Chapter 56 Chapter 53 Academic

Academic thinking is the soul of a nation.It seems to be empty, but in fact, the direction of progress is all guided by it.China is an academically advanced country.For thousands of years, academics have been divided into different categories, each with its own excellence.If you want to describe it in detail, tens of millions of words will not be enough.What I'm talking about now is just a general idea of ​​the transformation of thought and its relationship with the entire culture.According to this, Chinese academic thought can be divided into three periods: 1. From ancient times to the Han and Wei dynasties.

2. From the import of Buddhism to the end of the Qing Dynasty.It is divided into (A) period of Buddhism and (B) period of Neo-Confucianism. Three, since the importation of Western learning. Most of the people who study the pre-Qin philosophers now focus on their philosophy.This is really wrong.The scholarship of pre-Qin philosophers has two sources: (1) It evolved from ancient religious philosophy.(2) It was conceived from various specialized officials.The former emphasizes metaphysics, while the latter emphasizes political and social aspects. "Hanshu Yiwenzhi" says that the learning of the philosophers all originated from the royal officials. "Huainan Yaolue" says that the learning of the philosophers is all out of the disadvantages of saving the time.One talks about its cause and the other talks about its predestined relationship, both of which are not as good as ancient philosophy.In particular, it can be seen that the studies of the pre-Qin philosophers actually put more emphasis on political and social aspects than metaphysics.This meaning, only Zhang Binglin's can be seen among the people nearby.

The philosophical thoughts evolved from ancient religions are roughly like this: (1) Because humans have male and female, birds have male and female, beasts have male and female, and nature has phenomena such as heaven, earth, sun and moon, the concept of yin and yang is established. (2) Ancient industries were divided into five categories: water, fire, wood, metal, and earth.Practical life influences philosophical thinking, so matter is divided into five elements. (3) Progress in thinking, and feel that the theory of the five elements is not very reasonable, but recognize the original essence of all things as one, and call it Qi. (4) At this point, I also feel that the two forces of yin and yang are not the root of the universe (because the last is always the only one, and only the only one can be counted as the last).Then a unique concept was established, which is the so-called Tai Chi. (5) It is also known that quality and force are not two things, so the so-called existence and non-existence are only implicit and apparent. (6) Implicitly due to change, the root of the universe becomes a driving force. (7) This dynamic is quite mechanical.Once activated, its direction is difficult to change.Therefore, there are various meanings of being cautious and cautious. (8) The power of nature is extremely great.There is only obedience, not resistance.So follow the law.So expensive. (9) The direction of this dynamic is circular.Therefore, there is the meaning of relying on misfortune and fortune.Therefore, it is important to know the white and keep the black, and to know the male and female. (10) Since the essence of all things is one, and it changes endlessly, all things are simply one thing.The heaven and the earth are also one of the myriad things, so Huishi advocates universal love, saying that the heaven, the earth, and all things are one, and the theory of things can be equal (the theory of homology, the same). (11) Because all things are one thing, we can still deduce the general root of the phenomenon of heterogeneity.The so-called "exhaustive reasoning, to the point of death".These ideas have a profound influence on later generations.Scholars of past dynasties have almost regarded this as the golden rule.It is true that such a broad statement is not easy to find its error.However, because of the breadth of its theory, it can be interpreted in many ways, so it doesn't seem wrong to keep its theory as a grand outline.However, there are other erroneous concepts that are no longer applicable and have to be corrected.For example, the theory of circulation, the ancients probably learned it by observing the phenomena of day and night, cold and heat.This theory applies to the natural world, although not necessarily, it can still be applied after all.If it is applied to the social sciences, it will inevitably be misleading.Obviously it is evolution, how to say it is a cycle.

The opinions of the pre-Qin scholars on political and social aspects have their own roots, and their roots are also divided into old and new.In my opinion: (1) The origin of the farm is the oldest. This is the thinking of the agricultural tribes in the Longgu era. (2) Taoism is next, and it is a reaction against the nomadic and aggressive society. (3) The Mohist school is next, and the Xia Dynasty is the model. (4) Confucianism and Yin-Yangism are second, which is the thought generated from the synthesis of political experience from ancient times to the Western Zhou Dynasty. (5) Legalism is the newest, which is based on the political situation of the Eastern Zhou Dynasty.The above five schools represent the changes of the whole era and have the greatest relationship.The rest are like famous scholars, who only talk about profound and profound theories.Strategists, military strategists, etc., are only for one section.Its relation is light.

How can it be said that the farmhouse represents the oldest thought?This can be understood by looking at Xu Xing's words.Xu Xingzhi said two things: (1) The monarch and his ministers worked together, and the government had no authority. (2) The price is based on quantity regardless of quality.If it is not based on the customs of the oldest and most primitive society, you must not have this idea (see "Mencius Teng Wengong Part 1"). How can it be said that what scholars represent is the reactionary thinking of a nomadic and aggressive society?The rate of the Han people is called yellow and old.Although "Liezi" is a fake book today, it still has its source (this is true of all fake books, not just "Liezi". Therefore, after the fake book is known to be fake, its materials can still be used under certain conditions).This book "Tian Rui Pian" has two "Books of the Yellow Emperor", one of which is "Lao Zi".There is another saying of the Yellow Emperor. "Li Ming Pian" has a "Book of the Yellow Emperor", which is also very similar to "Lao Zi". "Laozi" book (1) mostly has three or four rhymes. (2) The nouns used are very special (for example, there are male and female characters but no male and female characters). (3) In the meaning of the whole book, women's rights are superior to men's rights.Proof of its antiquity.This must have been passed down orally since ancient times, and the bamboo and silk written by Lao Tzu was by no means written by Lao Tzu himself.Huang Di was a man of outstanding martial arts, and he should be the chief of an aggressive tribe.Invasion of a nation is usually overkill.Such as Yi Yi, Yin Zhou, etc., are all suitable examples.Therefore, there is a reaction in thinking, and we must teach it to be gentle. The book "Laozi" also advocates inaction.The meaning of the word inaction is often misunderstood by later generations.For training. In "Book of Rites Miscellaneous Notes", Confucius said: "If you stretch without relaxing, civil and military can't do it. If you relax without stretching, civil and military can't do it." This department is based on agriculture.If words are relaxed but not stretched, even civil and martial arts cannot transform seeds into grains.Jia Yi's "Admonishing the People's Private Casting Book": "There are more and more treacherous money, and the five grains are not worth it" (this is "the five grains are not much", and the multi-word system is added indiscriminately by later generations), which is exactly the meaning.Barbaric tribes often like to follow civilization, and their admiration for civilization often sacrifices the happiness of the majority (1) Because of the organization of society, it changes accordingly. carve and peel it off).So there is a kind of reactionary thinking, to persuade the people above not to lead the people below to change.The people below, "become want to make", should also "repress it with nameless simplicity".This is exactly the same as today's people refuse to eat because of choking and reject material civilization.

