Chapter 17 Chapter 16 Pricing Strategy and Price Management

Price is one of the most important decisions of the company's operators. It is the only factor in the marketing mix that provides benefits for the company, and it is an important means in market competition.For the most part, price has been the primary determinant of buyer choice when it comes to commodity-type products.Whether the pricing is appropriate will be directly related to the sales volume of the product and the profit of the company.Enterprises should adapt to market changes and formulate product prices flexibly.Determining reasonable pricing and pricing strategies is a major issue of practical significance that all types of company operators are facing.

In the marketing mix, price is the only factor that can create revenue in the marketing mix, and other factors are expressed as costs.Price is the most easily adjusted marketing mix factor, and it is also the link between the desired price of an enterprise or product or brand and the market.Price is usually a key factor in marketing product sales and one of the decisive factors for marketing success.First of all, we must figure out the connotation and composition of the price. In the narrowest sense, price is the price tag for a product or service; in the broadest sense, price is the value of the product or service that consumers receive in exchange.Historically, prices have been determined through negotiations between buyers and sellers.Price is not a number or a term, it can appear in many names, it can be roughly divided into two categories: commodity price and service price.Commodity prices are the prices of various tangible and intangible products. Commodity prices in goods trade are called prices; service prices are charges for various paid services. Commodity prices in service trade are called fees, such as transportation fees or transportation fees, Insurance premiums, interest, tuition, service fees, rent, special charges, bribes, salaries, commissions, wages, etc.

Commodity price formation elements and their combination, also known as price composition.It reflects the compensation for material consumption of goods in the process of production and circulation, as well as the distribution of newly created value.Although the links of commodities in the market are different, and the elements that constitute prices are also different, but all commodity prices are composed of four parts: production costs, circulation costs, taxes and profits. Price = production cost + circulation cost + tax + profit 1. Content and classification of production cost Production cost refers to the sum of material expenses and labor compensation paid by an enterprise to produce a certain amount of a commodity.All expenses related to the above should be included in the production cost, including:

(1) Material cost.That is, the part of the cost that belongs to the consumption of labor objects and related auxiliary materials.It is manifested as the cost of various materials and materials that have been consumed in the production of products, such as the cost of raw materials, fuel, power, semi-finished products, auxiliary materials, etc. (2) Expenses consumed by means of labor.It is expressed as the cost of labor means consumed in the production process, such as depreciation expenses. (3) Salary expenses.That is to say, the expenses that belong to the enterprise to pay for living labor consumption, including wages, allowances, bonuses and other expenses of laborers.

(4) Other expenses.Since the business activities of an enterprise include not only the production process but also the management process, the production cost also includes other expenses related to the production and management activities of the enterprise, that is, the cost of material consumption and labor consumption in the process of enterprise organization and management, such as management expenses, etc. . Production costs are classified according to different standards and are suitable for different purposes.From the perspective of the relationship with the price, production costs can be classified as follows:

(1) From the perspective of the relationship between cost and output, production cost can be divided into total cost, unit cost, variable cost and fixed cost. □Total cost refers to the total cost incurred by an enterprise in producing a certain quantity of products.It is the sum of various expenses incurred in the production and operation of the enterprise.The calculation and analysis of the total cost can assess the completion of the product cost plan and further analyze the reasons for cost overruns or savings. □Unit cost is the average cost, which is the cost obtained by dividing the total cost by the output.It reflects the level of enterprise productivity and management level.Unit product cost is the direct basis for formulating commodity prices. At the same time, it can also be used to compare with the cost of peer companies and historical cost levels, so as to discover gaps, tap potentials, and reduce costs.

□ Variable costs and fixed costs.In the production cost, the amount of a part of the cost changes with the output, and changes in a positive direction. This part of the cost is called the variable cost, such as raw materials, fuel, power, etc., all increase or decrease with the increase or decrease of the output.The other part of the cost amount, such as plant costs, machine depreciation costs, etc., does not change with the output within a certain range of production. As long as the enterprise starts production, regardless of the production volume, this part of the cost is relatively fixed, so it is called fixed cost.The sum of fixed costs and total variable costs is the total cost.Likewise, unit cost is derived by apportioning the total variable cost over a unit of product.As output increases or decreases, the total variable cost also increases or decreases proportionally, while the unit variable cost remains basically unchanged.The unit fixed cost is the result of dividing the total fixed cost by the output. Since the total fixed cost is constant within a certain period of time and within a certain output range, as the product increases, the fixed cost per unit product will decrease, that is, the two are in opposite directions. Variety.

Distinguishing between fixed costs and variable costs in production costs is beneficial for enterprises to analyze profit and loss criticality, make full use of production capacity, and play a positive role in planning reasonable prices for enterprises. (2) Divided according to the economic relationship reflected by the production cost, there are individual production cost and social production cost, which is a key factor determining the competitiveness of an enterprise. □Individual production cost is the actual cost of each enterprise to produce a certain product. It reflects the actual expenditure of material costs and labor costs in the production of the enterprise. feature.

□Social cost is the average cost of producing the same product by different enterprises in the same sector, also known as departmental cost, which reflects the average consumption of a commodity produced by the whole society under the existing productivity level, which is social.In a country, there are as many individual costs as there are enterprises in a certain industry sector, but there is only one sectoral average social cost, so social cost is the basis for enterprises to set prices. 2. Circulation costs Circulation costs are the sum of material costs and labor remuneration paid by commodity operators in the field of circulation.Any commodity must go through the circulation process from the field of production to the field of consumption, and the necessary manpower, material and financial resources must be invested in the business activities in the field of circulation. Therefore, the essence of circulation costs is the cost of materialized labor and living labor consumed to organize commodity circulation. Currency performance, specifically, is the various expenses incurred by commodity operators engaged in commodity purchase, transportation, storage, sales and other activities.The circulation expenses incurred by industrial enterprises before selling commodities to commercial enterprises have been included in the production cost and become a component of the price of industrial enterprises. The circulation expenses referred to here are the circulation expenses incurred by commercial enterprises, which are a component of commercial prices.

