Chapter 55 Chapter 52 Chinese

The invention of language and writing is a great progress for mankind. (1) With language, human beings can have clear concepts. (2) There is language, and then the meaning of this person can be conveyed to that person.And (A) everyone does not need to learn by themselves, (B) and individual behavior can be transformed into group behavior.If there is language alone, its space is too narrow and its time is too short, so there are words, which give language form and expand its function.In a word, written language connects human beings as one in space and time.Human beings cannot evolve without unity. The wider the scope of unity, the faster the evolution. Therefore, language is actually an extremely important factor in cultural evolution.

Expressing meaning with language and expressing language with words, this is what it looks like after language and writing have developed to a certain stage.This was not the case at the beginning of the germination of language and writing.It means to rely more on posture.Foremost among these are gestures.The word "kan" in Chinese characters means to cover the eyes with hands, which can best express the remains of body language.There are pictures that represent the same image as language.Simplified pictures become hieroglyphs.Neither pictures nor early hieroglyphics represent language.Therefore, pictographs may not have pronunciation at first.Pictures don't matter.Later, when things were complicated and the body was not enough to express, the language was forced to increase.Language can be added, but (1) pictures and pictographs cannot be added infinitely, and the number that can be added is extremely limited; Words represent language.Since characters have been changed to represent language, they can be formed by expressing sounds instead of focusing on pictograms, and more characters can be created.

