Chapter 10 Chapter 7 The Explorer of the Soul: Sigmund Freud-2

Some of the theories that made Freud so famous and deeply influenced Western culture describe mental processes in a purely psychological sense.Freud had been one of the disciples of mechanophysiology, the theory that all psychic phenomena were said to be usable, or later explainable, in physiological terms.It was not until he abandoned this view that he made his own major discovery. After Freud turned to hypnotherapy and psychoanalysis, he had attached some theories of physiology. In 1895, the year that he and Breuer published the "Studies on Hysteria", which mainly explored hysteria with a physiological method, he drafted an 8-page draft "Scientific Psychological Project", in which he The ambition is to use the physiological phenomena that take place in the brain to explain mental processes.Although his "project" included a series of his own budding psychological theories, it explained them in terms of only physical terms, such as the laws of motion, the The amount of nerve firing, the inertia of this energy, or release, the channel of release, and the principle of energy conservation.

Freud sent the draft to Frisch, who himself criticized it vigorously and was not finished.He found that neuroscience was not yet advanced enough to use this method, and, like William James, he felt that psychology could only deal with thoughts and feelings psychologically at present.Freud wrote to Frisch before sending off his "project": "I can no longer comprehend the state of mind in which I have contrived...it seems to be pure gibberish." Years Later, he said: I don't at all want psychology to just hang in the air without an organic foundation.However, apart from this feeling of confirmation (that there should be such a basis there), I have nothing, neither theoretical nor therapeutic, with which I cannot work, So I had to pretend that what I was dealing with was merely psychological.

Although he gave up trying to find a unified theory, he did not return to the traditional dualism that consciousness is a separate and distinct substance from the body.He often used the word Seele, which he translated into "soul" in his officially published works, but this word has many meanings in German, and the psychoanalyst Brenno Bettelheim was very fond of it. Arguably, what Freud meant was actually "mental," the mental and emotional aspects of a person, or simply, the overall functioning of thought and emotion.Freud believed all his life that no aspect of the mind could exist independently of the brain, and that the physiological processes in its neurons were the stuff of thought phenomena.Also, as a scientist, he was a thorough determinist, believing that every mental activity has its roots and that free will is an illusion.

Freud made great strides after abandoning his attempts to establish a theory of mental activity on a physiological basis.In just 5 years (1895-1900), he invented a new psychotherapy and developed several revolutionary theories about human psychology.He would expand, revise, and add to these theories over many years to come, but if he had done nothing after 1900, he would have brought a new vision of psychology.His theory of consciousness is scattered in various articles he wrote during this period, the main content of which is as follows: The Dynamic Unconscious: Almost all research and theoretical generalizations by psychologists before Freud have addressed conscious mental processes such as perception, memory, judgment, and learning.Freud's contribution to psychology and Western culture was his theory of the unconscious and its central role in human behaviour.Ernest Jones said it was generally considered his greatest contribution to science.

Precisely, Freud did not discover the unconscious, as is often claimed.Thinkers have been pondering this question for two centuries—from the rationalist Leibniz, to the hypnotists of the nineteenth century, from the poets and philosophers of the Romantic movement to Helmholtz, to Waugh Members of the Ziborg School and William James.But then again, these people just see the unconscious as a memory, a storehouse of experience and information, waiting to be called upon.Freud often called this relatively dormant but easily accessible area of ​​mental life the "subconscious mind" and believed that it was very different from the unconscious.

However, in the works of Freud's predecessors and contemporaries, especially the masters of hypnotism, there are already many clues, saying that the unconscious plays an active role in people's spiritual life.Others have even applied the word "kinetics" to it.Freud took these ideas and transformed them into another form based on his clinical experience and self-analysis. According to him, there are three functional levels of consciousness: conscious, subconscious, and unconscious.The last is the largest and most influential part.Far from being a storehouse of material in an inactive state, it is an area of ​​hyperactivity and very powerful primal drives and forbidden desires that constantly exert pressure on the conscious mind in the form of masked or Metamorphic, and thus also contribute to and determine a large part of our behaviour.

This point is already very clear in Freud's clinical work.The thinking and behavior of his psychotic patients prior to analysis were governed by forces of which they had little understanding and therefore no control.The purpose of psychoanalysis is to give patients the "self" and "freedom to make their own decisions."This doesn't mean having free will, but understanding your unconscious motivations and putting yourself in a state where your conscious mind can make choices and decisions. Freud came to believe that what is true of the mentally ill is also true of normal people.The later development, however, is in such a way that their unacceptable desires, those which are hidden from the sane mind, are transformed into acceptable modes of action.Thus, healthy behavior, like diseased behavior, is motivated and directed to a large extent by unconscious forces.

Primary process and secondary process: In Freud's view, the unconscious mind is not just a place where we detain unbearable thoughts and desires from primitive and immature parts of the mind.He calls the psychic processes that take place in them "primary processes," and they are to be broken by actions, or, when these actions are blocked by forces in the real world, by fantasies such as seductive concepts or dreams of childhood. Taboo, wish fulfillment.The contents of the unconscious, though not from the real world, are mental realities that drive our actions. As we grow, we learn that we cannot act on the urges of uncontrolled primordial processes.We learn what is acceptable and successful in the real world and what is not.The way the conscious mind operates is in terms of "secondary processes," the mental activities of thought, cognition, and problem-solving that we need to conceive and realize some way of satisfying some socially acceptable desire .

Pleasure Principle: Many philosophers and psychologists have long since discovered that human behavior is largely driven by seeking pleasure and avoiding pain.Freud included this theory in his theory of the unconscious, but changed its focus.The basic motivating force of the whole psychic apparatus, he says, is an unsatisfied wish or unquenched excitement—a desire to release the resulting unsatisfied feeling (displeasure), thereby relieving tension and obtaining pleasure.Early on, Freud called it the "unpleasure principle," but it was later renamed the "pleasure principle," a label that has since become part of the psychological lexicon.