The current finance of commodity circulation enterprises divides the content of circulation expenses into three parts: (1) Operating expenses.It refers to all kinds of expenses incurred by the enterprise in the whole operation process.Such as transportation fee, loading and unloading fee, finishing fee, packaging fee, insurance fee, storage fee, inspection fee, transit fee, commodity loss, operator salary, advertising fee, commission for import and export commodities and welfare fees, etc. (2) Management costs.It refers to the expenses incurred by the administrative department of the enterprise to manage and organize commodity business activities.It includes management staff salaries and employee welfare expenses, employee unemployment insurance premiums, business entertainment expenses, technology development expenses, board of directors fees, labor union funds, employee education expenses, depreciation expenses, repair expenses, etc., all borne by the enterprise.

(3) Financial expenses.It refers to the various expenses incurred by the enterprise in order to raise funds, such as interest expenses, bank charges, etc. 3. Taxes Tax is the currency in kind collected by the state from economic units and individuals free of charge according to the law.It is a means for the country to participate in the distribution and redistribution of national income by virtue of its political power to obtain wealth.It is mandatory and free of charge, any taxpayer must pay taxes according to law, otherwise it is an illegal act.At the same time, the tax collected by the state forms fiscal revenue, which is controlled by the state and is no longer directly returned to taxpayers. There are different classifications of taxes from different perspectives. From the perspective of the relationship between taxes and prices, taxes are divided into two categories: tax outside the price and tax inside the price. One is the extra-price tax, which refers to the tax levied on the income of producers and operators. The tax paid by the taxpayer cannot be included in the price, that is, it cannot be transferred out through the included price, but is borne by the taxpayer itself.The extra-price tax is the redistribution of profits created by the state, which is a direct tax in nature.Such as industrial and commercial enterprise income tax, personal income tax, etc. The other type is the tax within the price, which refers to the tax levied according to the turnover of commodities. This tax is formally paid by the taxpayer, but it can be included in the price and passed on to consumers or users through the price. It is an indirect tax. nature of the tax.Such as value-added tax, consumption tax, business tax, resource tax, etc. Taxes included in prices refer to taxes included in the price.According to my country's current tax system, the following main taxes are listed for analysis. (1) Value-added tax.According to the current tax system, value-added tax is not included in the price and is calculated separately, but in actual operation, the value-added tax calculation is closely related to the price.Value-added tax is a tax that is taxed on the added value of products.Taxpayers refer to units and individuals engaged in sales of goods or provision of processing, repair and replacement labor, and import of goods within the territory of my country. In terms of scope, they include units and individuals engaged in industry, commerce, some service industries, and foreign trade imports.VAT is calculated as follows: Tax payable = output tax - input tax (2) Consumption tax.Consumption tax is a tax levied on units and individuals that produce and import certain special consumer goods.Commodities subject to consumption tax include: tobacco, alcohol, firecrackers, fireworks, precious jewelry, cosmetics, cars, motorcycles and more than a dozen categories. (3) Business tax.Business tax is a tax levied on units and individuals who sell labor services, transfer intangible assets or sell real estate.The scope of tax collection includes transportation, construction, finance and insurance, post and telecommunications, culture and sports, entertainment, service industries, transfer of intangible assets, sales of real estate, etc. (4) Resource tax.Resource tax is a tax levied on units and individuals who exploit mineral products and salt resources.Products taxed include mineral products (crude oil, natural gas, coal, etc.) and salt.The resource tax is levied according to the quantity and quota, and is calculated according to the taxable quantity and the tax quota. 4. Profit The profit in the price is the difference between the selling price of the commodity and the cost of production, distribution costs and taxes.Profit is an important economic indicator that reflects the results of production and operation activities, and it is also the source of enterprise development. The profit in the price is divided into production profit and commercial profit.Production profit is specifically divided into industrial profit and agricultural net income, and commercial profit is divided into wholesale profit and retail profit. Determination of profit in commodity prices.The determination of the profit in the price should consider the following factors from the perspective of the enterprise itself: (1) The market conditions faced by the enterprise. (2) The own conditions of the enterprise's products, whether it has an advantage in the market, and the strength of the enterprise's marketing mix. (3) The profit level of competitors of the same product. (4) The average level of profit in the same industry, and the country's restrictions