How can we say that what Mohism represents is the culture of the Xia Dynasty? "Hanshu Yiwenzhi" said that the study of Mohist school, "The picking of rafters in thatched huts is based on expensive and frugal (the rituals of the ancients, often after the progress of civilization, still retains a simple appearance as a memorial. If there is wine, sacrifices still use water. , is one example. During the reign of Emperor Wu of the Han Dynasty, the public jade brought a picture of the Mingtang, and it was still covered with thatch, see "Historical Records Fengchan Book". It can be seen that this statement in "Han Zhi" is true). Raising three old and five more is based on Jianai (three elders and five more, they are the father and brother of others). Selecting scholars and shooting them is to honor the virtuous (common people use them from this. See Chapter 43). The ancestor worships the strict father and is the right ghost (people die It is called ghost). To act in accordance with the four seasons is not fate (fate has a pre-determined meaning. To act in accordance with the four seasons is the government order contained in the "Moon Order". According to the "Moon Order": the government order is wrong, such as Meng Chunxing's summer order, etc. This is a punishment from heaven. However, heaven has a will to monitor people's actions at any time, and to reward and punish them. This is the origin of Mozi's theory of heavenly will. The so-called fate of his family contains more The definition of definition is close to mechanism). Treating the world with filial piety (regarding the same as showing) is the same as the above." All of them are obviously the duties of Mingtang.Therefore, "Han Zhi" said that he was an official of the Qing Temple (see Chapter 51). "Lu Lan Dangran Pian" said: "The envoy of Lu Hui asked the emperor for the ceremony of the suburban temple. The emperor sent Shijiao to go, and Huigong stopped it. Later in Lu, Mozi learned from Yan." This is Mohism. From the official confirmation of the Qing Temple.It is possible to preserve the older theories in Qing temples.The Mohist places the most emphasis on practicality, while the "Jing", "Jing Shuo", and "Xi Da Qu" and other chapters talk about profound philosophy, which were published by famous scholars.But this is not what Mozi cares about.The purpose of Mozi is to love both.Because of universal love, so non-aggression.Moreover, Mozi followed the method of Xia, which was earlier and after the floods. Compared with Yin and Zhou, his life was naturally simpler, so Mozi's purpose is to be noble and frugal.Because it is expensive and thrifty, it is necessary to be frugal in spending, frugal in burial, and non-joyful.The Xia Dynasty was earlier, and superstition was deeper, so Mozi had the theory of heaven's will and ghosts.If you want to talk about Tianzhi and Minggui, you have to die.What the Mohists did was to change the etiquette of mourning in the wilderness (see Chapter 41).What it teaches is the fallen warrior (see Chapter 40).The spirit of its practice is the most abundant.

How can we say that Confucianism and Yin-Yang School are thoughts produced in the Western Zhou Dynasty?Xunzi said: "Parented from father to son, in order to maintain the prince, although the three generations die, the rule of law still exists, and the reason why the officials and officials are paid and ranked." possible thing.However, it must be that its age is relatively recent, and then more can be preserved.It must also be that the culture at that time is more developed, and then it will be sufficient for future generations to follow.In this way, it is enough for reference, of course, are the Xia, Yin, and Zhou dynasties.Therefore, Confucianism has the theory of connecting the three traditions (sealing the two dynasties before and after the present dynasty as a big country, so that it can preserve its governance law, so that it can be replaced with the governance of the current dynasty. cycle", that is the meaning).This is exactly the same as the so-called five virtues of Yin Yang School.There are always two theories of the five virtues: the old ones are replaced by those that can be restrained.For example, Qin regarded Zhou as the virtue of fire, and he himself was the virtue of water; Han also regarded himself as the virtue of earth.At the end of the former Han Dynasty, the theory of mutual generation was changed.Taking Zhou as the virtue of wood, saying that the Qin Dynasty was the intercalary, and did not inherit the luck of the five elements, but thought it was the virtue of fire.Later, the Wei Dynasty thought it was Tude). "Hanshu Yan'an Biography": Zai'an wrote a letter, quoting Zou Zizhi, saying that "politics, education, and quality are the ones, so Yun saves them. At that time, they were used. If they were too late, they were combined, and if they were easy, they were easy to change." It can be seen that the five virtues end and end. , is to use five kinds of treatment methods, changing and exchanging.Zou Yanzhi's study, therefore, requires the known history to infer the unknown; the geography that has been seen in the study, and the unseen geography, it is precisely to learn from the audience and seek its common practice.Governance changes at any time, eclectic, can not but be said to be a progressive thought.It is not that after the Western Zhou Dynasty, the governance laws of the previous dynasties had been preserved and could not take place.The theories of the Yin-Yang School are very lacking, and there is no way to examine its highest direction.Confucian ideals are quite lofty.It can be seen from the theory of Datong Xiaokang mentioned in Chapter 41. The meaning of the three generations in "Spring and Autumn" is to create according to the chaos, to advance to Shengping, and to advance to Taiping. It is clearly intended to turn the chaotic world back to a well-off society, and then back to Datong.Most of what Confucianism preaches is the meaning of well-off.The scale of the Great Harmony and the method of advancing from the Shengping Dynasty to the Taiping Dynasty are no longer available in detail.For thousands of years, those who believe in Confucianism only regard the rule of law in the complete feudal era, that is, the well-off world, as the highest state, which is really a pity.However, the scale of Confucianism can still be tested in general.It has a highest ideal, which it tries to see in human affairs.This ideal has its philosophical foothold.There must also be a general plan for how to implement it in sequence.The way of Confucianism is embodied in the Six Classics.Among the six classics, "Poetry", "Li", and "Le" are the old textbooks of ancient universities, and it is said that they have been seen in Chapter 51. "Yi" and "Spring and Autumn" are the highest Tao of Confucianism. "Yi" talks about principles, and "Spring and Autumn" talks about specific methods.The high righteousness of Confucianism has become obscure.It is prevalent in the world, and it is of great benefit to Chinese society in the part of personal cultivation. (1) In terms of reason, the highest is the golden mean.The point is, when examining the situation of the environment, anytime, anywhere, it is not easy to determine a method.This is the most difficult way, anytime, anywhere, there must be one, and there can only be one, so choose carefully and stick to it. (2) Human emotion cannot be without conflict with reason.Indulging emotions will of course lead to catastrophe, and suppressing emotions will eventually lead to collapse, so there are rituals and music to cultivate their emotions. (3) If there is nothing to do, advise people to live in peace.In this regard, Confucianism also has the spirit of religious scholars. (4) The way he treats others is jiji (see "University" for two characters).Negative "do unto others what you do not want unto yourself".Actively, "what you want from your son should be served to your father, what you want from your ministers should be served to your ruler, what you want from your younger brother should be served to your elder brother, what you want from your friends should be given to you first."How we should treat people, just think about it, how we want him to treat me, how concise and concise it is.No matter how confused a person is, he can understand these words, and a sage can do something in his life, which is really a wonderful truth.As for (5) the theory of good nature, (6) the distinction between righteousness and benefit, and (7) the power of knowing words and nourishing qi, Mencius developed it most thoroughly, and it has a great relationship with the power of self-cultivation.The legacy of Confucianism that harms future generations lies in the fact that the righteousness of Great Harmony is not passed on, and most of what is obtained is the righteousness of well-off.The social organization in the well-off world was more autocratic than in later generations.Later generations don't know that this is a temporary organization, but they think it is a matter of course and cannot be changed. If you want to strengthen the advanced society, it is tantamount to using wolfberry and willow as a cup, which means cutting it enough to fit it, so it causes disputes, and Confucianism prevails, so It has become a situation where merit and crime cannot be concealed.This can only be said that the later Confucianism could not bear the burden, no wonder the founders.But one cannot necessarily blame anyone who came after.Because Confucianism gradually developed in this kind of society.All academics have the inherent ability to change society, and at the same time must be affected by society, and they themselves change.This is also unavoidable.