"The pleasure and unhappiness principles are fundamental concepts in Freud's psychology," Jones said. "It automatically regulates the process of cathexis." "Catheria" is a very important term in Freud's writings, and the term was used by James Strachey, the translator of the Standard Edition, according to Freud A remake of the German word Besetzung, which originally meant "preoccupied" or "full," Freud used the word to mean "a charge of psychic energy," or, as he later called it, "emotional engagement." Hunger is a typical wish.When primary thought (imagining food, dreaming about food) fails to achieve the effect of drawing cakes to satisfy hunger, secondary process thinking will take over the task of dispelling pain, concentration or mental energy will be diverted to real-world activities, such as buying food , Burning food, etc. After a while, these activities can eliminate hunger and bring relaxation and happiness.Thus, the primary process acts on the pleasure principle, and the secondary process acts on the reality principle.However, as Freud later added:

Replacing the pleasure principle with the reality principle does not mean that the pleasure principle can be removed, but its protection.A temporary pleasure whose outcome is uncertain (that is to say, those of the wish) is forsaken only in order to obtain a certain pleasure at a later time along this new path . Libido: The Oedipus Complex: Although some of Freud's ideas about sexuality did not take form or begin to show importance in his system until after 1900, we know that he had been slowly It is believed that the sexual drive is one of the most powerful forces present even in childhood and plays a large role in the formation of normal and psychotic personalities. One of the most important aspects of this drive, he argues, is that in childhood it is usually directed toward parents of the opposite sex as a result of primordial processes.Freud is known to have called these drives Oedipus, after the man in Greek mythology who unknowingly kills his own father and marries his birth mother.In young boys, this sexual drive directed towards the mother is accompanied by hatred of the father, the rival in love, and a nasty wish to get rid of him.However, through second-order process thought of reality, the child realizes that his father is far stronger than he is, that in their struggle with each other the father is certain to win, and that Oedipal wishes involve serious dangers.As a result, this conflict between desire and fear leads to intolerable anxiety.Freud did not call this thing the "Oedipus complex" until 1910, but in some letters to Frisch in the late 1990s, he had already begun to draw this analogy to the Oedipus myth. In "The Interpretation of Dreams" in 1900, he has already discussed this theory openly in a simple form.He sees the Oedipus complex as an inescapable part of human experience: "Maybe directing our first sexual urges towards our mothers, and our first hatred and our first murderous desires towards our fathers"—he Then the "maybe" was cut out—"It is the fate of all of us. Our dreams tell us that it is so." He later developed theories about a different but similar phenomenon among girls. inhibition: To relieve the anxiety caused by the Oedipus complex.The child has to suppress his Oedipal wishes and hide them in the unconscious.Inhibition is the most important and urgent mechanism of the mind, the basic way of mental self-defense against conflicts caused by anxiety due to primordial wishes and fears of being harmed in the real world."It may well be considered Freud's most important and creative contribution," Jones said. Over the next few years, Freud would expand the Oedipus complex and its theory of problem solving through inhibition to become central to the theory of child development. Balancing principle: Although Freud no longer explained mental processes in physiological terms, he still believed that Helmholtz's principle of conservation of energy—that the sum of energies in any closed system is constant—could be applied to psychic phenomena go.As he and Breuer put it in "Studies in Hysteria": "In such an organism there is a tendency to keep the excitation in the brain constant." When something makes us very angry, we tend to neutralize that anger in one way or another in order to maintain our normal arousal balance.How we do this is a function of primary process thinking governed by—or sometimes breaking through—secondary process thinking.Breuer and Freud give an example: "When Bismarck had to suppress his anger in front of the king, he used to vent it afterwards by throwing an expensive vase on the floor." The principle of balance is a fundamental tenet of Freud's psychology, and it is the most fundamental part of his explanation of psychosis and other phenomena.Among other phenomena, the most noticeable is displacement.Since