这样一种双向互动式的服务。它可为顾客提供各式各样的资讯，包括新闻、天气、证券资讯、运动消息和购物新知等。使用者通常可以每月付费的方式，“订阅”这些资讯，并得到购物上的服务。他们经由电脑“进入”网上服务中；或者，零售商也可以开发并配销自己的商品目录光碟，专门用于个人电脑上。举例来说，史宾吉尔公司就希望能改变电子购物的外貌，以全新的光碟目录来诱导女性购物者上门。 奇才、电脑服务、吉尼和美国在线就是最受欢迎的几家电子购物资讯网站。用户可通过各商家的网上服务，浏览到手册、目录和其他套装资料的广告宣传品，购物者还可以查询到更多的相关资讯或直接订购该商品。举例来说，想要购买儿童自行车的家庭，可以在电脑上看到他们所要购买的自行车款式，然后找到能提供最优惠价格的厂商。一旦决定之后，他们就可以使用电脑将讯息传送给该零售商，然后再以电子传输方式，从自己的银行账户付款给零售商。最后，零售商再以快递服务将自行车送到买主家中。 尽管在便利性方面的潜力无穷，网上购物还是有它的问题存在。其中最大的问题就是参加网上服务的人数并不太多，而参加者往往并不是典型的购物者。大多数的使用者都是男性，可是一般来说，购物支出仍是以女性为主。 除此之外，对大多数的美国家庭来说，购物是一种有趣的活动，而电脑却不是那么的有趣。但是，现在有许多商家也正朝着这个方向努力当中。PC花卉就是奇才服务站里头规模最大的全国性花店。网上订花服务对网上的使用人口来说是再适合不过了，因为买花的人口大多集中于男性身上。 对于通过零售方式推销产品的企业来说，除了了解零售经营形式外，还应了解零售企业的战略选择特点和未来发展趋势。 1.零售企业的战略组合 销售比较独特的商品和位居最好的商业地段远远不是现代零售商经营战略的全部，这是因为，大规模和集中化的生产，交通的发达便利，使得各个商店经营的商品种类、品牌突破了地域限制，相差无几，同时商业繁华区的概念也日趋模糊。现代零售商的经营决策实际上已成为一个多方位因素的组合，并力求组合中凸显自己的特色。 零售战略组合的因素主要有：目标顾客(区域、收入水平)、经营商品品种的宽深度、商品品质的高低、为顾客提供服务(完全服务或顾客自我服务)、购物环境、促销与广告、商品订价(高加价低销量或者低加价高销量)、地点选择(地点的位置、网点数量)。 确定战略组合后，进一步是制定差异化策略，包括产品差异化、服务差异化。例如，有些企业经营全国性品牌为主，有些经营自有品牌；除了售前、售后服务，还提供各种附加的特色服务如免费停车、分期付款等。 2.现代零售业的发展 现代零售业的发展呈现以下主要趋势： 在组织管理上，传统的独立零售商日益被连锁经营和特许经营所代替。 新的零售方式不断出现，由于竞争的加剧，每一种经营形式生命周期越来越短。 经营战略相互渗透，经营范围突破传统范围。如超市经营处方药，百货店经营超市和汽车零配件。 在顾客购物方式上，不断倾向于自我服务、开架售货。这要求制造企业增加广告并改进包装，以便于消费者认识和挑选商品。 存货管理和售货管理计算机化、商品条码化，实行了科学管理，提高了经营效率。 零售企业品牌迅速发展。使用自己品牌的零售商对生产商实际上已形成竞争的关系，制造商在利用零售商销售产品时，应对使用谁的商品品牌作出决策。 总之，对生产企业来说，尤其是那些以消费者为目标的企业，了解中间商的分类，其各自不同的经营特色及未来发展趋势，对组建自己的销售网络系统是十分必要的。 传统中间商大多是独立、分散的，而现代营销网络是由系统化、集团化的大集团组织构成，它们的代表形式有连锁商店、特许经营、购物中心和制造商的销售公司。本节主要介绍连锁商店、特许经营，这两种形式的中间商在西方销售体系中已占主导地位，在我国的发展也比较迅猛。 