How to say that the study of the family is based on the situation of the Eastern Zhou Dynasty?At this time, the most important thing is (1) to suppress the nobles in order to eradicate the feudal forces. (2) To enrich the country and strengthen the army, so as to unify the world.The implementation of these two conditions by the Qin State was not completely in line with the ideals, but at that time, after all, they were the most feasible, so they died and annexed the world.Those who contributed to the prosperity and strength of the Qin State were Shang Yang before and Li Si later, all of whom were scholars of legalism.The French character of Legalism is a big name.In detail, those who rule the people are called the law, and those who suppress the nobles are called the art, see "Han Feizi: Dingfa Chapter".Its strategy of enriching the country and strengthening the army is the most important thing is to unite the people in the agricultural war. "Shang Junshu" develops this theory most thoroughly, and "Guan" and "Han" also have their theories.Legalists are the ones who most advocate examining the reality to determine the way to deal with it, so they most advocate reform and oppose conservatism.This is indeed the characteristic of legalism.The ability of his theory to be up-to-date is probably due to this.

The five schools mentioned above are the most related to China's academic thought and overall culture among the pre-Qin scholars.Although he also has his lofty philosophy, all he wants to solve are personnel problems.The question of personnel is based on the improvement of the organization of society.A rough reading of the books of the philosophers seems to focus on political issues.However, the political problems in ancient times were not like the maintenance of order in the later generations, but the whole social problems were also included.So when the ancients talked about politics, they meant society.

The schools of thought contend with each other, and after a considerable period of time, they will always be unified.There are two unified routes: (1) Eliminate what is useless and keep what is useful. (2) Integrate the theories of various schools into one.During the Warring States period, the theories of various schools were not acceptable, only the theory of the Legalists, and Qin used it to unite the world.But the times are different and the situation is different, so whether the knowledge is practical or not, it also changes accordingly.The unity of the world requires rest with the people, and the stability of the people's livelihood requires the rise of enlightenment.Both of these are felt by everyone.When Emperor Qin Shihuang pitted Confucianism, he said: "I used to collect all the books from all over the world and discard them. I have called many literary and alchemists. They want to promote peace. The alchemists want to practice in order to find strange medicine." Xing Taiping refers to the words of scholars of literature.It can be seen that the first emperor did not have this ambition to correct the system and promote enlightenment. However, the world was initially established and the people's hearts were not convinced, so he had to engage in suppression; Let alone.It is impossible to talk about such positive wishes for Qin to destroy and Han to prosper.The most important thing is to rest with the people.Therefore, the study of Taoism flourished at one time.However, Taoism's so-called governance by inaction is a normal social statement.The society is originally normal, so the people in the upper class are advised not to lead its changes; and they must be suppressed so that there will be no changes. Although this is impossible in fact, it may not be true in theory, but it can still be said on its own.If it was in the Han Dynasty, its society has deteriorated for a long time, and if it is blindly followed, it will inevitably move even worse.Therefore, correcting the system and promoting enlightenment were considered urgent tasks at that time.You can understand it by looking at the discussions of Jia Yi and Dong Zhongshu.Emperor Wen also listened to Gongsun Chen's words and wanted to start writing.Later, because of Xin Yuanping's deception, he was implicated and gave up.This is naturally the confusion of Emperor Wen's mind and the way he did things, which could not change the situation at that time.By Emperor Wu, Confucianism finally emerged.The rise of Confucianism is inevitable, not accidental.Because there is nothing non-Confucianism can do to correct the system and promote enlightenment.Most of the commentators think that Emperor Wu's work is done by one person, which is wrong.When Emperor Wu came to the throne, he was only sixteen years old. Although he was not the master of stupidity, he had never heard that he was a child.Therefore, rather than saying that Emperor Wu of the Han Dynasty advocated Confucianism, it would be better to say that Confucianism had its own prosperity at that time, and Emperor Wu followed the trend.