on profit levels. The determination of the profit amount is generally controlled by the profit rate.In my country, the production cost profit rate is used in industrial enterprises, and the sales profit rate is used in business. The calculation formula is: Cost profit ratio = product sales profit ÷ product production cost × 100% Profit rate of sales = commercial sales profit ÷ sales revenue × 100% Different types of prices, their constituent elements and their combined states are not exactly the same.For example, the ex-factory price of industrial products is composed of the production cost of the product plus profits and taxes; the retail price of industrial products is composed of the wholesale price of industrial products plus the circulation costs of retail enterprises, profits and sales taxes.The proportions of the various elements of these two prices are also slightly different. For example, the proportion of profits in the ex-factory prices of industrial products is generally higher than that in the retail prices of industrial products. Price strategy is one of the important factors in the marketing mix of an enterprise, which directly determines the size of the enterprise's market share and profitability.The pricing decision of an enterprise is affected by both internal factors and external environmental factors (see Figure 16-1).With the increasingly complex marketing environment, it is more and more difficult to formulate pricing strategies. Not only must cost compensation be considered, but consumer acceptance and competition conditions must also be considered. 1. Internal Factors Affecting Pricing Decisions (1) Marketing objectives.The pricing of products must follow the market rules and pay attention to the pricing strategy, and the pricing strategy is based on the marketing goals of the enterprise. Different goals determine different strategies and different pricing methods and techniques.At the same time, as a means for enterprises to achieve their business goals, price strategies directly affect the company's operating results. Specifically, different price levels will have different effects on the company's profits, sales and market share. Therefore, when companies implement pricing strategies When pricing, it is necessary to combine the internal situation of the enterprise, the economic and cultural situation of the target market and the situation of competitors, and choose the pricing target according to the strategic factors that have the greatest impact on the survival and development of the company. (2) Marketing mix strategy.Since price is one of the marketing mix factors, attention should be paid to matching the price strategy with the product's overall design, distribution and promotion strategies when pricing products to form a coordinated marketing mix.If products are positioned on non-price charts, decisions about quality, promotions, and sales can greatly affect price; if price is an important positioning factor, then price can greatly influence decisions on other marketing mix factors.Therefore, marketers must take into account the entire marketing mix when pricing, and cannot make separate decisions in isolation from other marketing mixes. (3) The characteristics of the product.The attributes or characteristics of commodities are also one of the factors that companies should consider when pricing.In the minds of consumers, different commodities have different characteristics of meeting needs, such as daily necessities, status characteristics or functional commodities, and different types have different effects on prices.For example, when purchasing functional goods, consumers mainly consider whether the practical value and function of the goods are consistent with the price, while for status products, consumers generally pay less attention to the adaptation of price and utility, and pay more attention to their status and prestige. show.In addition, the perishability, perishability and seasonality of the commodity, as well as the fashion of the commodity, and the product life cycle in which it is located will all have a certain impact on the price of the commodity. (4) cost.Products go through a series of complex processes from raw materials to finished products. In this process, a certain amount of capital and labor must be spent. The currency performance of the actual consumption in the production and operation of the product is the cost, which is the value of the product. The basis, which is also the lowest economic limit for setting product prices, is the basic premise for maintaining simple reproduction and business activities.The price of the product must be able to cover all expenses incurred in producing, distributing, and promoting the product, as well as the price paid by the enterprise for taking risks on the product.Low-cost firms can set lower prices and thus achieve higher sales and profits.Therefore, if an enterprise wants to expand sales or increase profits, it must reduce costs, thereby reducing prices and improving the competitiveness of products in the market.If it costs a business more to produce and sell a product than its competitors, then the business will have to set higher prices or reduce profits, putting itself at a competitive disadvantage. (5) own strength.The production and operation capacity of the enterprise and the management level of the enterprise will also have a certain impact on the price setting.Enterprises with relatively strong scale and strength have advantages in terms of price. Due to the economies of scale of enterprises, the general labor productivity is higher and the unit cost is lower, which allows enterprises to have more leeway in pricing.If the sales channels are unblocked and the degree of control is high, then the price determination ability of the enterprise will be relatively large, the information communication will be smooth, and the price can be adjusted relatively easily by maintaining a good relationship with consumers. 