the arousal remains a constant amount, if it is subtracted in one thought, it will be added back in another related thought.It is "shifted".As we know, Freud relied on this conception to explain psychotic symptoms and dreams, in both cases the energy accumulated in some unpermitted wish is displaced into a permitted activity.Later, he applied this concept to the interpretation of "sublimation"-that is, using the energy of unfulfilled or repressed wishes in a positive way to engage in constructive activities.Hostile impulses, for example, can redirect efforts to achieve success.Freud has always been good at finding a suitable method or literary example to illustrate the problem. Here he quotes a poem by Heine imagining God explaining creation: creative impulse rooted in illness; By creating, I heal; By creating, I am strong. In 1900, despite completing his self-analysis, the 44-year-old Freud felt drained and unsatisfactory for many reasons.He originally hoped that his favorite work "The Interpretation of Dreams" would cause a sensation for a while, but later, he said: "This kind of view is destined to be so, but it can only be once in a lifetime." However, when this book was published, that is, in 1899, In December there was some rambling comments in Vienna, although some compliments were heard, and no response anywhere else.From a commercial point of view, this book has become a bottomless pit of losses, and only 351 copies were sold in 6 years. Floyd felt more alone than ever before.His outpatient practice, which he had hoped would help, was dying, and he still suffered from the fear of poverty.His friendship with Breuer had long been broken, as was his very ardently intimate and dependent dependence on Friech as his confidant, supporter, collaborator, and idol.In his self-analysis he had carefully dissected his almost adoring affection for Frieze, and found that there were almost psychotic tendencies and a masked homosexual element in it.While self-analysis freed Freud from his emotional dependence on Frisch, the latter became easily irritated and often nitpicking. At a conference in August 1900, they were frantically attacking each other's views, and Frisch told Freud that he doubted the value of Freud's psychoanalytic research.They never saw each other again, and their enthusiasm for correspondence faded away.Their friendship came to an abrupt and complete end a few years later, when Frisch accused Freud of revealing his unpublished theory of universal heredity to the philosopher Otto Weininger (who would later write in These views are used in publications), without specifying that they are Frisch's views. However, since this year, Freud's life has begun to improve. In 1902, he was finally promoted to a special professor at the University of Vienna, and he was known all over the world as Professor Freud for the rest of his life.This honor came a bit late, but it still benefited him a lot in terms of fame and reality. Also in this year, Wilhelm Stekel, a doctor in Vienna, gave Freud an idea. This man had suffered from impotence and was cured by Freud.He suggested that Freud hold a weekly evening for colleagues interested in his work.Freud liked the idea and sent invitations to three other doctors. In the fall of 1902, the five doctors, who called themselves the "Wednesday Psychological Society," began meeting regularly in Freud's office.A member hands in a paper, and afterward, several people discuss the paper and related psychological theories and treatments over coffee and refreshments.According to one of its members: "In the first few years there was an air of a certain religious oath in the room. Freud himself was its new leader and prophet, and he made some of the methods of psychological investigation at that time superfluous." shallow." The group grew, and its early members included Otto Rank, Alfred Adler, Sanda Frenz, and Ernest Jones, all destined to become central figures in the psychology movement. big names.By 1906, there were 17 members, and two years later the growing group formed the Vienna Psychoanalytic Society, though sectarian and bickering.During this period, many similar societies emerged in Europe and America, and by 1910, at a congress in Nuremberg, the International Psychoanalytic Association was also established. Freud's professorship and work in forming the Wednesday Psychological Society brought him a bountiful outpatient business and income.He has a separate office suite, completely separate from his family's spacious residence.He began to collect Roman and Greek statuettes and other curios that he liked, and placed them on tables as far as he could see, himself sitting behind the head-side of the patient's couch.He now has the money to travel farther afield for more luxurious vacations.He was used to working very hard for 9 months and taking 3 months off for