Although the rise of Confucianism was required by the social situation, it did receive a lot of political support.The most important of these is to set up disciples for the Doctor of the Five Classics.The so-called "set up a department to shoot a strategy and persuade an official to pay a salary", naturally there will be more people coming.Confucianism first started from the eight schools mentioned in "Historical Records: Rulin Biography": "Poetry": Yu Lu, from Shen Peigong; Yu Qi, from Yuangusheng; Yu Yan, from Han Taifu.Words, from Jinan Fusheng.The word "Li" was born in Lu Gaotang.The words "Yi" came from Suchuan Tiansheng.It is said in "Spring and Autumn": In Qi and Lu, it was born by Hu Wu; in Zhao, it was born by Dong Zhongshu.Fourteen Doctors of the Eastern Han Dynasty: "Poetry" Qi, Lu, and Han.Ouyang, big and small Xiahou. "Li" wears big and small. "Yi" Shi, Meng, Liangqiu, Jing. Yan and Yan in "Spring and Autumn" (see "Book of the Later Han Dynasty: Biography of Scholars". "Poetry" Qilu Hanxiayanmao characters) are still generally the studies of these eight schools (but Jing's "Yi" is the most suspicious).But at that time, there was another force that was enough to prompt academic changes.That is what Chapter 41 says: At that time, what urgently needed to be corrected was the economic system of society.To correct the social and economic system, it is necessary to equalize land rights and control capital.In Confucianism, only the former meaning is known.The latter theory is really legalism.At that time, Confucianism had already become a kind of authority. If they wanted to reform, they thought it was convenient for them to rely on Confucianism. Confucianism had to adopt the learning of other schools to help themselves, so there was the so-called study of ancient prose.Read the forty-first chapter, you can understand.However, academic itself also has its own changes.That is from specialization to general learning. Pre-Qin academics, in terms of one aspect, can be said to be the most refined.Because he specializes in each subject and has very high opinions.On the other hand, it can also be said to be the thickest.Because he only knows one school, he doesn't understand the position of others.For example, what Mozi advocated is the change of etiquette in the famine and mourning, which is not a matter of course in the ordinary world.But Xunzi refuted him vigorously, saying that the world was cured, and the lack of wealth and insufficiency caused troubles.You can talk about it in theory, but in fact, you can't just focus on one aspect.If you only focus on one aspect, it will definitely not work.So in the pre-Qin period there was the so-called miscellaneous school of learning. "Han Zhi" said: Miscellaneous families flow out of discussing officials.It can be seen that the governance of the country has to take into account all aspects.In such a situation, academics naturally had to be affected by it, and gradually became proficient. When the study of ancient prose first emerged, it actually adopted different theories, and later it established its own new theory, which was actually driven by this trend.If the people at that time were happy and happy, saying that the old Confucian theories were not enough, so I had to adopt different theories; the old Confucian theories were unsatisfactory, so I wanted to set up new ones, wouldn't it be straightforward?Nothing like the thinking and atmosphere at that time, this cannot be tolerated.So on the one hand, it is said that Confucianism, there are other ancient books, which are not passed down by the doctor (the most important of which is the case of Kong Bi, see Chapter 52), on the other hand, what I have studied, I insist that it is a certain book. A certain biography (such as "Mao Poems" and "Xiaoxu" is a family language. "Xiaoxu" was obviously written by Wei Hong and others, and Mao Gong's studies must be said to have been passed down by Zixia), and there are many disputes.The popular custom is dazzled by the names of modern and ancient prose, thinking that there must be great similarities and differences in the texts of modern and ancient prose, but it is not the case.The different characters of modern and ancient texts can be found in "Yi Li" Zheng "Notes" (From the place of the modern text, the ancient text is in the note. From the ancient text, the modern text is in the note). , righteousness and friendship, etc., have nothing to do with meaning.So is his longitude.What is the relationship at all?The similarities and differences between modern and ancient texts do not lie in the texts but in the scriptures.Among them, some important issues can be seen in Xu Shen's "Five Classics Different Meanings".Generally speaking: modern writers say that they are all handed down from teacher to teacher.The ancient writers said that free research is not restricted by the ancients' established theories, but one's own ingenuity, engaged in research, and the method seems to be progressing.But (1) its performance is not very good.And (2) the words of modern writers are rumored but not fabricated.There is a little way to find the rumors, so it is easy to restore.Once restored, the truth of the ancient saying can be seen (not to mention the fact that it has not been rumored).As the ancient writers say, each person speaks based on assumptions, and its origin is elusive.Therefore, if one regards Confucian classics as the material of ancient history, the value of modern literary family dialects is also higher. However, the disadvantages of ancient learning can also