2. External factors affecting pricing (1) The nature of the market and demand.Contrary to the cost setting the lower limit of the price, the market and demand determine the upper limit of the price.Before setting prices, marketers must understand the relationship between product price and product demand. Under the condition of market economy, the market structure is different, that is, the competition situation of enterprises and their products in the market is different, and the pricing strategies of enterprises are also different.The competition faced by an enterprise's price decision-making mainly comes from the competition among producers and operators in the same industry, especially when the market is in a buyer's market, and the competition among sellers is very fierce. Analyze the market position, the number of competitors in the market, their production, supply capacity and market behavior, so as to make corresponding price strategies.Different market structures adopt different pricing strategies.According to the specific factors of the degree of market competition, the market structure can be divided into four types: perfect competition market, monopoly competition market, complete monopoly market and oligopoly market. □Perfectly competitive market.In a perfectly competitive market, since there are many companies engaged in the buying and selling of commodities in the market, the quantity of each company’s sales is not much different, and it only accounts for a part of the total market commodities. The commodities they buy and sell are the same, and new companies can Entering the market at any time, information is completely free to flow, and production factors can also be freely allocated. In such a situation, the enterprise can only be the receiver of the price, not the price decider. The price is completely determined by the relationship between supply and demand. There is no need to conduct market analysis and marketing research, and it is impossible to negotiate pricing. □ Monopolistic competition market.A monopolistic competition market is a market between perfect competition and complete monopoly, which is a common situation that contains both monopoly tendencies and competitive elements.Different from perfect competition, the products of many sellers in the imperfect competition market are different in quality, appearance, color, style, packaging, and brand, and even for the same product, companies can make product differences through different channels. change.Such market conditions give companies certain pricing power, and consumers are willing to accept high prices if the difference is indeed valuable. □ Completely monopolize the market.The assumption of a perfectly competitive market is difficult to find in reality. There are mainly several types of markets that are common in reality, such as monopolistic competition, complete monopoly and oligopoly.Under a complete monopoly, a certain product or service is completely monopolized by one enterprise.In reality, some public utilities, or some important industries, have such characteristics under the support of the government.Completely monopolized enterprises are fully capable of setting prices freely. They can formulate profit-maximizing prices according to the consumer demand function and obtain monopoly profits. □ Oligopoly market.The oligopoly market is also a kind of imperfect competition market, which means that the products produced and sold by several enterprises in an industry account for the vast majority of the sales volume in this market, and the prices are actually jointly controlled by them.Oligarchs depend on each other and influence each other. A price adjustment by one oligopoly will cause a chain reaction of other oligopoly.Therefore, oligopolistic enterprises must pay close attention to each other's strategic changes and price adjustments.So far, there is still no satisfactory model for the reaction function of oligopoly enterprises, so the pricing behavior of oligopoly market is still based on experience and guesswork. The role of the government on the market is very large in some countries, which will also affect the pricing behavior of enterprises.The direct intervention and control of prices by governments around the world is common, but the degree of intervention and control is different.The Chinese government also has certain control over the price of products.In our country, there are products with national pricing, products with national guidance prices, and products with free pricing.For example, due to the occurrence of price wars by manufacturers in some markets, which led to some enterprises losing money, the state introduced industry self-regulatory prices in order to stabilize the market. This form of price is actually a manifestation of government intervention in the market. affect the pricing behavior of firms.Enterprises cannot ignore the government's intervention in market prices, but they should also be aware that this kind of market intervention distorts the market's function of allocating resources and is bound to be short-lived. Therefore, enterprises cannot survive under the protection of national price regulations for a long time. , Only companies that can cope with the market