连锁商店是由同一公司所有并统一经营管理，包括两个或以上的商店。这些商店有相类似的商品大类，实行集中采购和销售，甚至有相似的建筑风格和标志。在世界零售行业中排名第一的美国沃尔玛公司，在全美有3000多家连锁店，在世界其他各地的连锁店有近2000家。 真正意义的连锁商店是由单一资本经营，是一个权力集中的大资本，对企业的各方面实行高度统一的管理，包括采购、人事、财务、广告、定价，分店只负责组织分店的销售和提供服务。在实际发展中还有其他形式，如自愿连锁和特许连锁。自愿连锁是由批发企业牵头，成员在保持资本独立前提下自愿组织的零售集团，成员店在资产上独立，人事上自主，在经营上也有很大的自主权，但所经营的商品必须大部分或全部从总部或同盟的批发企业进货。特许连锁是由企业将自己开发的商品、服务、营销技巧，以特许形式授予加盟店在规定的区域内的经销权，加盟店则需交纳一定的营业使用费。关于特许形式以下还有详述。 连锁商店的优势在于以下方面： (1)销售规模大，可大量进货，充分利用数量折扣和较低的单位定价和运输成本。 (2)集中管理，连锁公司内部实行专业分工，雇佣优秀专业人员，在总体策划、存货、配送、定价、促销等决策方面实行科学管理。 (3)结合批发与零售功能，尽可能直接对国内外制造商订货。 (4)统一做广告，可使各分店均受益，费用分摊后，达到促销的经济有效，同时还可以利用自己的声誉扩展市场。 (5)连锁经营将分散的盈利集中使用，投资于设施和管理的现代化，如建立现代化的配送中心、信息中心，租用通信卫星网的线路。 (6)各分店可以有一定的自由，如商品构成的地方特色，一定幅度的灵活定价。 总之，连锁商店的优势来源于它的规模。它突破了传统零售商业因顾客和市场分散而单店规模发展的局限，通过集中达到规模。规模不但带来强大的讨价还价能力，从而可以压低进价成本，而且获取经营中的规模效益，如设备的现代化、人员的分工、费用的分摊等。 连锁商店的巨大采购与销售能力和规划的管理，特别适合大型、成熟的制造商，尤其是产品相对标准化而销售面较广的企业，两者之间甚至可通过计算机网络实现自行订货。中小企业也可以利用连锁商店的品牌扩展市场，同时连锁店在熟悉消费者的需求基础上，自行确定产品的设计、品质、价格和数量，按计划组织中小生产企业进行生产，然后收购。对农业生产者来说，连锁店强大的食品销售能力，可以加快生鲜易腐农业、畜牧业、渔业产品的周转，减少损耗，扩大销售。 连锁商店在我国的发展大致从20世纪90年代初开始，此后得到迅猛发展。现有连锁商店的经营形式主要有超级市场、方便店、百货商店、平价商店(类似折扣商店)、餐饮店、专卖店和服务行业的干洗、彩扩、维修等连锁店。连锁经营可通过科学化、规范化、集中化管理，提高我国商业、服务业的管理水平和经营效率。此外，发展连锁业也是一条使我国分散的中小商业形成规模经济的道路。对制造企业来说，认清这一发展趋势，开发适合连锁经营方式的商品，与连锁商业集团建立稳定的供货关系，将有助于为本企业产品建立有效的销售渠道。 特许经营是广义连锁经营的一种，但又有所区别。特许经营是指特许授予人与被特许授予人之间通过协议授予受许人使用特许人已经开发出来的品牌、商号、经营技术或经营模式的权利。为此，受许人必须先付一笔首期特许费，此后每年按销售收入的一定百分比支付特许费。受许人一般是零售商，特许人可以是制造商、批发商、服务公司。特许经营涉及的行业很多，包括汽车经销商、加油站、餐饮业等。 特许经营是当今零售和服务行业最具有潜力和效率的经营组织方式，特别适合那些规模小且分散的零售和服务业。 