be said to be developed from today's learning.A kind of academic, when it has nothing to do with fame and fortune, governing its scholars is all about doing nothing, only seeking to gain something for oneself, not wanting to show off to others, and its learning has no serious disadvantages.It is not the case when it comes to becoming famous and profitable.Scholars who treat it often don't know the general idea, but only care about every detail.It may even be incomprehensible, and it is persuasive.Or broadly collect different opinions to show off your own knowledge.Leading people into a side door leads to the abandonment of justice.From the standpoint of studying truth, it is actually harmful to academics.But the vulgar people prefer its novelty and think it is learned.These methods have become capital to win favor with the world.Such ethos in the Han Dynasty originated very early. "Han Shu Xiahou Sheng Biography" said: "Sheng was built by his father and son, his teacher was Sheng and Ouyang Gao, and he was harvested from left and right. He also learned from the Confucianism of the Five Classics and "Shangshu"), leading to the following chapters and sentences, with text decorations. .Victory Feizhi said: To build the so-called small Confucianism in chapters and sentences, to break the Dao. To build is not to win because of the lack of learning, and it is difficult to deal with the enemy.As soon as this kind of atmosphere is developed, they only seek to gain knowledge and knowledge, regardless of the safety of righteousness and reason; they don't even know what is reasonable.For example, Zheng Xuan, who commented all over the scriptures, was known as the most learned person in the Han Dynasty, but his scriptures were fragmented, absolutely incomprehensible in reason, and there were not many contradictions.As this kind of atmosphere prevails, those who treat scriptures often turn into mindless people.Although there are ears, eyes and minds, they all use trivial things that have nothing to do with the general situation.And in this kind of knowledge, what kind of phenomenon in the universe does it study?What is the benefit of research?And how should it be studied?Heard nothing.If academics enter this path, they will naturally only become the leisure class, spending their daily energy and energy, which is equal to leisure and happiness, and has nothing to do with the future of the country and the nation.Such customs started in the middle of the Western Han Dynasty, flourished in the Eastern Han Dynasty, and remained unchanged until the Southern and Northern Dynasties, Sui and Tang Dynasties.The so-called chapters and sentences in the Han Dynasty and the so-called sparse meanings in the Southern and Northern Dynasties are all like this.You can see it most by reading "Book of the Later Han Dynasty" and "The Biography of Scholars" in "History of the North and South".Ancient learning followed modern learning, and at the end of the Han Dynasty, there was a school of so-called pseudo-ancient writing.According to modern research: Wang Su is the most important person among them.Su Hao is different from Zheng Xuan, but there is no way to win.It is a forged "Confucius's Family Language" and sneaked his own words into it to subdue dissidents. Although the case of "Pseudo Ancient Wen Shangshu" in Confucian classics cannot be concluded to be the creation of Ji Suzhi, the so-called "Pseudo Kong Anguo Biography" It must be done by people of the same school as Su, so there is no doubt (the falsification of "Pseudo Guwen Shangshu" and "Pseudo Kong Anguo Biography" was confirmed by Yan Ruoqiu in the Qing Dynasty in "Guren Shangshu Shuzheng". The false ones Which faction is it? Ding Yan in the Qing Dynasty wrote "Shang Shu Yu Lun" and his theory was roughly determined).That is to say, due to the general trend at that time, they only liked to collect evidence widely. As long as the collected evidence was rich, it was unreasonable and no one would be able to detect it.So far, Confucianism has lost the practical spirit of Western Han scholars.However, based on the situation in the academic world at that time, Confucianism was already in full swing.The responsibility of governing the country and the people, both politically and socially, is believed to be sufficient for Confucianism.How can this group of people take up this responsibility?The plans they came up with were nothing more than ancient and unsuitable, focusing on imitating the forms of the ancients.How is this enough to cure?Naturally, it will arouse the opposition of thinking people.Therefore, metaphysics in the Wei and Jin Dynasties took advantage of the opportunity and became a transition between Confucianism and Buddhism. Metaphysics in the Wei and Jin Dynasties is often referred to as the study of Taoism.actually not.Metaphysics is a mixture of Confucianism and Taoism. It can also be said to be the school of Confucianism that focuses on principles, as opposed to the school that sticks to deeds.The philosophies of the pre-Qin philosophers all came from ancient religious philosophy, and there are generally no similarities and differences.The book of Confucianism is devoted to principles. There are also two schools of thought in "Yi": reasoning and reasoning.In terms of logic, there is no similarity or difference with the philosophy of the pre-Qin philosophers.Speaking of numbers is different from the ancient science of numbers. The origin of "Yi" should be similar to the number of spells; Confucianism should focus on its philosophy.This article "Yi" said