situation can win the competition. At the same time, the market supply and demand situation is also one of the main basis for enterprise price decision-making.The pricing of the product by the enterprise must compensate the cost of operation and ensure a certain profit on the one hand; on the other hand, it must also adapt to the changes in the supply and demand of the product in the market and be acceptable to consumers.For example, which group of people use the company's products, whether it is children, the elderly, men, women, or for family consumption, group consumption, and general consumption. Generally speaking, the prices of products used for children, women, and group consumption are correspondingly high. Most companies adopt high prices, and vice versa; otherwise, the company's price decisions will fall into a situation of wishful thinking.Enterprises need to consider the overall consumption level, consumption habits, market size and capacity, and market development trends to comprehensively evaluate products and set prices. (2) Competitors.The impact of competitive price factors on pricing is mainly manifested in the constraints of competitive prices on product price levels.The competition of similar products is most directly manifested as price competition.If a company adopts a strategy of high prices and high profits, it will attract competition; while a strategy of low prices and low profits can prevent competitors from entering the market or drive them out of the market.If a company tries to win more customers through appropriate prices and timely price adjustments, it means that other similar companies will lose part of the market, or they will have to pay more marketing efforts to maintain their original market share. In practice, companies will carefully analyze competitors' pricing strategies, pay close attention to their price trends and respond in a timely manner. (3) Other external factors (economy, middlemen, government, social concerns).When setting prices, companies must also consider other factors in the external environment.Economic conditions have a great influence on a business' pricing strategy, as factors such as economic growth and recession, inflation and interest rates affect the cost of production of a product and consumers' perceptions of the product and its value.When the enterprise sets the price, it should be able to bring considerable profits to the sellers, encourage them to support the products, and help them sell the products effectively.Marketers need to understand the government laws and regulations that affect prices and ensure their pricing decisions are defensible.At the same time, when enterprises set prices, their short-term sales, market share and target profits must be subordinated to the needs of the whole society. Enterprise pricing is a crucial work in enterprise management, and the success of pricing has a decisive impact on the success or failure of enterprise operation.In the market, whether an enterprise expands its marketing success or not depends to a large extent on whether the price is set reasonably.If it is reasonable, it can promote sales; otherwise, it can only lead to business failure. In this regard, some companies have learned a painful lesson.In order to carry out proper pricing, it is very necessary to master the principles and implement scientific pricing procedures in the pricing process. Based on the factors affecting price formulation and the pricing practices of enterprises mentioned above, here are several principles that enterprises must abide by when setting prices. 1. Goal principle When setting prices, enterprises must understand the above-mentioned influencing factors, such as market conditions, etc., but these are background factors. Targeted.There are generally five goals after the enterprise determines the price: one is survival, which is the most basic goal of the enterprise, but in some occasions it may be the most urgent need of the enterprise, such as excess productivity, fierce competition or product decline; Seeking the maximum current profit is the most important assumption in economics. In reality, relatively few companies will consider this goal; the third is to pursue the highest current income. Some companies may regard the maximization of sales revenue as their goal. The highest goal is that the highest sales revenue will lead to the maximization of profits and the growth of market share; the fourth is the highest sales growth. Enterprises pursue the highest growth in sales. Such enterprises often pursue long-term profits, so they often adopt penetration pricing. strategy, set the price lower, hoping to win a high market share; fifth, the product quality is leading, in order for the enterprise to establish its leading position in product quality in the market, the price should also match its goal at this time, if some companies adopt high The quality/high price strategy has been successful. 2. Customer principle In the final analysis, the price must be acceptable to customers.An increase or decrease in price will elicit a response from customers.Customers' reactions are based on their understanding of price changes, and different customers may interpret the firm's price behavior differently.For example, for a company's price reduction, customers may think that this product will be replaced by a newer product, or that the company may be in trouble, or the quality of this product may have declined; Various understandings: This product is more popular, the quality of this product has improved, and the business owner is very greedy, ready to obtain excess profits. It is very important for a company to grasp the customer principle when pricing, because wishful pricing cannot be understood by customers, and customers may have a contrary understanding of the company's pricing behavior, thus affecting the effectiveness of the company's pricing. 