the summer.He spent the first part of his holiday in the mountains with the whole family—Martha, their six children, Martha's last sister Minna.Although he appears serious in photographs, with a formidable gaze—some say penetrating and commanding—in private, he can be warm, open-minded, and informal , When I was on vacation, I still carried a backpack, put on hiking clothes and boots, and took the older children to walk in the forest, climb mountains, look for mushrooms, and fish.After a few weeks of this, he would leave his family for Italy and visit the city of Rome, which was also one of the fruits of his self-analysis.Martha did not go with him, Freud was a very conservative Viennese middle-class patriarch whose wife was a housewife whose sole purpose in life was to serve "our dear patriarch."She maintained peace and order, freed Freud from mundane chores, tidied his clothes, even squeezed toothpaste on his toothbrush for him.With such support, it's no wonder Freud, a man who loved work so much, achieved so much.Although he saw a doctor for eight or nine hours a day, he still wrote a lot at night and on weekends. There are 23 volumes of psychological works in his life. Of the many books Freud wrote in the first years of the new century, both large and small, two are particularly important, the one that brought him fame and the other that brought him notoriety. The first was General Psychopathology, published in 1901.It talks about such topics as forgetting, slipping words, and clumsiness, which Freud believed were not mere ailments but had very important unconscious causes.Despite the seriousness of its purpose, the book is filled with much amusing material gleaned from Freud's own life, the lives of his patients, and from the press and other sources.One example was Freud's favorite, and he later cited it in a number of other works.Yes, the Chairman of the House of Representatives of the Austrian Parliament, knowing that an extraordinary meeting would produce no good results, secretly wishing it to be over, declared formally at the beginning of the meeting: "Gentlemen, I note that the legal majority present The participants have been present, so I declare that the meeting is closed!" General Psychopathology became Freud's best-selling book, and during his lifetime, there were 11 editions and it was translated into 12 foreign languages. . The second book "Three Essays on Sexology" was published in 1905.This work goes further than previous works in describing sexuality as the most fundamental force in human behavior.The first dealt with sexually disordered behavior as a consequence of incomplete or distorted growth.The second, dealing with infantile sexuality, expanded on Freud's early views on the subject by insisting that all human beings are born with the potential for perversion, but that in healthy development this perversion Just want to be controlled.The third article deals with adolescent libido and the differences between male and female personalities due to anatomical differences. There are many obvious details in "Three Essays on Sexology", the book's theoretical ideas about children's sexuality offended some small-town residents with restrained thinking among the middle class in Europe and America.Known as a dirty-minded pansexual and a "Vienna libertine," Freud's books were characterized as "pornography," a taint of the pure nature of children.According to Jones in 1955: "The publication of this book made him famous and censured, and still does, especially among the uneducated. The book was considered a libel on the innocence of children." .” However, the book has attracted great attention.The book has been widely discussed in psychology and psychiatry, has been reprinted several times, and has been translated into nine foreign languages.James Strachey said this book, along with The Interpretation of Dreams, was Freud's "most important and seminal contribution to the field of human knowledge". Three years later, Freud accepted an invitation to be a keynote speaker at a psychology conference as part of Clark University's 20th anniversary celebrations.This is the first affirmation of him personally and his work by the international community.He accepted the invitation and went to Worcester, Massachusetts, with two colleagues, Santo Frenz and Carl Jung, and under the guidance of leading psychologists and psychiatrists. Five papers on the history of psychoanalysis, its main theories and methods of treatment were read before an audience of academics.Some listeners found the material disrespectful (Will Michael, a prominent physician, called Floyd a "dirty, nasty bastard," and a Canadian school principal said that Floyd seemed to be advocating a "return to barbarism") , however, most listeners, including William James, were deeply impressed.These lectures were well received in discussions