that it is no longer passed on.There is nothing in the ancient text "Yi" that is not about magic. "Hanshu Yiwenzhi": The Yi family has two "Huainan Daoxun".The self-note says: "Wang An of Huainan hired nine people who were responsible for "Yi" in the Ming Dynasty, and they were named Nine Masters." This book is now the "Yuan Dao Xun" in "Huainanzi".In today's "Huainanzi", there are still a few quotes from "Yi", all of which are too reasonable to count, and they should be left over from what is said in "Yi" in this article.However, the philosophy of Confucianism is not very different from that of Taoism.However, due to the loss of the theory of the "Yi" in the present text, the remaining ones are all mistaken by later generations for the theory of Taoism.In this way, the rise of metaphysics in the Wei and Jin Dynasties was not a transition from Confucianism to Taoism, but a transition from Confucianism itself.However, this kind of transformation is very close to Taoism, so most of them also adopt Taoism.Looking at metaphysicians after the Wei and Jin Dynasties, Shi often said that they were good at "Yi" and "Lao".The essence of Confucianism is based on the "Yi" to describe the principles, and the "Chunqiu" is based on this principle to apply personnel and affairs.The metaphysicians of the Wei and Jin Dynasties specialized in the study of principles, but did not pay much attention to the methods of personnel and affairs.Therefore, in fact, there is not much merit to be seen, and there is no specific visible implementation plan.However, after this movement, the disadvantages of sticking to the forms of the ancients have been eliminated.Those who speak in the same way as the old ones learn from their meaning rather than returning to their form.The disadvantages of being unreasonable in ancient times have been eliminated. This is their great achievement in destroying and clarifying (the most important concept of metaphysicians is to preserve Tao. Tao is the principle, and traces are the form of things). After the failure of Xinmang reform, no one dared to talk about completely changing the organization of society.To solve life's problems, turn to the personal aspect.And metaphysicians search for principles, and then benefit from them. The mechanism is very similar to profound and profound philosophy.In this regard, India's academics are superior to China's.Buddhism then emerged under this situation. Buddha, originally a religious qualification, was imported into China.But later, apart from religion, it has its academic aspect. Buddhism is generally divided into Mahayana and Mahayana.According to the later detailed judgment and teaching, under the Hinayana, there are still human beings and heavens (the theory of human beings and heavens is not enough to describe the four sages. See below); in the Mahayana, power is divided.The so-called judging of teachings is based on all scriptures (the scriptures taught by the Buddha, and the theories spoken by Bodhisattvas below. The rules that monks, nuns, and laymen should abide by are called the law. The scriptures, laws, and treatises are called the Tripitaka) , Li said that there are high and low, so they are distinguished. The difference between the Buddha's teaching is because the people it treats are different.People outside the religion can't slander the contradictions of Buddhism because of this, and people inside the religion don't have to argue about it.According to recent research: The rise of Buddhism in India does not lie in the profoundness of its philosophy, but in its ability to show people the standard of practice.Because India is located in the tropics, life is affluent, and what people are concerned about is actually the end of the universe and the destination of life. Therefore, philosophical thinking has been extremely developed since ancient times.By the time of the Buddha's birth, the theories of various schools (so-called heretics) were already extremely high and profound, and their sects were also extremely diverse.The crowd's words are confused and confused, which makes people at a loss.Sakyamuni came out to cut off unnecessary debates and teach people the method of practicing cultivation.Those who follow it feel that they have something to rely on, and their spirit feels stable.Therefore, the Buddha is not the discoverer of the ultimate truth (Chinese Buddhist believers regard the Buddha as such), but the saint of the times.Within a hundred years after the Buddha died, there were no similarities and differences in his theories, and people in recent times called it primitive Buddhism.After a hundred years, the Hinayana will flourish, and after five or six hundred years, the Mahayana will come out, and the theory will have changed and benefited, rather than returning to the old teaching of the Buddha.However, the introduction of Buddhism to China is different from each other before and after, and it is also because of its own differences before and after.Such complicated textual research can be ignored now.But on its relationship with Chinese culture. Buddhism divides all sentient beings into ten classes: (1) Buddha, (2) Bodhisattva, (3) Enlightenment, and (4) Shravaka. (five) heaven, (six) human, (seven) asura, (eight) animal, (nine) hungry ghost, (ten) hell.Tossing and turning among the six worlds without exceeding them is called the six realms of reincarnation.The Buddha cannot be learned, what we can learn only goes to the Bodhisattva.In the Hinayana, one can become a Buddha through predestined enlightenment and shravaka, but