3. Competition principle Enterprises must consider the response of competitors when setting prices. After all, there are only a small number of manufacturers in a complete monopoly position. Most companies will always encounter various competitions in the market. It is temporary. For example, the troubles encountered by Microsoft also show that monopoly cannot last long. After all, the market still advocates competition, which requires companies to grasp the principles of competition when pricing.Mastering the principles of competition requires a firm to anticipate how its competitors will react to its own pricing.This requires companies to investigate competitors' financial status, recent sales and production capabilities, loyal customers, and company goals.Moreover, competitors and customers may also give different interpretations to the company's pricing, so the impact of the company's pricing on competitors is also quite complicated, which requires companies to conduct certain decision-making analysis. The formulation of commodity prices needs to be considered comprehensively, and can generally be divided into six steps, namely, determining pricing targets, measuring market demand, estimating costs, analyzing competition conditions, selecting pricing methods, and determining final prices. Enterprise pricing target refers to the purpose and standard that the enterprise pre-determines to achieve when pricing its products. It is the reflection of the enterprise's marketing target in the price decision. Generally, it can be divided into profit target, sales target, market share target and stable price target. .When pricing, an enterprise should choose a pricing target based on various factors such as the overall marketing goal, the market environment it faces, and product characteristics.The pricing target is based on meeting the market needs and realizing the profit of the enterprise, and it is the guarantee and means to realize the overall goal of the enterprise's operation.At the same time, it is also the basis for corporate pricing strategies and pricing methods. 1. Survival-oriented pricing goals Survival-oriented pricing goals, also known as survival goals, are transitional goals in a specific period.When an enterprise is not well managed, or due to fierce market competition and sudden changes in customer demand preferences, it will cause poor sales of products, a large backlog, poor capital turnover, and even the danger of bankruptcy. The main goal of the enterprise should be to maintain its survival.In the short term, as long as the selling price is higher than the variable cost of the product, which is sufficient to cover part of the fixed cost expenditure, it can continue to operate.The long-term goal of the enterprise is still to achieve development. 2. Profit-oriented pricing objectives Profit target is an important part of the pricing target of an enterprise, and obtaining profit is a necessary condition for the survival and development of an enterprise, and is the direct driving force and ultimate goal of enterprise management.Therefore, the profit-oriented pricing goal is adopted by most enterprises. (1) Take profit maximization as the pricing goal.Taking the maximum profit as the pricing target means that after considering various factors within a certain period of time, the enterprise determines the price of the unit product based on the maximum difference between the total revenue minus the total cost, so as to obtain the maximum total profit.The maximum profit can be divided into long-term and short-term, and there is also a difference between the maximum profit of a single product and the maximum profit of all products of an enterprise.Generally speaking, what enterprises should pursue is the long-term comprehensive maximum profit of all products, so that enterprises can gain a greater market competitive advantage and occupy and expand more market shares.For some small and medium-sized enterprises with short product life cycles and products in short supply in the market, they can also seek short-term maximum profits.A price that is too high will result in lower sales and possibly less total profit.High profits can be obtained by adopting a low-price strategy and gradually increasing prices after occupying the market; at the same time, companies can also set low prices for some products or even sell them at a loss to attract customers and drive sales of other products, thereby Seek maximum overall benefit.Therefore, the profit maximization achieved by the high price strategy can only be a short-term behavior, and the maximum profit should be aimed at the company's long-term maximum profit and the total profit of all products. (2) Take investment income as the pricing target.The investment income pricing target refers to a pricing target that enables the enterprise to realize the recovery of investment and the expected return on investment within a certain period of time.Return on investment, also known as return on investment, is an important symbol to measure the operating strength and operating results of an enterprise. It is equal to the ratio of net profit to total investment. Generally, the calculation period is 1 year. The higher the value, the better the operating status of the enterprise. the better.Enterprises adopting this pricing target generally