in the dailies and the National, and were published in the American Psychologist, giving Freud's ideas a wider range of influence.After this meeting, Freud rose to fame. Not that it brought him a moment of peace.Freud was a proud, sensitive, stubborn egoist, and like many other great pioneers, he threw himself into the movement he started, trying to control it because theory and therapy resulting in disputes.He seemed to feel that the Vienna Psychological Society should not be run in a uniform way, but should be divided into layers, an attitude that is natural to a person living in an authoritarian country.Still, this view may be justified, since a person who has made many discoveries will certainly want to protect them from distortion and contamination.As a result, some struggles between theory and practice, some resulting rifts, have been a recurring pattern in the psychoanalytic movement. From one perspective, the pattern may simply be a reflection within an institution of the personality traits of its founder.Freud had been a close friend of Breuer and then of Frisch, but their friendship had since cooled, and they exchanged harsh words when others developed a theory different from his own. Face to face, until no contact with each other, this is the case with both of them.Similar rifts arose between him and his closest disciples and colleagues in many subsequent years. Alfred Adler came to realize that some of the most important factors affecting a child's development had to do with his or her place in the family and with the parental style of parenting.If these positions and modalities have a pathological tendency, they form "inferiority feelings" in the child, which lead to behaviors which wish to compensate.Adler disagrees with Freud on the role of sexuality in the formation of character and the onset of psychosis, arguing that female character, for example, is not caused by the absence of a penis, as compared with Male envy of social status and privilege is much weaker, and the boy's conflicts at about 5 years of age have much shallower roots in Oedipal emotions than his competitive cravings and feelings of powerlessness.Adler and several other disciples quit the Vienna Society in 1911 after a long dispute with Freud, who tried unsuccessfully to contain Adler's theory with his own theory, and formed their own of learning. Swiss psychiatrist and psychologist Carl Jung disagreed with Freud's key theories about the sexual origins of psychosis.In his view, psychosis is a manifestation of current maladjustment, not a disease arising from trauma in infancy or childhood.Jung was also a strong believer in the tenets of religion and mysticism, a belief in a "collective unconscious" spiritual phenomenon shared by all human beings.These doctrines were the source of controversy between him and Freud.Jung was once an ardent believer in Freud, but he slowly withdrew. In 1914, he officially split from the Freudian movement and formed his own school. Otto Ranke, a devoted disciple and close aide to Freud for many years, slowly developed his theory that the main source of anxiety was birth trauma and that male sexual desire was the hope of returning to uterus desire.Freud tried unsuccessfully to reconcile Ranke's views with his own, and a relationship between the two began to be strained and ended in 1926. Once, at the Freud family dinner table, when the subject of his inability to unite believers was discussed, one of Freud's aunts said: "Your problem is that you don't understand people at all." Surprisingly, Freud was as productive as ever in these unpleasant days, when the austerity of World War I and the social chaos that ensued caused his business to plummet, And the post-war inflation swallowed up all his life savings. He continued to develop his theory of psychoanalysis through clinical work with patients and exchanged ideas with colleagues through letters and international conferences, though he never again did with anyone as he did with Breuer or Frisch. Cooperation.He continued to enrich his psychoanalytic theory through articles, case histories, and writings. Of course, Freudian psychology is only a part of human psychology, and Freud himself saw it that way.This discipline is not concerned with all those conscious learning processes, reasoning processes, problem solving, and creativity that seem to be the crowning achievements of evolution and culture.It also doesn’t say a word about behaviorism theory, about solving the problems of psychological research strictly by means of external exploration, and Freud himself in a footnote Said it would not be considered at all. Freudian psychology was, and still is, explored in a totally endoscopic way and as if out of time, in stark contrast to so much that was happening in the world around him.Electricity, the internal combustion engine, automobiles and