in the Mahayana, only a bodhisattva cannot do it.The so-called bodhisattvas are all about altruism, which is exactly the opposite of what we all think about ourselves.The supreme Buddha has the idea of ​​altruism but has no such thoughts, so it cannot be learned.Predestined Enlightenment and Sound Hearing In view of the fact that life cannot be separated from the sufferings of birth, old age, illness, and death, and after death, we have to enter reincarnation; we are fortunate to be human beings, and we can still work hard to practice, but it will be difficult once we fall into other paths (animals, hungry ghosts, etc.) , Hell is also known as the three paths, needless to say. Asura has great powers, but is prone to anger; the blessings of the heavens are excellent, and because of their superior enjoyment, they are easy to fall, so they are not as good as people in terms of practice).Therefore, I feel that life and death are important matters, impermanence is swift and terrifying, and I have to practice diligently during my lifetime.The merits of his practice are extremely difficult and extremely admirable, and even the precepts he observes are extremely altruistic.However, the fundamental concept is ultimately inseparable from self-interest, so the Mahayana denounced it as not enough to become a Buddha.This is an important difference between the big and small multiplications.That is, Mahayana teachings, the lesser vehicle is the place of evolution.The so-called Buddha in the Hinayana refers to Sakyamuni himself.In the Mahayana, the Buddha has three bodies: (1) The Buddha is a person, called the sambhogakaya, which is the reason why he created a human being, so he became a human being in this world.Physiological and psychological functions, everything is the same as us.If you don't eat, you will be hungry, if you don't eat, you will be cold, and if you are exposed to infectious diseases, you will get sick; if you are hungry, cold, or seriously ill, you will die. (2) As for what is true but not wrong, it is extremely authoritative.He knows every good thought and bad thought we have.Good is rewarded with good, and evil is rewarded with evil. There is no mistake.It is the dharmakaya of Buddha, which is actually a symbol of natural force. (3) For those who believe in Buddha wholeheartedly, when they are dying or in other circumstances, seeing a Buddha coming to receive and rescue them is the incarnation of the Buddha.Buddha can be cultivated in a certain environment and after a certain period of time.Therefore, there have been countless Buddhas in the past, and there will be countless Buddhas who will succeed in the future, not limited to Sakyamuni alone.Mahayana's argument, when he believes in religion, is very inspiring.From a philosophical point of view, its theories are also complete and beyond reproach.The evolution of religion can be described as extreme. The Buddhist cosmology regards consciousness as the foundation of the world.There are eyes, ears, nose, tongue, body, and mind, that is, form, sound, smell, taste, touch, and dharma.These are the first six consciousnesses, known to everyone.The seventh consciousness is mana, and the eighth consciousness is alaya, neither of which can be translated in meaning, so people in the past only translated their pronunciation.The meaning of the seven senses is "constantly examining and thinking, always clinging to the self".We think about ourselves (all phenomena are recognized based on ourselves, and all interests are calculated based on ourselves), which is the function of the seven consciousnesses.The eighth consciousness is the birth of the seventh consciousness and the root of all consciousness.It must be exterminated before it can be eradicated.But the so-called extinction of consciousness does not mean eradicating him, as for nothing.Whether there is or not is called form and emptiness in Buddhism.Color and space are opposite, just the view of ordinary people.The Buddha said that "form is emptiness, and emptiness is form" (if it is during the day, then day is form and night is emptiness. However, the certainty of night will come, and its certainty is not less than the existence of day. Therefore, when daytime, the phenomenon of night, although Unrealized, the principle of night has already existed. Where the principle exists, it is no different from the existence of its phenomenon. The past is the cause of the present and future phenomena. Cause and effect are one thing. Therefore, the past has not disappeared ).Therefore, the so-called extinction of consciousness does not mean the elimination of consciousness, but the "transformation of consciousness into wisdom".Good and evil are the same body.The metaphor that the Buddha said is like water and waves.Water is good, and when it moves into waves, it becomes evil.According to current scientific principles, there can be a better analogy, that is, physiology and pathology.Illness is nothing special, but an abnormality of physiological function.去病得健，亦非把病理作用的本体消灭，只是使他回复到生理作用。所以说“真如无明，同体不离”（真如为本体，无明为恶的起点）。行为的好坏，不是判之于其行为的形式的，而是判之于其用意。所以所争的只在迷悟。迷时所做的事，悟了还是可以做的。不过其用意不同，则形式犹是，而其内容却正相反，一为恶业，一为净业了。喻如母亲管束子女，其形式，有时与厂主管理童工是一样的。所以说：“共行只是人间路，得失谁知霄壤分。”佛教为什么如此重视迷悟呢？因为世界纷扰的起因，不外乎（一）怀挟恶意，（二）虽有善意，而失之愚昧。怀挟恶意的，不必论了。失之愚昧的，虽有善意，然所做的事，无一不错，亦必伏下将来的祸根。而愚昧之因，又皆因眼光只限于局部，而不能扩及全体（兼时间空间言）。所以佛说世俗之善，“如以少水而沃冰山，暂得融解，还增其厚。”此悟之所以重要。佛教的人生问题，依以上所说而得解答。至于你要追问宇宙问题的根源，如空间有无界限，时间有无起讫等，则佛教谓之“戏论”，置诸不答（外道以此为问，佛不答，见《金七十论》）。这因为：我们所认识的世界，完全是错误的。其所以错误，即因我们用现在的认识方法去认识之故。要把现在的认识方法放下，换一种方法去认识，自然不待言而可明。若要就现在的认识方法，替你说明，则非我的不肯说，仍系事之不可能。要怎样才能换用别种认识方法呢？