calculate the profit per unit product based on the rate of return stipulated by the investment amount, and add the product cost as the sales price.But we must pay attention to two issues: First, we must determine a moderate rate of return on investment.Generally speaking, the return on investment should be higher than the bank deposit interest rate in the same period.But it should not be too high, otherwise it will be difficult for consumers to accept.Second, the production and operation of enterprises must be best-selling products.The product has a distinct advantage over its competitors. (3) Take reasonable profit as the pricing target.Reasonable profit pricing goal means that in order to avoid unnecessary price competition, on the basis of compensating the average social cost under normal circumstances, an enterprise appropriately adds a certain amount of profit as the product price, and obtains long-term profits at a moderate and stable price. A pricing target.There are various reasons for adopting this pricing target: aiming at a moderate profit so that the product price will not appear too high, thereby preventing fierce market competition; some enterprises establish a good corporate image in order to coordinate the relationship between investors and consumers , not only enables enterprises to avoid unnecessary competition, but also can obtain long-term profits, and because the price is moderate, consumers are willing to accept it, and it is also in line with the government's price guidelines, so this is a pricing goal that takes into account both corporate and social interests.However, it is often subject to various restrictions in actual application, and factors such as production and sales, investment costs, competition pattern, and market acceptance must be fully considered.Temporary enterprises are generally not suitable to adopt this kind of pricing target. 3. Sales-oriented pricing objectives The sales-oriented pricing target, also known as the market share target, is a goal determined by seeking a certain level of sales volume or market share on the premise of ensuring a certain level of profit.Taking sales as the pricing target has the possibility of obtaining better long-term profits. When adopting sales targets, it is particularly important to ensure the profit level of the enterprise, and sales and profits must be considered at the same time.Because the sales of a certain product in a certain period of time and under certain market conditions are determined by the sales volume and price of the product, an increase in sales does not necessarily lead to an increase in profits.For some enterprises, when sales rise to a certain level, it is difficult to increase profits, and even the greater the sales, the greater the losses.Therefore, for commodities with high price elasticity of demand, the loss caused by lowering prices can be compensated by the increase in sales volume. Therefore, enterprises should adopt a strategy of small profits but quick turnover to ensure that the total profit is not lower than the minimum profit of the enterprise. Reduce prices as much as possible to promote sales and expand profits; on the contrary, if the price elasticity of demand for commodities is small, price cuts will lead to a decrease in revenue, while price increases will increase sales. Enterprises should adopt a strategy of high prices, high profits, and limited sales. 4. Competition-oriented pricing objectives In product marketing competition, price competition is the most effective and sensitive means.Before setting prices, companies generally collect information extensively, compare the quality, characteristics and cost of their own products with those of competitors, and then set their own product prices.According to the different conditions of the enterprise, there are generally the following decision-making objectives to choose from. (1) Stable price target.Stable price target refers to the pricing aimed at keeping prices relatively stable and avoiding positive price competition.Stable prices are usually a necessary condition for most businesses to achieve a certain target return.其实质是通过本企业产品的定价来左右整个市场价格，可以使市场价格在一个较长的时期内相对稳定，减少企业之间因价格竞争而发生的损失。为达到稳定价格的目的，在通常情况下，是由那些拥有较高的市场占有率、经营实力较强或具有竞争力和影响力的领导者企业采用的定价目标，其他企业的价格则与之保持一定的距离或比例关系。这样，对大企业是稳妥的价格保护政策，中小企业也以此避免因价格竞争带来的风险。在钢铁、采矿业、石油化工等行业内，稳定价格目标得到最广泛的应用。 (2)追随定价目标。企业有意识地通过给产品定价主动应付和避免市场竞争。企业价格的制定，主要以对市场价格有影响的竞争者的价格为依据，根据具体产品的情况稍高或稍低于竞争者。竞争者的价格不变，实行此目标的企业也维持原价，竞争者的价格变动，此类企业也相应地参照调整价格。在一般情况下，中小企业的产品价格定得略低于行业中占主导地位的企业的价格。 (3)挑战定价目标。如果企业具备强大的实力和特殊优越的条件，可以主动出击，挑战竞争对手，获取更大的市场份额。一般常用的策略目标有：打击定价，实力较强的企业主动挑战竞争对手，扩大市场占有率，可采用低于竞争者的价格出售产品；特色定价，实力雄厚并拥有特殊技术或产品品质优良或能为消费者提供更多服务的企业，可采用高于竞争者的价格出售产品；阻截定价，为了防止其他竞争者加入同类产品的竞争行列，在一定条件下，往往采用低价入市，迫使弱小企业无利可图而退出市场或阻止竞争对手进入市场。 商品价格与市场需求在一般情况下是成反比关系的。价格会影响需求，在正常情况下，市场需求会按照和价格相反的方向变动。价格提高，市场需求就会减少。企业商品的价格会影响需求，需求的变化影响企业的产品销售以至企业营销目标的实现。因此，估计市场需求状况是制定价格的重要工作。 1.估计需求的价格弹性 对需求的估计，首先要估计需求的价格弹性，了解市场需求对价格变动的反应。需求的价格弹性可用公式表示为： 需求的价格弹性=需求变化百分比÷价格变动百分比 如果某商品的价格有变动，但市场需求没什么变化，叫做需求无弹性：商品价格有变动，而需求的变化很大，叫做需求有弹性。当需求的价格弹性＞1时，表明价格变动率小于需求量变动率，此产品富于需求弹性，或称为弹性大；当需求的价格弹性=1时，表明价格变动率同需求量的变动率一致，此产品具有一般需求弹性；当需求的价格弹性＜1时，表明价格的变动率大于需求量的变动率，此产品缺乏需求弹性。 影响商品需求价格弹性主要有三个因素： (1)替代品的数目和相近程度。如一种商品有许多相近的代用品，它的需求几乎一定是有弹性的，如价格上涨，消费者就少买这种商品。把商品限定得越狭窄、越具体，相近的替代品就越多。如某一种品牌的檀香皂，弹性就大于一般的檀香皂。而一般的檀香皂比普通的香皂更有弹性，檀香皂贵，消费者可以买留兰香型的、茉莉香型的。如果一种商品有可以完全被代替的代用品，它就是非常富有商品需求弹性的。 (2)商品在消费者收入中的重要位置也影响它的弹性。如肥皂、盐、火柴、墨水、急救药品等，在消费者收入中有一席之地，相对重要，是比较缺乏弹性的商品。 (3)商品有多少用途。一种商品可派的用场越多，需求弹性越大。如果价格很高，消费者只购买少量用在最重要的用途上，价格连续下降，则买较多的商品用在不太重要的用途上。 2.估计需求弹性的影响 商品需求弹性的不同对企业的定价有不同的影响。要注意以下几方面： (1)不同产品的需求弹性不同，企业的定价应不同。分为以下几种情况： □当商品富于需求弹性时，商品价格稍微下降一点，销售量就会显著增加，企业的总收入也会增加；相反，稍微提一点价，销售量就会明显下降，企业的总收入也会减少。