与其他的经营方式相比，特许经营的独特之处在于：特许经营系统的核心是特许权的转让，特许人与被特许人之间关系由协议规定，但人事财务是独立的，双方没有代理或隶属关系，各受许人之间相互独立没有横向联系；特许人在特许期间向受许人提供必要的信息、技术、知识、培训，受许人在特定的期间、特定的区域享有特许人商号、产品和经营技术权利，同时须按协议规定从事经营活动并交纳管理费。 特许经营可分两种类型： 第一种是产品和商标特许经营。在这种形式中，特许人通常是制造商，同意授权受许人对特许产品进行商业开发。在美国最典型的是汽车制造商，石油公司授权的加油站，以及可口可乐等饮料公司。 第二种是经营模式特许经营。这种形式的特许人与受许人之间的关系更为密切，受许人不仅被授权使用特许人的商号，还有全套的经营方式的指导和帮助，包括商店选址、产品和职务的质量控制，人员培训、广告、财务系统和商品供应等。这种特许经营形式常见于餐馆、旅店、洗衣店及照片冲洗等，麦当劳是这一模式最成功的例子。 特许经营对特许人来说有以下好处： (1)以较小资本便可获得业务的较大扩张，自己不必维持庞大的管理机构，承担的风险较小。 (2)受许人是自己企业的所有者，因而能更投入地经营，而且作为当地人能熟知当地的兴趣偏好，这有利于特许人事业的发展。 (3)通过协议，特许人可要求受许人遵守有关经营规定，保证服务质量。 另一方面，特许人面临的风险是： (1)若受许人未按合同规定严格保证服务和产品的质量标准，特许人的商誉会受到影响。 (2)由于两者独立的利益关系，从而产生摩擦，这要求特许人必须善于处理人际关系。 (3)受许人可能会隐瞒销售收入以减少支付特许费。 (4)成功的受许人可能产生独立的想法，成为以后的竞争对手。 对受许人来说，他可以从特许经销关系中得到以下好处：在自己独立经营的同时得到经营方面的知识、经验和关系，享受已有品牌及相应的广告宣传所带来的利润，并得到特许人在专业方面的指导、培训采购等服务，这些对新企业尤为重要。受许人面临的潜在问题是：同一地区受许人之间的竞争，特许人由于扩张太快而服务、产品供应能力和促销跟不上，或者受许人有时会感到特许人的干预太多，无法发挥自己的才能。 从整体来看，特许经营主要适合小企业和市场分散的服务业。对小私人资本来说，特许经营减少了独立开业的失败风险；对市场分散的服务业，一家具有良好商誉和经营技术的企业要接近尽可能广的消费者，特许经营是最快捷也是最经济的方法。 对消费者来说，特许经营可使特许人的优质产品或服务更容易得到，并使产品的标准、质量得到保证。如美国麦当劳的汉堡包，中国东来顺的涮羊肉、全聚德的北京烤鸭。 制造企业的销售分支机构是与制造企业内的生产经营部门相对独立的销售组织，它承担实际的分销职能。当企业决定不采用或仅部分利用中间商时，企业的销售分支机构就要负责完成中间商的职能。 随着制造企业的规模越来越大，以及竞争的激化，自组销售网络及承担分销职能呈上升趋势，尤其在批发领域。 早在20世纪70年代中期，美国制造业的销售分支机构完成的批发销售额在总批发销售中所占比例就已高达36%，且经营效率较独立的批发商高得多。原因在于制造企业的销售分支机构所从事的批发业务直接与生产相连，减少中间环节，并且通过在企业内部协调生产与销售获得到效益。 一般而言，产业用户市场上的那些专业性较强的产品，如生产设备、原材料、零配件，由于用户集中于某些行业和地区，生产企业自组销售难度不大。 在制造业所处行业竞争相对集中，企业规模庞大的情况下，即使是面对个人消费者市场，采取自组分销系统的情况也较多，因为制造企业可以利用自己垄断性的地位，寻求通过自组分销网加强对最终市场的控制，加强与竞争对手的对抗，并有效协调生产与销售各环节的矛盾。 销售渠道的确定会影响企业营销策略组合的其他方面，而且渠道一经确定，本企业与其他企业的关系在相当长的时间里就基本确定下来。