airplanes, telephones and radios, are all radically changing everyday life and social patterns; wars and revolutions have destroyed empires and given birth to new democracies and dictatorships; the Victorian foundations of hierarchy and family life Falling apart and leading to wider suffrage, social mobility, women's rights and divorce.In all this happening, Freud was still preoccupied with original and eternal inner truths: sexual desire and other instincts, their conflict with the demands of the external world, the events of childhood and their impact on their personality and emotions impact. However, perhaps because of the speed of social change, because of the unraveling of traditions, because of the bewildering array of social choices that suddenly appeared, Freud's psychology turned out to be particularly fascinating, especially in the United States (besides academia and behavioral outside the circle of theist theorists).In an era of rapid change, it states some aspects of human nature that do not change; in an era that places great emphasis on material interests and practical science, it emphasizes some spiritual phenomena of people-desires, frustrations, conscience, moral values; In a culture that emphasizes individualism and optimism, it points out the individual nature of behavior, and proposes some theories and therapies to support the idea that people can change themselves for good. Whatever the reason, psychoanalysis succeeded as a therapy and as a psychology, and Freud's own fame skyrocketed from 1909 onwards, peaking between the two world wars.His name is already a household name, and no one knows it.Although very few people have actually read any of his books, everyone who has read reasonably knows who he is.His influence on modern thought is often compared with that of Einstein, and many famous scholars have written to him or sought opportunities to climb the dragon.Media giants try to cash in on his name and reputation. In 1924, during the trial of the murders of Leon Bord and Leopold, Colonel Robert McCormick, publisher of the Chicago Tribune, paid $25,000 for Freud to come to Chicago to analyze the two young murderers. guilty, but Floyd refused.When Samuel Godwin offered to give Floyd $100,000 to help him make films depicting some of the most famous love stories in history, Floyd's reply landed his name on the front page of The New York Times: "Freud declined Godwin. The Viennese master of psychoanalysis remained calm about high-dollar film collaborations."Freud had little interest in these notions, but when he was awarded the Goethe Prize in 1930 he said it was "the pinnacle of my life as a citizen". In 1923, at the age of 67, Freud had cancer in his upper jaw because of smoking cigars all his life, and he underwent the first operation. In the next 16 years, he performed a total of 30 such operations. In order to remove recurrent cancerous tissue.He had to install a large stent in his mouth to separate the oral and nasal cavities, which made it very difficult to talk and eat, and had to be removed periodically with pain to clean the infected wound. His later life was overshadowed by the rise of Nazi Germany, and his books were burned by the Nazis from 1933 onwards.Seeing that the Nazi movement was about to sweep Austria, friends and family urged him to leave, but he refused.It wasn't until Germany occupied Austria and the Nazis confiscated his passport that the frail, elderly man realized the danger and agreed to leave if his body allowed.Partly because of the intervention of President Franklin Delano Roosevelt and his ambassador to France, William C. Britt, the Nazis had to let it go.Later that year the faithful Martha moved with him to London.Although his cancer is no longer operable, his consciousness is still clear. He still insists on writing and seeing some patients.Eventually, in unbearable pain, he asked his doctor to end the pain with an overdose of morphine. He died on September 23, 1939, only three weeks before the outbreak of World War II. From 1900 to 1923, Freud developed and revised his psychological theory, but since then, as he said: "There has been no decisive contribution to psychology." From 1923 to 1939, he did写作了3篇大作，可这些著作讨论的是超出心理学以外的一些东西，因此也不是本书关心的议题。 （三篇大作是：1927年《一个错觉的未来》，讲宗教的起源；1930年《文明及其不满》，讲人类对欲望的控制，此乃有可能形成团体的要素和1939年的《摩西与一神教》，讲一神教的起源） 他还写了一些论文，完善了有关心理分析治疗的一些思想，可基本内容仍然没变。事实上，弗洛伊德对治疗方法本身并无兴趣，而只是把它当作一个办法，借以达到两个目的——一是要谋生，更重要的是要探索人性并对思维科学有所贡献。“心理分析学，”他晚年时期曾说，“最初只不过是一些解释病理精神现象的方法……（后来）发展成为一门探讨正常精神生活的心理学。” 作为探索精神生活的一种方法，心理分析疗法以极细微的方法来看待这个世界。弗洛伊德最伟大和最大胆的一些理论思想都是从细微的小事上得出来的——病人梦中的一个图形或者一个名字，说话走了嘴，一个玩笑，一个奇怪的病症，儿童时代某个场景的回忆，一种面部表情等。在一次有关“闪失”（小毛病，小过失）的讲座中，弗洛伊德对听众说，他知道听众都会觉得这些东西属鸡毛蒜皮的小事，不值得研究，可是，他以那无法摹仿的迷人风度解释说，这都是些线索，可以追踪到隐藏起来的心理学真情： 进行（心理学）观察的材料，通常都是由不足挂齿的一些小事情提供出来的，而其它一些科学往往对此不屑一顾一一认为那不过是现象世界中的一些残渣废铁……（可是，）难道不存在一些只有在某些条件下，在某些时间里才以极隐晦的方式表现出来的非常重要的事情吗？