价格变动方向同总收入的变动方向成反比。对于这类商品，企业采取低价销售有利。 □当商品具有一般需求弹性时，价格变动幅度与销售量变动幅度大小一致，方向相反，总收入不变。对于这类商品，企业不宜采用价格手段进行竞争。 □在商品缺乏需求弹性情况下，商品价格下降很多，销售量也只有较少的增加，企业总收入减少；相反，价格提高很多，销售量也只有较小的减少。价格的变动趋势同总收入的变动趋势方向相同。对于这类商品采用低价达不到销售量增加和效益提高的目的，而有限制的较高的定价对企业有利。 (2)同一产品在不同时期内或不同的价格区段需求弹性有所不同，企业也应采用对需求价格弹性还必须估计其在不同的销售时期和处于不同的价格区段上的情况。许多商品弹性不是始终如一的，如某商品单价在30~50元这个价格区段中需求弹性＞1，而在15~30元这个价格区段中需求弹性＜1，企业要具体测定各价格区段的需求弹性，以决定正确的方法并找出理想定价点。 (3)不同的消费者对同一产品的需求弹性有所不同。有时需求强度不同的消费者对同种产品的需求弹性不一样，要认真加以区别，制定不同的方法。这正是差别定价理论的基础。 3.企业估计需求要注意“反常”现象 在用需求规律分析消费者需求及变化时，发现有这样的例外，即在一定条件下，商品的价格上涨，消费者的需求量反而增加，价格下跌，消费者的需求量反而减少。这种“反常”现象主要可以归结为两大类： 一类是所谓的吉芬商品。19世纪，英国经济学家罗伯特·吉芬爵士最先发现，人们对某些商品的需求表现为例外的上升的需求曲线。在需求曲线的某一部分，商品价格的上升导致一个较大的而不是较小的商品需求量，这种类型的商品被称之为低档商品或吉芬商品。如当时爱尔兰穷人吃的土豆是吉芬商品的一个典型例子。如果土豆价格上升，意味着穷人的实际收入减少，将迫使穷人减少较昂贵食物(如肉类)的消费，以致有可能购买更多的土豆来弥补食物的不足；反之，土豆价格下跌，意味着穷人实际收入增加，他们将有可能少吃些土豆，以购买一点较贵的食物。深入的经济分析可以证明，导致吉芬商品的需求曲线反向上升的原因是由于此类商品的收入效应的作用与替代效应的作用方向相反，而且收入效应的作用大于替代效应的作用。 另一类是市场营销学中心理定价策略的运用。研究发现，消费者的购买行为与消费者心理密切相关。消费者根据自己以往的购买经验认为，质量好的商品的价格总是要比质量差的商品价格高。因此，在消费者的心目中，价格高的商品就是质量好的商品。而且，人们通常认为，消费者享用的商品档次的高低反映着消费者经济地位和社会地位的高低。高档商品在一定程度上成了一个人经济地位和社会声望的象征正是由于这种心理因素的作用，使消费者在某些情况下趋向于选购价格较高的商品。这样，有些商品的价格定得较高，对这些商品的需求量就越大；如果定得较低，对这些商品的需求量反而会下降。企业可以利用消费者对商品价格的这种心理反应，制定较产的商品价格。从而不仅从较高的价格中获得较大的单位产品销售利润，而且可以高价吸引更多的顾客，以扩大市场份额，从增长的销售量中获取丰厚的销售总利润适用“心理定价策略”的商品的需求曲线也是一条斜率大于零、向右上方倾斜的曲线。不过，不同于吉芬商品，导致适用“心理定价策略”的商品的需求曲线向右上方倾斜的原因不是商品价格变动的收入效用，而是消费者对商品价格变化的特殊心理因素。 企业在制定商品价格时，要进行成本估算，这对任何企业都不能例外。企业商品价格的上限取决于市场需求及有关限制因素，而最低价格不能低于商品的经营成本费用，这是企业价格的下限(这里不包括短期的、由于某种原因个别品种的价格低于成本费用的例外情况)，低于这个限度，企业无法维持再生产和继续经营。因此，制定价格要在企业目标已定、市场需求已摸清的情况下作产品的成本估算。 企业的成本包括两种：一种是固定成本，指在一定时期不随企业产量变化而变化的成本费用。如固定资产的折旧费、产品设计费、租金、利息、管理费用等。它不能计入某阶段的某项产品之中，而是以多种费用的方式分别计入各种产品之中。另一种是变动成本，或称可变成本、直接成本，指随着企业的产品产量和销售收入变化的成本，如原材料、辅助材料、生产用燃料等。这部分成本随产品产量的变动成正比例变化，它可直接计入各种具体产品之中。 固定成本与变动成本之和即为某产品的总成本。当企业不开工生产，产量为零，变动成本就等于零，总成本等于固定成本。 在成本估算中，离不开对“产量—成本—利润”关系的分析，在经济学上一个重要的工具是分析“边际成本”，所谓边际成本，是指企业生产最后一单位产品所花费的成本，或每增加(减少)一个单位生产量引起的总成本变动的数值。其计算公式为： 边际成本=总成本的增加量÷产量的增加量 在价格已定的情况下，如果边际成本等于企业的边际收益，企业就能达到利润最大化。这是因为边际成本在生产的一定阶段(初期)呈下降的趋势，低于产品的平均成本(单位产品的总成本、单位产品的固定成本与单位产品变动成本之和)，在这阶段，产量增加，平均成本递减。而当产量增加超过一定限度时，平均成本由递减转为递增，边际成本高于平均成本，企业平均成本水平会上升。因此，企业为了找到获得高利润的产量点，要搞清企业产品的边际成本。 企业价格的制定除取决于需求状况、成本状况之外，还受着市场竞争状况的强烈影响。对竞争状况的分析，包括三个方面的内容。 1.分析企业竞争地位 企业及其产品在市场上的竞争地位对最后制定价格有重要的意义，要在企业的主要市场和竞争能力方面作出基本的估计。列出企业目前处于何种状况，并在分析过程中考虑有关显要的非商品竞争能力，如服务质量、渠道状况、定价方式等。 2.协调企业的定价方向企业要通过各种公开发表的财务资料或其他资料中 或者从以购物者身份索要的价目表中了解竞争对手的产品价格，以使本企业价格制定更主动。这方面工作要考虑到竞争企业的定价目标及主要策略。 3.估计竞争企业的反应 企业要把即将可能采用的价格及策略排列出来，进行试分析，估计和预测采用某些具体价格和策略可能引起的主要竞争企业及同行业的反应。企业的营销情报信息系统要提供有关竞争企业的材料，如财务、技术、管理方面的优势和劣势，非价格因素的长处与缺点，现行的营销策略以及对竞争的反应的历史资料，使企业的有关决策人员知己知彼，以制定相应的策略和采用适当的方法。 定价方法是企业在特定的定价目标指导下，依据对成本、需求及竞争等状况的研究，运用价格决策理论，对产品价格进行计算的具体方法。定价方法主要包括基于成本的定价法、基于需求的定价和基于竞争的定价法三种类型。 1.基于成本的定价法 基于成本的定价法是以产品成本为基础，加上目标利润来确定产品价格的成本导向定价法，是企业最常用、最基本的定价方法。主要有总成本加成定价法、目标收益定价法、边际成本定价法、盈亏平衡定价法等几种具体的定价方法。 (1)总成本加成定价法。总成本加成定价法是指按照单位成本加上一定百分比的加成来制定产品的销售价格，即把所有为生产某种产品而发生的耗费均计入成本的范围，计算单位产品的变动成本，合理分摊相应的固定成本，再按一定的目标利润率来决定价格。其计算公式为： 单位产品价格(P)=［总成本(TC)÷总产量(Q)］×［1+目标利润率(R)］ 例如，某皮具厂生产1000个皮箱，固定成本3000元，每个皮箱的变动成本45元，企业确定的成本利润率为30%，用成本加成定价法进行定价： 采用成本加成定价法，关键问题是确定合理的成本利润率。而成本利润率的确定，必须考虑市场环境、行业特点等多种因素。这种方法的优点是：简化了定价工作，便于经济核算；价格竞争就会减到最少；在成本加成的基础上制定出来的价格对买卖双方来说都比较公平。 (2)目标收益定价法。目标收益定价法又称投资收益率定价法，是根据企业的总成本或投资总额、预期销量和投资回收期等因素来确定价格，如图16-2所示。企业试图确定能带来它正在追求的目标投资收益。它是根据估计的总销售收入(销售额)和估计的产量(销售量)来制定价格的一种方法。其计算公式为： 单位产品价格=(总成本+目标收益额)÷预期销量 目标利润价格=单位成本+(目标利润率×投资成本)÷销售量 目标利润率或目标收益率=1÷投资回收期 例如，某企业预计其产品的销量为10万件，总成本740万元，决定完成目标利润为160万元，用目标收益定价法进行定价： 与成本加成定价法相类似，目标收益定价法也是一种生产者导向的产物。其缺陷表现为：一是很少考虑到市场竞争和需求的实际情况，只是从保证生产者的利益出发制定价格；二是先确定产品销量，再计算产品价格的做法完全颠倒了价格与销量的因果关系，把销量看成是价格的决定因素，在实际上很难行得通。尤其是对于那些需求的价格弹性较大的产品，用这种方法制定出来的价格，无法保证销量的必然实现。 (3)边际成本定价法。边际成本是指每增加或减少单位产品所引起的总成本的变化量。边际成本定价法又称边际贡献法，其基本思想是只考虑变动成本，不考虑固定成本，以预期的边际贡献补偿固定成本并获得盈利。采用边际成本定价法时是以单位产品变动成本作为定价依据和可接受价格的最低界限。在价格高于变动成本的情况下，企业出售产品的收入除完全补偿变动成本外，尚可用来补偿一部分固定成本，甚至可能提供利润。其计算公式为： 单位产品价格=单位产品变动成本+单位产品边际贡献 其中，单位产品边际贡献是指企业增加一个单位的销售，所获得的收入减去边际成本的数值。边际贡献=销售收入-变动成本，若边际贡献大于固定成本，企业就有盈利；若边际贡献小于固定成本，企业就会亏本；若边际贡献等于固定成本，企业盈亏平衡。只要边际贡献≥0，企业就可以考虑生产。这种定价方法适合于企业存在生产能力过剩、市场供过于求等的情况。 (4)盈亏平衡定价法。盈亏平衡定价法又称收支平衡法，是利用收支平衡点来确定产品的价格，即在销量达到一定水平时，企业应如何定价才不至于发生亏损；反过来说，已知价格在某一水平上，应销售多少产品才能保本的方法。其计算公式为： 盈亏平衡点价格=固定总成本÷销量+单位变动成本 用字母表示为： P=FC÷Q+VC 例如，某产品生产的固定成本是150000元，单位变动成本为15元，若销量为3000件，则价格应定多少企业才不会亏损？若销售价格为40元，则企业必须销售多少，才能保本？ 实际上，这种定价法的实质就是确定总收入等于总支出时的价格，以盈亏平衡点确定价格只能使企业的生产耗费得以补偿，而不能得到收益。若实际价格超过收支平衡价格，企业就可盈利。科学地预测销量和已知固定成本、变动成本是盈亏平衡定价的前提。有时，为了开展价格竞争或应付供过于求的市场格局，企业采用这种定价方式以取得市场竞争的主动权。 从本质上说，成本导向定价法是一种卖方定价导向。它忽视了市场需求、竞争和价格水平的变化，有时候与定价目标相脱节。此外，运用这一方法制定的价格均是建立在对销量主观预测的基础上，从而降低了价格制定的科学性。因此，在采用成本导向定价法时，还需要充分考虑需求和竞争状况，来确定最终的市场价格水平。 2.基于需求的定价法 市场营销观念要求企业的一切生产经营必须以消费者需求为中心，并在产品、价格、分销和促销等方面予以充分体现。 基于需求的定价方法是根据市场需求状况和消费者对产品的感觉差异来确定价格的方法，又称“市场导向定价法”。需求导向定价法主要包括认知价值定价法、需求差别定价法和逆向定价法。 (1)认知价值定价法。认知价值定价法是根据顾客对产品价值的认知程度，即产品在顾客心目中的价值观念为定价依据，运用各种营销策略和手段，影响顾客对产品价值的认知的定价方法。它是伴随现代营销观念而产生的一种新型定价方法。 企业制定价格时，应考虑到买主对产品价值的评判。买主在购买商品时总会对其进行比较与鉴别，形成不同的价格限度。如果价格刚好定在这一限度内，买主就会顺利购买。为此，企业应当搞好产品的市场定位，突出产品的特性，综合运用各种营销手段，提高产品的知名度，使买主感到购买这些产品能够获得更多的相对利益，从而提高他们接受价格的限度。企业可据此拟定一个可销价格，进而估计此价格水平下的销量、成本及盈利情况，最后确定实际价格。 认知价值的关键在于准确地估计买主对产品的认知价值。如果估计过高，定价就会过高，这样销售就会减少；如果估计过低，定价就会过低，这样固然可以多销，但收入就会减少。为准确把握市场认知价值，必须进行市场营销研究。 (2)需求差别定价法。所谓需求差别定价法，是指产品价格的确定以需求为依据，首先强调适应消费者需求的不同特性，而将成本补偿只放在次要地位的定价方法。这种定价方法，对同一商品在同一市场上制定两个或两个以上的价格，或使不同商品价格之间的差额大于其成本之间的差额。其好处是可以使企业定价最大限度地符合市场需求，促进商品销售，有利于企业获取最佳的经济效益。根据需求特性的不同，需求差异定价法通常有以下几种形式：以用户为基础的差别定价、以地点为基础的差别定价、以时间为基础的差别定价、以产品为基础的差别定价、以流转环节为基础的差别定价。 企业采取差别定价必须具备的条件如下： □市场必须是可以细分的，而且各个细分市场须表现出不同的需求程度。 □以较低价格购买某种产品的顾客没有可能以较高价格把这种产品倒卖给别人。 □竞争者没有可能在企业以较高销售产品的市场上以低价竞销。 □细分市场和控制市场的成本费用不得超过因实行价格歧视而得到的额外收入，这就是说，不能得不偿失。 □价格歧视不会引起顾客反感而放弃购买，影响销售。 □采取的价格歧视形式不能违法。 (3)逆向定价法。逆