不仅如此，中间商的加入使企业对市场的控制有较大的影响，相关企业之间的利益冲突也可能形成销售渠道之间的摩擦。因此，企业在选择销售渠道时应充分考虑各种因素的影响，以作出合理的决策。影响销售渠道选择的因素有以下几方面。 1.产品的特征 产品的特征包括产品的单价、技术服务标准、物理特性、自然属性、时尚性、是否是新产品等。单价高的产品一般由企业的推销员销售，较少通过中间商，因为高价带来的高利润足以弥补直接销售的费用。技术服务难度大的产品可选择短而窄的渠道，满足市场对推销人员的技术要求。体积大、重量大的产品适合采用短的销售渠道，避免重复装卸搬运造成物流成本增加。易损易腐的商品要求直接的销售，以减少损失。款式、花色变化快的流行商品需选择短而宽的销售渠道，利用较多的中间商迅速占领市场，力争在流行期内及时售出。非标准化的产品需由顾客直接定制或特制的产品，要由企业的销售代表直接销售。新产品的上市更需要生产企业的自行促销。 2.中间商的特征 选择与设计销售渠道时，应当根据渠道销售中介机构在目标顾客、销售能力和成绩、促销能力、声誉、市场覆盖、经理素质、物流状况和营销成本等方面的不同，扬其长、避其短，组建成科学实用的销售渠道组合。 (1)中间商的不同对生产企业分销渠道的影响。例如，汽车收音机厂家考虑分销渠道时其选择方案有以下几种：与汽车厂家签订独家合同，要求汽车厂家只安装该品牌的收音机；借助通常使用的渠道，要求批发商将收音机转卖给零售商；寻找一些愿意经销其品牌的汽车经销商；在加油站设立汽车收音机装配站，直接销售给汽车使用者，并与当地电台协商，为其推销产品并付给相应的佣金。 (2)中间商不同数目的影响。按中间商的数目的多少的不同的情况，可选择密集式分销、选择性分销和独家分销。 □密集式分销，指生产企业同时选择较多的经销代理商销售产品。一般来说，日用品多采用这种分销形式。工业品中的一般原材料，小工具，标准件等也可用此分销形式。 □选择性分销，指在同一目标市场上，选择一个以上的中间商销售企业产品，而不是选择所有愿意经销本企业产品的所有中间商。这有利于提高企业经营效益。一般说，消费品中的选购品和特殊品，工业品中的零配件宜采用此分销形式。 □独家分销，指企业在某一目标市场，在一定时间内，只选择一个中间商销售本企业的产品，双方签订合同，规定中间商不得经营竞争者的产品，制造商则只对选定的经销商供货，一般说，此分销形式适用于消费品中的家用电器，工业品中专用机械设备，这种形式有利于双方协作，以便更好地控制市场。 3.竞争特征 选择销售渠道时必然会受到竞争者使用渠道的制约，企业必须根据不同的策略，有时与对手争夺现有渠道，有时避开竞争，改变销售方式，采用不同层次的销售渠道。如果本企业在竞争中处于领先位置，其销售渠道的设计一般从继续扩大市场占有和降低销售渠道费用出发，提高利润。在寡头竞争条件下，由于实力雄厚，发展自己直接控制的销售渠道是十分普遍的。行业竞争的方式同样影响渠道的选择。价格竞争为主的行业，必须选择费用最低的销售渠道。在以产品差异、服务差异、广告诱导等非价格竞争为主的行业中，要求营销网络成员完善自身功能。 4.顾客特征 顾客的购买习惯、市场分布状况、市场需求容量的大小都制约销售渠道的选择。购买量小、购买次数多的商品需要较长的渠道，以降低少量频繁订货的成本。目标市场集中则可选择较短的销售渠道。市场容量大、潜在购买者多的商品，可以选择较长的销售渠道，通过中间商扩大销售量。 5.企业自身的条件 企业自身的规模和实力决定了它的市场销售渠道策略。企业生产能力强、资金雄厚，选择销售渠道的余地相对较大。企业的产品组合宽度大，则直接销售的能力就越大。产品组合越深，就更倾向于采用独家经销或选择较少的中间商。产品组合的关联度大，一般采用相似的销售渠道。企业的