……如果你是位比方说年轻人，难道不是通过一些非常细微的事情来判断你已经赢得了某位少女的芳心的吗？你会一直等待着爱的直接表达，或者一次热烈的拥抱吗？或者说，一个不易为外人察觉的青眼的流盼，不是已经足够了吗？一阵细微的摸索，手上的轻抚多停留了一秒，这不足够了吗？再比如你是位追捕凶犯的侦探，你会寄希望于在作案现场找到凶手的照片，照片后面还贴有他的住址吗？能够发现有关案犯比较起来算是非常细微和隐晦的一些痕迹，你难道就不应该感到相当满足吗？ 正是因为他对病人和无穷无尽的一些细微琐事的高度注意，弗洛伊德才把他创立的心理学当中的一些主要因素串起来了。他对早期发现的主要扩展和修正如下所示： 儿童期性欲： 弗洛伊德尽管早就注意到了性欲是儿童期的一个重要力量，可直到1905年以后，他才在《性学三论》里把这个激烈异常的结论提了出来，说性驱动力甚至在婴儿期就存在了。他可能受到弗里士的一些影响和左右，后者对儿童期性欲的观点比他更为极端得多，但是，使弗洛伊德相信和被说服的是他自己临床积累下来的证据，再加上医学文献中对此的确认性观察。他的结论是：“儿童自小就有了性本能和性活动；它们是与生俱来的。” 可是，他指的婴儿期和儿童期性欲，其概念是比成人性欲更为宽广，更为广义的冲动。弗洛伊德尽管把它叫作性欲或者力比多，可实际上指的是追求任何意义上的肉体快感的普遍欲望。按照弗洛伊德的说法，婴儿是多重倒错的。最开始，嘴唇是主要的快感带，最初是通过吮吸，然后通过衔咬和进食获取的。孩子到了1岁半和3岁之间时，肛门区成了主要的快感来源，因为他或者她已经开始控制并意识到粪便的排泄或保留。到了3岁和6岁的时候，孩子通过生殖器的自我刺激来获取快感。 可是，对于这些原始的满足，父母会施加很强的压抑影响，大部分是通过排泄训练和不准许，或者惩罚手淫来实现的。最原始的多重性欲本能变得狭窄一些了，并导向别的地方，这样一来，到成年期，它会集中在与性伙伴的生殖器性欲上。 不适当的育儿方式——对进食或者排泄训练的过分强调，或者没有禁止禁忌性的冲动——会阻挡儿童向生殖器性欲的发展。孩子会在成长的较早期固结起来，这种固结以后会表现为成年生活当中的性偏离（例如，只喜欢口交或者肛交），但更常见的是它会形成性格特征。例如，在口唇期过度沉溺的孩子，今后可能会在成年期内极喜欢吃、喝和抽烟。在口唇期内没有得到满足或者满足不够的孩子可能会很消极地成长起来，通过对别人的依靠而产生自我价值感。同样的，在肛门期内没有能够调节过来的儿童，可能会在成年生活中形成“肛门特征”——强迫性洁癖吝啬（守物）和倔犟。 性发展的后期阶段： 儿童期最关键的心理学事件，是发生在他们成长的“阴茎'期的（弗洛伊德用这个词指两个性别），年龄从3岁到6岁。人童的性欲主要通过自淫满足，对两种性别的人都有可能产生影响，可是，在阴茎期内，儿童已经通过许多线索得知哪种人可能提供合适的性渴望满足。最理想的模型——也是最近、最容易得手的——主是相反性别的父或母。 这一点，弗洛伊德早年曾说过，会直接导致俄狄浦斯情节，他曾描述它为一个关键的阶段。现在，再往前一步，他推想，解决这个问题的办法对于性格成长是至关重要的。弗洛伊德的理论是，男孩与父亲的对抗引发他担心，强大的父亲会通过阉割（而不是杀害）战胜自己，而他对这个恐惧的反应，不仅仅是完全压抑住自己对母亲的性感觉，并用亲情来替代，而且把这种对父亲的敌对和反抗变成对他的认同，并承认他在生活中的作用。 在女孩子这方面，情况稍有不同，按照弗洛伊德后来对女性成长的观点，她们意识到自己没有阴茎，并想象她们已经被阉割掉了。她遭受着“阴茎嫉妒”的痛苦，她对母亲的爱变成了敌意（她想象是自己的母亲允许自己没有阴茎就出生下来或者被阉割掉的），她梦想通过与父亲生一个孩子来弥补这个损失。可这个梦证明不可能实现，最后，她只好放弃，与母亲认同，解除容易引起自己的焦虑感的敌意。但是，由于她没有阴茎，她对伤害的恐惧比男孩子的少。她对父亲的俄狄浦斯感觉并没有像男孩子对母亲的感觉那样完全彻底地压抑下来，这就限制了她的性格成长。在她的整个一生中，她认为自己已经被割除了阴茎的感觉，都对她的性格形成、她的人生目标、她的道德感和她的自我价值观产生负面的影响。如盖依所言：“到1920年代，弗洛伊德好像已经采纳了这个观点，即小女孩是一个没有成功的男孩，而已经成人的妇女就是一种被阉割后的男人。”（最近几十年，弗洛伊德的女性心理学理论已经广泛地被认为是狭隘和受文化约束的，而且，由于在过去几十年内，女性性格和妇女的地位都已经发生了很大的变化，他的理论也已经完全被证明是错误的。弗洛伊德本人承认，他对女性心理学的理解是“不完全和片断性的”，并曾说：“从来没有人搞清楚，我自已经过对女性心灵30年的研究也没有能够回答的一个问题是，'女人需要什么？'”） 男孩子和女孩子在约5岁的时候，都经历过其性欲的压抑过程，进入人生的“潜伏期”，这期间，他们很大程度上被解除了由性本能引起的担心和焦虑，并把他们的注意力和精力转入上学和成长中。可是，被压抑下去的性冲动只是被锁起来了，而并没有被消灭掉，它们一直想着要冲出牢笼。它们以梦的形式找到间接和隐蔽的出口，而且，在一些没有完全解决好俄狄浦斯情结的儿童中，他们是以病症的形式表现出来的。 最后，孩子到了12岁的时候，青春期的荷尔蒙变化会唤醒沉睡的性冲动，被压抑下来的感情开始以社会可以容忍的形式向外宣泄，通常是导向家庭之外的异性。在儿童成长的最后的“生殖器”阶段，性渴望转变成“目标之爱”——性欲和感情欲望通过对另一个人的爱而以可接受的方式得到满足，这个人通常是与被禁止的性爱对象相类似的人，即父亲当中与自己的性别相对的那一个。 弗洛伊德的心理性欲成长理论，通常被狭窄地误解为只关心性欲望和性行为，可实际上，它要解决的是大得多的一些问题：孩子气与成熟之间、本能欲望和社会规范之间，以及愿望和现实之间基本和不可避免的冲突，这些问题的解决对性格发展和社会生活都是至关重要的。 精神的结构： 弗洛伊德最初认为，精神是由无意识、潜意识和意识组成的一幅图画，可是，随着他编制出了心理性欲发展理论，他发现这作为一套理论是太简单了点。他后来以本我、自我和超我的三重精神状态来描述它。这些东西不是任何物质上或者形而上学意义上的概念，而只是一组或者一串实现不同功能的精神过程。 在新生婴儿中，所有的精神过程都是本我过程，它们处于无意识和原初状态。本我是不可以任何类似逻辑推理的东西来理喻的。它是一支大锅，装满要满足原初欲望的一些本能性的要求，这些原初欲望与自我保存（饥饿、渴望，如此之类）、性欲和进取有关。本我的要求按快乐原则进行，它们要满足紧张感的释放，而不管社会规则或者由这些寻找释放行为而产生的现实后果。 在本我指挥行动的情况下，社会生活就不可能有了，因此，养孩子和社会生活都旨在控制本我的力量并把它导向可接受的行为。从某一部分来看，这是通过对有意识思维进行培训和教育来实现的，因为它会理解、推理，并按第二思维原则发挥作用。这就是自我，或者是自身，它在孩子成长时逐渐成长并与本我有所不同。（可是，自我的很大一部分都是无意识的，我们以后会看到这一点。）自我与本我并无绝然分界，反而有所重合和相互包容部分。然而，本我进入了自我并形成了如俄狄浦斯情结这类的焦虑中的思想和感情，都被压抑推回至本我最遥远的角落里去并加上了壁垒，再也无法重新回到意识之中。 很多其它的冲动，对比而言都是由自我有意识地控制起来的。孩子慢慢懂得，除开别的事情外，一个人不可取他人之物，不能没有正当理由就去打击别人，也不可当众手淫。我们教孩子们懂得，这样的行为是不可接受的，并恶果会招致恶果。我们虽然进行了一部分的培训，就像训动物一般，通过奖赏和惩罚来进行，可更多的情况是，我们在抚育他们成长的时候告诉他们哪些是正确的行为，为什么。接受了这些教训的自我慢慢就能够进行自我批评和自我控制了。 然而，自我当中有很大一部分却不是有意识的。它的很多过程都是潜意识的——没有压抑下去，但也没有处于焦点之下。例如，我们是在意识之外完成很多解决问题的活动的，我们继续考虑一些收集到的信息，考虑实现目标的一些方式，可并没有有意识地去思考这些东西。当一个主意突然来到脑海里，就像来自虚无之中一样时，那是因为我们一直就在寻找这个主意。同样地，潜意识会操纵我们早已娴熟得体的一些技巧，让有意识的思维在别处自由地使用它有限的注意力。一位训练有素的音乐家的手指，是在他读乐谱的时候自动弹奏正确的音键的，他不需要就此思考。 反过来，负责监视和督促自我的超我却是无意识的，而且对管理我们的社会行为至关重要。它在自我之中作为俄狄浦斯的后果而发展，在这个时候，已经与同一性别的父母产生认同的孩子会接受父母的训谕和信仰，并使这些东西成为自己的一部分。通过认同，像“你不能”，“你应该”等的命令都转变成“我不能”，“我应该”。第一道命令与俄狄浦斯情结有关，可同一机理会把所有的道德价值转变成内化和自我谨记的教条。这些东西集合起来形成“自我理想”，或者叫超我，即我们平常所说的良心。道德话题是由自我在意识范围内进行比量的，超我会唤起一种强烈的“应该”和“不应该”感觉。一个在救生艇上漂浮的人，他的自我可能会推想，把食物和水递给一个行将死去的同伴可能是个浪费，甚至导致两个人都死亡。超我却会胜过自我，坚持分享剩下的东西。 早些时候，弗洛伊德曾坚持说，超我在女孩中的发展与男孩子情况下的发展非常接近。后来，如我们所见，他慢慢认识到，女孩子没有阉割焦虑，她的俄狄浦斯危机感没有那么紧张，因此在她们的一生中，超我和道德感因此也少得多。（奇怪的是，他表达了家长观点的这篇论文，是在他的要求下，由他最喜欢的女儿，心理分析师安娜·弗洛伊德，在1925年的国际心理分析大会上代他宣读的。） 这样一来，个人的行为就是精神里面的三个机关互相作用的结果。本我寻找最直接的欲望满足，自我使用现实原则思维来压抑这个冲动，并寻找可接受的方式来满足这个欲望，而超我是通过已经溶入无意识之中的父辈的教诲来施加控制的。当本我的力量强得自我和超我都无法控制的时候，这个人的行为要么就呈病态的，要么就去犯罪。当超我太强，超出自我时，这个人就会充满负罪感、挫折感，对别人一幅道德面孔或者惯于迫害别人。在健康的人身上，自我会控制这个系统，寻找让本我得到充分满足的各种方法，但并不是以招致从愤怒的超我那里得来的沉重的负罪感为代价的。 本能理论： 弗洛伊德心中的“本能”与生物学家眼里的概念不一样：它是指以代码形式编入基因之中的一些具体的行为形式——如蜘蛛结网，鸟儿筑巢——这些行为形式他是用德语词Instinkt来表达的。可这个德语词在标准版中翻译成“本能”意义的是Trieb，它有“冲动”、“变动的力量”或者“驱动力”的意思。 在弗洛伊德的早期著作中，他曾假定，与嘴唇、肛门和性器官相关的性本能构成精神力量的总和。可是，他后来对“重复的强迫性冲动”（重复自我打击或者痛苦行为的趋向）的研究，加上第一次世界大战可怕的一些事件扩大了他的思路。他逐渐相信，还有一种毁灭本能。当这种本能向外导出时，它以侵略的形式出现，如果受阻，它会锁定在内心，向里发展，如在重复的强迫性冲动中所表现的样子。 因此，他形成了一个双重本能的理论：生存本能，或者依洛斯，由所有的生存保护冲动构成，其中就有性驱动力；再就是死亡本能，或者坦那托斯，它包容了所有导向敌意、虐待狂和侵略——他甚至小心地提议还有一种导向自我死亡的神秘冲动。一般来说，这最后一种本能的冲动比生存冲动要弱得多，但表现却难得多，可是，在弗洛伊德看来，对于受虐狂现象和其它一些与快乐原则相左的行为来说，这是惟一可能提供解释的办法。 焦虑、症状和自卫： 弗洛伊德原来的想法是，精神性焦虑及其症状——跟一个人在面对现实世界中一个危险境地时产生的真实的焦虑感相对——是从压抑下去的性本能中受阻的力量中产生的：没有释放出去的性紧张感会生成焦虑。