非修到佛地位不可。佛所用的认识方法，是怎样的呢？固非我们所能知。要之是和我们现在所用，大不相同的。这个，我们名之曰证。所以佛教中最后的了义，“惟佛能知”；探求的方法，“惟证相应”。这不是用现在的方法，所能提证据给你看的。信不信只好由你。所以佛教说到最后，总还是一种宗教。 佛教派别很多，然皆小小异同，现在不必一一论述。其中最有关系的，（一）为天台、惟识、华严三宗。惟识宗亦称相宗，乃就我们所认识的相，阐发万法惟识之义。天台亦称性宗，则系就识的本身，加以阐发。实为一说的两面。华严述菩萨行相，即具体的描写一个菩萨的样子给我们看，使我们照着他做。此三宗，都有很深的教理，谓之教下三家。（二）禅宗则不立文字，直指心源，专靠修证，谓之教外别传。（甲）佛教既不用我们的认识，求最后的解决，而要另换一种认识方法（所谓转识成智），则一切教理上的启发、辩论，都不过把人引上修证之路，均系手段而非目的。所以照佛教发达的趋势，终必至于诸宗皆衰，禅宗独盛为止。（乙）而社会上研究学问的风气，亦是时有转变的。佛教教理的探求，极为烦琐，实与儒家的义疏之学，途径异而性质相同。中唐以后，此等风气，渐渐衰息，诸宗就不得不衰，禅宗就不得不独盛了。（三）然（子）禅宗虽不在教义上为精深的探讨，烦琐的辩论，而所谓禅定，理论上也自有其相当的高深的。（丑）而修习禅定，亦非有优闲生活的人不能。所以仍为有闲阶级所专有。然佛教此时的声势，是非发达到普及各阶层不可的。于是适应大众的净土宗复兴。所谓净土宗，系说我们所住的世界，即娑婆世界的西方，另有一个世界，称为净土。诸佛之中，有一个唤做阿弥陀佛的，与娑婆世界特别有缘。曾发誓愿：有一心皈依他的，到临终之时，阿弥陀佛便来接引他，往生净土。往生净土有什么利益呢？原来成佛极难，而修行的人，不到得成佛，又终不免于退转。如此示人以难，未免使人灰心短气。然（A）成佛之难，（B）以及非成佛则不能不退转，又经前此的教义，说得固定了，无可动摇。于是不得不想出一个补救的方法，说我们所以易于退转，乃因环境不良使然。倘使环境优良，居于其中，徐徐修行，虽成佛依旧艰难，然可保证我们不致中途堕落。这不啻给与我们以成佛的保证，而且替我们祛除了沿路的一切危险、困难，实给意志薄弱的人以一个大安慰、大兴奋。而且净土之中，有种种乐，无种种苦，也不啻给与祈求福报的人以一个满足。所以净土宗之说，实在是把佛教中以前的某种说法取消掉了的。不过其取消之法很巧妙，能使人不觉得其立异罢了。其修持之法，亦变艰难而归简易。其法：为（A）观，（B）想，（C）持名，三者并行，谓之念佛。有一佛像当前，而我们一心注视着他，谓之观。没有时，心中仍想象其有，谓之想。口诵南无阿弥陀佛（自然心也要想着他），谓之持名。佛法贵止观双修。止就是心住于其所应住之处，不起妄念。观有种种方法。如（A）我们最怕死，乃设想尖刀直刺吾胸，血肉淋漓；又人谁不爱女人，乃设想其病时的丑恶，死后的腐朽，及现时外观虽美，而躯壳内种种污秽的情形，以克服我们的情意。（B）又世事因缘复杂，常人非茫无所知，即认识错误，必须仔细观察。如两人争斗，粗观之，似由于人有好斗之性。深观之，则知其实由教化的不善；而教化的不善，又由于生计的窘迫；生计的窘迫，又由于社会组织的不良。如此辗转推求，并无止境。要之观察得愈精细，措施愈不至有误。这是所以增长我们的智识的。止观双修，意义诚极该括，然亦断非愚柔者所能行，净土宗代之以念佛，方法简易，自然可普接利钝了。所以在佛教诸宗皆衰之后，禅宗尚存于上流社会中，净土宗则行于下流社会，到现在还有其遗迹。 佛教教义的高深，是无可否认的事实。在它，亦有种种治国安民的理论，读《华严经》的五十三参可知。又佛学所争，惟在迷悟。既悟了，一切世俗的事情，仍无有不可做的，所以也不一定要出家。然佛教既视世法皆非了义，则终必至于舍弃世事而后止。以消灭社会为解决社会之法，断非社会所能接受。于是经过相当的期间，而反动又起。 佛教反动，是为宋学。宋学的渊源，昔人多推诸唐之韩愈。然韩愈辟佛，其说甚粗，与宋学实无多大关系。宋学实至周张出而其说始精，二程继之而后光大，朱陆及王阳明又继之，而其义蕴始尽。 哲学是不能直接应用的，然万事万物，必有其总根源。总根源变，则对于一切事情的观点，及其应付的方法，俱随之而变。所以风气大转变时，哲学必随之而变更。宋儒的哲学，改变佛学之处安在呢？那就是抹杀认识论不谈，而回到中国古代的宇宙论。中国古代的哲学，是很少谈到认识论的。佛学却不然，所注重的全在乎此。既注重于认识论，而又参以宗教上的悲观，则势必至于视世界为空虚而后止。此为佛教入于消极的真原因。宋学的反佛，其最重要的，就在此点。然从认识论上驳掉佛说，是不可能的。乃将认识论抹杀不谈，说佛教的谈认识论便是错。所以宋学反佛的口号，是“释氏本心，吾徒本天”。所谓本心，即是佛家万法惟识之论。所谓本天，则是承认外界的实在性。万事万物，其间都有一个定理，此即所谓天理。所以宋学的反佛，是以唯物论反对唯心论。 宋学中自创一种宇宙观和人生观的，有周敦颐、张载、邵雍三人。周敦颐之说，具于《太极图说》及《通书》。他依据古说，假定宇宙的本体为太极。太极动而生阳，静而生阴。动极复静，静极复动。如此循环不已，因生水、火、木、金、土五种物质。此五种物质，是各有其性质的。人亦系此五种物质所构成，所以有智（水）、礼（火）、仁（木）、义（金）、信（土）五种性质。及其见诸实施，则不外乎仁义二者（所以配阴阳）。仁义的性质，都是好的，然用之不得其当，则皆可以变而为恶（如寒暑都是好的，不当寒而寒，不当暑而暑则为恶），所以要不离乎中正（所以配太极），不离乎中正谓之静。所以说：“圣人定之以仁义中正而主静，立人极焉。”张载之说，具于《正蒙》。其说：亦如古代，以气为万物的原质。气是动而不已的。因此而有聚散。有聚散则有疏密。密则为吾人所能知觉，疏则否，是为世俗所谓有无。其实则是隐显。隐显即是幽明。所以鬼神之与人物，同是一气。气之运动，自有其一定的法则。在某种情形之下，则两气相迎；在某种情形之下，则两气相距，是为人情好恶之所由来（此说将精神现象的根源，归诸物质，实为极彻底的一元论）。然此等自然的迎距，未必得当。好在人的精神，一方面受制于物质，一方面仍有其不受制于物质者存。所以言性，当分为气质之性（受制于物质的）与义理之性（不受制于物质的）。人之要务，为变化其气质，以求合乎义理。此为张氏修己之说。张氏又本其哲学上的见地，创万物一体之说，见于其所著的《西铭》。与惠施泛爱之说相近。邵雍之说，与周张相异。其说乃中国所谓术数之学。中国学术，是重于社会现象，而略于自然现象的。然亦有一部分人，喜欢研究自然现象。此等人，其视万物，皆为物质所构成。既为物质所构成，则其运动，必有其定律可求。人若能发现此定律，就能知道万物变化的公例了。所以此等人的愿望，亦可说是希冀发现世界的机械性的。世界广大，不可遍求，然他们既承认世界的规律性，则研究其一部分，即可推之于其余。所以此一派的学者，必重视数。他们的意思，原不过借此以资推测，并不敢谓所推之必确，安敢谓据此遂可以应付事物？然（一）既曾尽力于研求，终不免有时想见诸应用。（二）又此学的初兴，与天文历法，关系极密，古人迷信较深，不知世界的规律性，不易发现，竟有谓据此可以逆臆未来的。（三）而流俗之所震惊，亦恒在于逆臆未来，而不在乎推求定理。所以此派中亦多逆臆未来之论，遂被称为术数之学。此派学者，虽系少数，著名的亦有数家，邵雍为其中之最善者。雍之说，见于《观物内外篇》及《皇极经世书》。《观物篇》称天体为阴阳，地体为刚柔，又各分太少二者（日为太阳，月为太阴。星为少阳，辰为少阴。火为太刚，水为太柔。石为少刚，土为少柔。其说曰：阳燧取于日而得火，火与日相应也。方诸取于月而得水，水与月一体也。星陨为石；天无日月星之处为辰，地无山川之处为土；故以星与石，辰与土相配。其余一切物与阴阳刚柔相配，皆准此理），以说明万物的性质及变化。《皇极经世书》以十二万九千六百年为一元（日之数一为元。月之数十二为会。星之数三百六十为运。辰之数四千三百二十为世。一世三十年。以三十乘四千三百二十，得十二万九千六百）。他说：“一元在天地之间，犹一年也。”这和扬雄作《太玄》，想本一年间的变化，以窥测悠久的宇宙一样。邵雍的宗旨，在于以物观物。所谓以物观物，即系除尽主观的见解，以冀发现客观的真理，其立说精湛处甚多。但因术数之学，不为中国所重视，所以在宋学中不被视为正宗。 经过周、张、邵诸家的推求，新宇宙观和新人生观可谓大致已定。二程以下，乃努力于实行的方法。大程名颢，他主张“识得此理，以诚敬存之”。但何以识得此理呢？其弟小程名颐，乃替他补充，说“涵养须用敬，进学在致知”。致知之功，在于格物。即万事而穷其理，以求一旦豁然贯通。这话骤听似乎不错的。人家驳他，说天下之物多着呢，如何格得尽？这话也是误解。因为宋儒的所求，并非今日物理学家之所谓物理，乃系吾人处事之法。如曾国藩所谓：“冠履不同位，凤皇鸱鸮不同栖，物所自具之分殊也。鲧湮洪水，舜殛之，禹郊之，物与我之分际殊也。”天下之物格不尽，吾人处事的方法，积之久，是可以知识日臻广博，操持日益纯熟的。所以有人以为格物是离开身心，只是一个误解。问题倒在（一）未经修养过的心，是否能够格物？（二）如要修养其心，其方法，是否以格物为最适宜？所以后来陆九渊出，以即物穷理为支离，要教人先发其本心之明，和赞成小程的朱熹，成为双峰并峙之局。王守仁出，而其说又有进。守仁以心之灵明为知。即人所以知善知恶，知是知非。此知非由学得，无论如何昏蔽，亦不能无存，所以谓之良知。知行即是一事。《大学》说“如恶恶息，如好好色”。知恶臭之恶，好色之好，是知一方面事。恶恶臭，好好色，是行一方面事。人们谁非闻恶臭即恶，见好色即好的？谁是闻恶臭之后，别立一心去恶？见好色之后，别立一心去好？然则“知而不行，只是未知”。然因良知无论如何昏蔽，总不能无存，所以我们不怕不能知善知恶，知是知非，只怕明知之而不肯遵照良心去做。如此，便要在良知上用一番洗除障翳的功夫，此即所谓致知。至于处事的方法，则虽圣人亦有所不能尽知。然苟得良知精明，毫无障翳，当学时，他自会指点你去学；当用人时，他自会指点你去求助于人，正不必以此为患。心之灵明谓之知，所知的自然有一物在。不成天下之物都无了，只剩一面镜子，还说这镜子能照。所以即物穷理，功夫亦仍是用在心上。而心当静止不动时，即使之静止不动，亦即是一种功夫。所以“静处体悟，事上磨炼”，两者均无所不可。程朱的涵养须用敬，进学在致知，固然把道德和知识，分成两截。陆九渊要先发人本心之明，亦不过是把用功的次序倒转了，并没有能把两者合而为一。王守仁之说，便大不相同了。所以理学从朱陆到王，实在是一个辩证法的进步。但人之性质，总是偏于一方面的，或喜逐事零碎用功夫，或喜先提挈一个大纲。所以王守仁之说，仍被认为近于陆九渊，并称为陆王。人的性质，有此两种，是一件事实，是一件无可变更的事实。有两种人自然该有两种方法给他们用，而他们亦自然会把事情做成两种样子。所以章学诚说：“朱陆为千古不可无之同异，亦为千古不能无之同异。”（见《文史通义·朱陆篇》），其说最通。 以一种新文化，替代一种旧文化，此新文化，必已兼摄旧文化之长，此为辩证法的真理。宋学之于佛学，亦系如此。宋学兼摄佛学之长，最显著的有两点：（一）为其律己之严，（二）为其理论的彻底。论治必严王霸之辨，论人必严君子小人之分，都系由此而出。此等精严的理论，以之律己则可，以之论事，则不免多所窒碍。又宋学家虽反对佛教的遗弃世事，然其修养的方法，受佛教的影响太深了。如其说而行之，终不免偏于内心的修养，甚至学问亦被抛荒，事为更不必说，所以在宋代，宋学中的永嘉、永康两派，就对此而起反动（永嘉派以叶适、陈傅良为魁首。反对宋学的疏于事功，疏于实学的考究。永康派以陈亮为魁首，对于朱熹王霸之辨，持异议颇坚，亦是偏于事功的）。到清代，颜元、李塨一派，亦是对此力加攻击的。然永嘉、永康两派和朱陆，根本观念上，实无甚异同，所争的只是程度问题，无关宏指。颜李一派，则专讲实务，而反对在心上用功夫，几乎把宋学根本取消了。近来的人，因反对中国的学者，多尚空言，而不能实行，颇多称道颜李的。然颜、李的理论，实极浅薄，不足以自成一军。因为世界进步了，分工不得不精。一件事，合许多人而分工，或从事于研究，或从事于实行，和一个人幼学壮行，并无二致。研究便是实行的一部。颜、李之说，主张过甚，势必率天下人而闭目妄行。即使主张不甚，亦必变精深为浅薄。所以其说实不能成立。从理论上反对宋儒的，还有戴震。谓宋儒主张天理人欲之辨太过，以致（一）不顾人情。视斯民饮食男女之欲，为人生所不能无的，都以为毫无价值而不足恤。（二）而在上者皆得据理以责其下，下情却不能上达，遂致有名分而无是非，人与人相处之道，日流于残酷。此两端：其前一说，乃宋学末流之弊，并非宋学的本意。后一说则由宋学家承认封建时代的秩序，为社会合理的组织之故。戴氏攻之，似得其当。然戴氏亦不知其病根之所在，而说只要合理而论情，人与人的相处，就可以无问题，其说更粗浅牵强了。在现在的文化下所表现出来的人情，只要率之而行，天下就可以太平无事么？戴氏不是盲目的，何以毫无所见？ 所以宋学衰敝以后，在主义上，能卓然自立，与宋学代兴的，实无其人。梁启超说：清代的学术，只是方法运动，不是主义运动（见所著《清代学术概论》），可谓知言了。质实言之，清代考证之学，不过是宋学的一支派。宋学中陆王一派，是不讲究读书的，程朱一派本不然。朱子就是一个读书极博的人。其后学如王应麟等，考据尤极精审。清学的先驱