可是，收集到临床数据后，他形成了更为复杂的解释，并在这个基础之上总结了俄狄浦斯情结及其解决办法的理论，并把这个理论扩展开来，用以解释其它一些精神性的焦虑形式。作为一个幻想或者大胆行动进入意识的本能欲望会形成对伤害的预见。这会引起儿童感到不可忍受的焦虑，而自我为了保护它自己就会压抑这个本能欲望，此时，焦虑就会消失。 可是，精神怎样能够渲泄这憋足了劲的能量，怎样消解没有得到满足的本能需要制造的令人不快的紧张感呢？精神怎样阻止它突破重围进入意识之中呢？有一个解决办法——弗洛伊德在他的精神病人当中看到的一种有缺陷和病源性的办法——这就是病症的形成： 受到压抑的不利影响会从本能冲动中产生一个病症……本能冲动找到了一个与压抑相对的替代物，可这是一个逊色不少、移位和受到禁止的替代物，它作为一种满足已经无法辨认。当替代性的冲动实现的时候，没有什么快感可言，反过来，它的实现有强迫性的冲动性质。 他举了最为著名的一个病案，即小汉斯的病案。这个孩子在俄狄浦斯阶段时产生了一个使他不能上街的恐惧感。他害怕马（当时街上到处都是马），他认为马会咬他。弗洛伊德说，他不能够外出的原因，是因为这是“自我施加的一道限制，以避免激起焦虑病症”。可是，害怕被马咬这个恐惧从何而来？经分析，追踪到了小汉斯的俄狄浦斯欲望，即他想干掉父亲的愿望，结果，他害怕父亲会伤害他。他没有能够找到一个健康的办法来解决这个问题，反而移位到马身上（很有意义的是，他父亲以前常爱扮马让他骑），并把这个阉割恐惧转变成怕马咬。 简单说，不能允许的一个愿望，如果被压抑下来，又以不当的方式加以处理，就会变成精神病症。这个病症对患者来说是沉重的，可并没有它所释放的焦虑所造成的代价大： 广场恐惧症患者可能会是在街上受到焦虑袭击的，这就可能在以后反复在街上发作。他现在会形成广场恐惧症的病症，这也可能被描述成一种禁忌，一种自我功能的限制，通过这个限制，他就可以避开焦虑的袭击。我们可以在病症形成的时候加以干扰，这样就可以看见其相反的一面。比如，我们可以用迷恋来干扰他。如果我们阻止一位病人，不让他完成自己的洗涤仪式，他就会陷入无法忍受的焦虑之中，很明显，他一直就是靠病症来保护自己的。 因此，压抑是针对所有容易产生焦虑的愿望、记忆或者感觉的基本防卫办法，也正是心理结构的基石。它是在无意识的情况下发挥作用的。一个小孩子可能压抑了自己希望自己的小弟妹死去的愿望而不自知，如果有人暗示这一点，他会作出嘲笑或者愤怒的反应。（压抑是不同的精神动作，它是对一个不能得到许可的欲望的有意识的控制，一个人可能希望自己避开实现这个欲望，可这不一定就能去除焦虑。）如在俄狄浦斯冲突中，压抑可能会导致精神病的发作可通常又没有发作，精神找到了一个替代的方式来处理受压抑的材料。它是通过一系列别的防卫办法来实现这一点的——这里，一切又是在无意识中进行的——它会把不能接受的东西变成可以接受的东西。弗洛伊德曾说，有“很多的办法（或者如我们所说的机制）可以让自我去发挥其防卫性作用”，他列举了一些例子，并让读者去看其女儿安娜·弗洛伊德针对防卫机制更为详尽的处理办法。在他所列举和安娜讨论过的常见防卫性办法中，以下这些是最为常见的： 否认，这是相对原始的一种防卫办法，一个人只是简单地不接受或者不承认容易产生焦虑的现实。一位伺候行将过世的丈夫的女人，可能会告诉自己说（尽管所有的证据都不是如此），他很快会恢复过来，或者，她也有可能说，“我希望让他尽量多活一些日子”，可实际上，她在无意识里却希望这一切早点过去。一位吸烟的人可能会相信，所有证明抽烟与癌症有关的一些证据都可能是有误的，或者，他会想，自己的家族中还没有因抽烟而殒命的。 合理化——这是更为复杂一些的否认版本。一个人本来出自一种动机从事某事，却找到另一个动机来说明它的公正性。一位小气的人可能会说，时势未定，我只不过是在小心行事而已。一位受尽折磨的女人自信心很差，她的依赖性太强，无法离他人而独立，她说，之所以与辱没她的情人或者丈夫生活在一起是因为她爱他。反应形成一这一步走得较远，夸大，展示，让所有人都看见与压抑下去的特征相反的那一个特征。一个压抑了同性爱愿望的人可能会以异常的形式表现自己，并对同性恋者实施人身攻击。有可能变成声色犬马之徒的一个人可能会革心洗面，或者成为性爱艺术和性爱文学的死敌。 移位——它会把压抑起来的感情导向一个可接受的替代物。一位对父亲过分依恋的女人可能会选一个与父亲年龄差不多的男人做丈夫。一个埋藏了对专权的父亲的深刻仇恨的男人可能会成为一个长期的反叛者，一辈子与任何形式的专权者争斗不息。 智力化——这可以通过选择一门对某个不允许的欲望，一种痛苦的失落，或者类似的学科的极大的兴趣，从而达到排谴焦虑的目的。一个压抑了施虐狂冲动的人可能会成为专事施虐狂或者迫害者研究的社会科学家。弗洛伊德的同代人哈弗洛克·埃利斯虽然一辈子没有能够有性生活，但他却写了一大批有关正常及异常性行为的学术作品。 投射——这是常见的一种防卫机制，它是指一个人把自己不可接受的冲动转向这种冲动的变向目标。否认感觉有种族仇恨的人相信，其它种族的人很仇恨他们，或者把自己否认有的某种冲动转到别人身上去，如在三K党情况下即是，三K党徒们认为黑人是邪恶的，而且在性行为上有动物的野蛮。 升华——最后，这是防卫机制中最有社会效果的一种，通过升华，超我和自我可以把本能需要转变成某种有社会价值的活动。绘画经常是儿童时期希望糊屎或者用手玩屎的冲动的升华，写作或者表演通常是表现自我冲动的升华；外科是想伤害别人的冲动中一种崇高的升华；而大多数运动项目（包括像国际象棋这些非运动型的游戏）都是侵略性这个冲动中可接受和好玩的升华。 自弗洛伊德开始发表他的思想以来，他的心理学一直就是激烈攻击的对象。几十年来，人们从各个立场抨击他，一开始是一些医生和心理学家们，他们说它肮脏变态，到20世纪30年代，共产主义理论家们说它是腐朽堕落的资本主义思想，同一个年代，纳粹说它是犹太垃圾并焚烧他的书籍。心理分析学逃过了这些攻击，可是，许多年以来，它一直面对着另一种更为值得人考虑的攻击：一些心理学家和科学哲学家都宣称，心理分析学不是科学的。他们主要的论据是，心理分析研究不是实验性质的，心理分析师们不能够建立一个情形，在这样的情形之中，他可以控制变量，并一次处理一个案例，以检查其影响力，并建立一个重要的联系。可是，实验不是进行科学探索的惟一方式，通过观察进行推理也是一种方式。在一大堆数据当中得出一个模式，科学家就可以假想其成因，然后通过查看更多的例子来测验这个推想。如果它们也可以适合推断，则这个假想就得以加强，如果不能，则其推断力量减少。正是这样的方法才确立了心理分析研究的基础。 可是，哲学家阿道夫·格伦堡说，按这样的过程收集到的证据是很脆弱的。一方面，得出了模式的观察有一个“共同的污染物”——即分析者的影响。例如，分析师提供了某种行为片断的解释以后，病人可能会按部就班地得出一个确认性的记忆（这有可能事实上是杜撰的）。另一方面，当应用自由联想来探索像神经症状、梦想和小毛病等的十分不同的领域时，数据之间存在的一致性可能是使用同一个方法来探索不同现象的结果，而不是发现的结果之间真正意义上的共存。格伦堡说，这并不能担保这个结论说，心理分析是不可证明的，相反，它指明，其理论的检验应该在治疗室以外来进行。“看起来，如果的确有效的话，弗洛伊德的主要推断的有效性主要得从设计良好的临床外研究中得出，不论是从流行病学的角度，还是从实验的角度。” 在过去的半个世纪里，实际上进行了许多的工作，以实现这个目标。有些人进行了一些实验室实验，让志愿者受一些刺激，这些刺激按弗洛伊德的理论应该得出某种特定的结果。另外一些人依靠测试来测量某些性格特征，在这些特征当中，应该有某种心理动力学的联系，这些人在这些特征当中寻找统计学上的互动性以支持这个假设。还有一些人采取了发展学意义上的方法，观察并测量儿童在成长期间的性格特征和行为，以确定性格成长是按弗洛伊德理论进行，或者要求别的解释。 到目前，已经积累了一大批这样的研究成果。它们在方法论的可靠程度上有很大的差异，范围也有很大的不同，测试了总的理论，也测试小的具体的子项。这就很难衡量其积累下来的东西，可是，有一小部分学者还是奋力这样做了。对于这样一些研究，有一种观点是由心理学家赛穆尔·费希尔和罗杰·P·格林堡提出的，他们把更多的精力集中在结果上面，而不去穷究方法论的完善与否。费希尔和格林堡提出，弗洛伊德的下列理论是有足够根据的：他的口唇和肛门期特征概念；男性同性恋病源论（弗洛伊德提出，一个敌意的、排斥性的父亲和一位亲密的、有约束力的母亲会促发俄狄浦斯式的敌对状况，使儿童无法选择一个女性的同伴）；偏执狂的起源，它是对同性恋冲动的防卫措施；俄狄浦斯理论的好多方面；还有他有关梦作为心理学张力出口的功能的大多数梦幻理论。 他们认为下面这些论题是有错误的，即梦是隐蔽的无意识愿望，心理分析学在治疗精神病时优于其它治疗方法的宣称，俄秋浦斯理论的一些部分，还有弗洛伊德关于女性的大部分观点。 他们的总结如下： 总观我们对弗洛伊德理论的测试，我们得出一个总体印象，即检测结果常常与他的理论预期相吻合……当我们把这些总的检测结果加起来，并把正确的和错误的部分平衡起来的时候，我们发现，弗洛伊德一路走得相当不错。可是，跟所有的理论家一样，他已经证明，在这漫长的探索之中，他所取得的成功决非完美无缺。他的许多理论议题的确是正确和无可挑剔的，但在有些重大的观点上他也同样出现了谬误。如果我们只考虑他关于男性的一些理论体系，甚或，如果我们只考虑他的理论推想（相对于他进行心理治疗上的实际方法），则他的正确记录的确无与伦比。 在这样的一些研究当中，稍晚一些，在保尔·克兰1981年版的《弗洛伊德理论中的事实与幻想》中，进行了一些比弗希尔和格林堡更为详尽一些的研究。按照克兰的说法，这种研究也更加有区别性，因为他只以非常可靠的方法论进行的研究中得出结论。他并不想办法去评估弗洛伊德有关死亡本能和快乐原则的大理论，因为它们“是形而上的心理学”——基本上是哲学的讨论因而也无法检验——克兰只发现有不少于16种的弗洛伊德概念已经得到检验。他的总结如下： 客观证据证明，精神活动分成自我、超我和本我三重层次是可以确认的。发展理论得到了支持，因为口唇期和肛门期性欲（指婴儿口唇快感中涉及性欲的成分）、俄狄浦斯和阉割情结都好像是出现过的。另外，成人性格模式中像口唇和肛门性格一般也可看见。防卫机制压抑经常使用这一点好像不用怀疑，其它一些防卫机制也似可见。性象征是一种经过证明的现象，在梦幻里外都已经存在过，它的确是与人性基本的冲突相关联。另外，弗洛伊德关于精神病的一些推断似乎也得到了支持……（总起来说）在弗洛伊德的概念当中，对心理分析理论致关重要的一些概念都已经得到支持。 “一部世界史就是一部世界判断史”，席勒说，而这在弗洛伊德的情况下的确就是如此。有对他的人格的攻击，有就他的理论进行的哲学争论，有很多人花费精力来验证他的理论正确与否，可是，对这个人的衡量和他的思想的评价，本身就是他对心理学和西方文明史的影响。 到20世纪30年代，尽管行为主义已经是一统天下，可是，还是有一系列心理学家同意威廉·麦克道尔的说法，他是这个领域里一言九鼎的权威人士。麦克道尔说，弗洛伊德“对心理学作出了自亚里士多德以来最大的贡献”。在心理学的学术圈外，许多人用更崇高的字眼来形容他的影响。1936年，在弗洛伊德的80诞辰上，托马斯·曼，罗曼·罗兰，威尔斯和其他近200领导时尚的知识分子给他送了一段话，其中有： 这位勇敢无畏的先知和救人疾苦者，他一直是两代人的向导，带领我们进入了人类灵魂中未曾有人涉足过的一些领域……哪怕他的研究当中有个别结果将来可能会重新塑造或者加以修正，可是，他为人类提出的一些问题却永远也不会被遗忘。他获取的知识是无法否