The structure of Chinese characters, there is an old theory of six books.That is, (1) pictographic, (2) referring to things, (3) knowing, (4) phonetic, (5) Zhuanzhu, and (6) borrowing.Among the six, the fifth is an example of increasing characters, the sixth is an example of reducing characters, and only the first four are methods of creating characters.Xu Shen's "Shuowen Jiezi·Preface" said: "The Yellow Emperor's history of Cangjie saw the traces of hooves of birds and beasts, and he knew that they can be distinguished from each other. He first made a book contract." Books are based on pictograms, so they are called Wen. After that, the shape and sound benefit from each other, so they are called characters.” According to Xu’s statement that Cangjie created characters and that Cangjie was the history of the Yellow Emperor, this is wrong.For the rest, it's probably fine.Characters are spelled with Wen, so Wen actually has the function of letters in Chinese characters (called radicals in the old saying).Of the four pictographic, referring to things, knowing, and pictographic sounds, only the pictographic one is written, and the remaining three are all characters.Pictograms are drawn in the shape of a thing, such as,,, (this word must be viewed horizontally. "Shuowen": "The shape of an elephant's arm and shin." According to this, the drawing is the profile of a person, and the head is omitted. Draw., tie the head on the top, and tie the arms in the middle. The child cannot stand on his own, so the lower limbs are combined into one. "Shuowen": "Like a human shape." According to this, the frontal shape of a person is drawn, and the head is also sketched. Only Zi characters are drawn with their heads connected. According to the principle of drawing people without drawing their heads, if you draw people without painting their heads, you will lose the meaning of pictures. Here, you can understand the difference between pictographs and pictures) and other characters yes. (1) Not everything in the world can be painted. (2) Those that are tangible and drawable often have similar shapes.The painting is detailed enough to show its differences, even the pictures cannot be so complicated.So I have to skip it again and again, until it is only enough to show its meaning.If there is no explanation, it is absolutely impossible to know what it refers to after seeing its shape.Even if it can be guessed, it must be extremely vague.This is the difference between pictographs and pictures.This is why hieroglyphs can be separated from pictures and become independent.However, the characters created must not be too many.Refers to things: The old saying refers to intangible things, such as human actions.This statement is wrong.To refer to is to specify its location.The word "thing" was commonly used in ancient times.To refer to something is to indicate where the thing is. The example cited in "Shuowen" is the upper and lower characters.Wei Heng's "Si Ti Shu Shi" said that "the upper is the upper, and the lower is the lower", and the language is incomprehensible.We read "Zhouguan" Bao's "Shu" that "the one who is above is the top, and the one who is below is the bottom", and then we know that "Si Ti Shu Shi" is really out of context. The two characters of ancient Chinese in "Shuowen" are in the form of omission.Its original shape should be like a seal script.The upper and lower characters of a painting are borrowed from above or below a painting to express the meaning of up and down (this painting is not a character for one or two, but a boundary painting. In "Shuowen", this There are many examples).With this method, the number of characters created cannot be too many.Will train together knowingly.Knowing is to combine the meaning of two words to express the meaning of one word.For example, "Shuowen" said that people's words are faith, and fighting is fighting.The characters created by this method cannot be many.Only pictophonetic characters, in principle, use two radicals, one for meaning and one for sound.Every sentence has its own meaning and its own voice.In this way, the creators of characters don't have to worry too much, as long as they find a radical to represent the meaning and sound of the native language, it is enough.It is easy for those who make it, and easy for those who see it to understand.And its meaning, on the contrary, is more accurate than pictographic, referring to things, and understanding.Therefore, there is the method of shape and sound, and "the use of words can be infinite."Note: The example cited in "Shuowen" is to test the second character.Similar in sound, similar in meaning.Its root was originally one sentence, which was later divided into two sentences.The increase of language follows this example a lot.The reason why characters represent language should be differentiated along with the differentiation of language.This is the so-called Zhuanzhu of the ancients (the two characters of Huo Duo, the same as Kao Lao).The borrowing is due to the use of language, mainly sound.Words represent language, and should also be dominated by sound.In a world where Chinese and Chinese are united, words cannot be understood by eyes, but by sound.The ear listens (equal to listening to the language) and understands its meaning.In this way, words with different meanings can be represented by the same font as long as they have the same sound.So (1) Some characters need not be made at all. (2) Some characters, although created, are still discarded and replaced by words with the same sound.This is why the text is reduced.Without this example, the text would be too complicated to understand.The theory of the six books can be found in Xu's "Preface" and "Hanshu·Yiwenzhi" (for pictography, imagery, imagery, onomatopoeia, transfer notes, and borrowing), and "Zhou Guan" Bao Shi's "Notes" cited Zheng Sinong's theory (Pictographic, knowing, transcribing, dealing with things, borrowing, harmonic).People in the past mistakenly thought that the method of creating characters is a big fallacy.That is to say, it is not true that the Bao family taught the laws of the country.Teaching children to use characters is only to enable them to recognize their shapes, understand their sounds and meanings, and apply them without involving the structure of characters.The theory of the six books mentioned above should be the theory of scholars who studied characters in the Han Dynasty.It is said that it only existed in the Han Dynasty. "Zhou Guan" Bao Shi taught Guozi to use six scripts, which should be the same as "Han Shu·Yiwenzhi" said that Taishi used six styles to test schoolchildren's six styles. It is the six writing methods of the series of characters, which is exactly the same as the current characters. ("Hanshu Yiwenzhi" said: "The ancients entered elementary school at the age of eight, so "Zhouguan" Baoshi, who took care of raising the sons of the country, taught the six books. It is called pictographic, imagery, imagery, and imagery. Sounds, Zhuanzhu, and borrowing are the foundations of character creation. Han Xing, Xiao He Caolu, also wrote his method, saying: "Taishi discusses schoolchildren, and if they can satirize more than 9,000 characters in a book, they are considered history. The six-body test is also used. The most important lessons are Shangshu, Yushi, Shishu, and Lingshi. Officials and people wrote letters, and the characters were not correct, and they were often cited. Six styles, ancient script, odd characters, seal script, official script, Miao seal script, and insect script, all informed the ancient and modern. Characters, imitating seals, and lettering letters." "Pictographic, imagery, imagery, onomatopoeia, Zhuanzhu, and borrowing are the foundations of character creation." The eighteen characters are bound to be entered by later generations. Only Bao's six books and The six styles of Taishi are one, so it is said that the method is also followed. If the six books and the six styles are two, this is also incomprehensible.)The structure of Chinese characters in the Six Books is actually rough (it can be seen by reading "Zi Li Shuo" written by me. The Commercial Press version), but it can still be applied in general.The fashion of scholars in the old days was originally advocating the ancients; ordinary people mistakenly regard the Six Books as the Six Methods of Cangjie's creation of characters.The creation of characters was regarded as a sacred undertaking in the past, and no one dared to discuss it.Its theory has been passed down to this day. "Xunzi Jiemu Pian" said: "There are many good books, but there are only one who can only teach Cangjie." It can be seen that Cangjie is only a person who can write.However, the person who is good at something is mistaken for the person who created it. The ancients often made this mistake (such as Bao Xin Gong Shan Xun, Su Cheng Gong Shan Chi, "Shiben·Zuo Pian" says: Bao Xin Gong made Xun, Su Cheng Gong made Xun Chi, Qiao Zhou's "Ancient History Research" has refuted Qi Miao. See "Poetry He Rensi" and "Shu").Therefore, the theory of Cangjie coining characters came into being.In the Weishu of the Han Dynasty, all recognized Cangjie as the ancient emperor (see Chapter 2 of "A Study of the Changes of Chinese Characters" written by me, Commercial Press version).There is another school, because the "Book of Changes Xici Zhuan" says that "the ancients ruled by knotting ropes, and the saints of later generations changed them by writing deeds", and cast "Yellow Emperor, Yao, and Shun, hanging down their clothes and governing the world", thinking that the ancient saints, That is the Yellow Emperor.The reporter is the official historian, because Cangjie is the history of the Yellow Emperor.In fact, both are nonsense.There is also "Shangshu" pseudo Kong Anguo's "Biography Preface", which regards the three tombs as the books of the three emperors, the five canons as the canon of the five emperors, and Fuxi, Shennong, and Huangdi as the three emperors. It is baseless.

Characters are subject to change in form, sound, and meaning.The change of shape, and the change of the structure of the characters, and the difference in the shape of the strokes, but except for the difference in the shape of the strokes, the rest are not known to ordinary people (the characters have ancient sounds and meanings, which are often known by ordinary people. I don’t know. As for the change of the shape and structure of the characters, the new shape will be used, and the old shape will be discarded. People don’t know that there is such a word).Therefore, the so-called change of characters in the world probably refers to the difference in the shape of strokes.It is divided into five kinds: seal script, official script, real script, cursive script and running script.

1. Seal script is an ancient text, which was handed down to the Qin and Han Dynasties.Its characters are mostly engraved on bamboo slips, so it is called seal script (seal means carving).Because of the different fonts, it is divided into four types: (A) Ancient Chinese, (B) Qizi, (C) Dazhuan, and (D) Xiaozhuan.Dazhuan, also known as Zhuanwen. "Hanshu Yiwenzhi", elementary school scholars have fifteen chapters in "Shizhen".Self-note: "Zhou Xuanwang Taishi wrote." "Shuowen Jiezi Preface": "The author of "Shizhen" was also a children's book taught by the official historian of the Zhou Dynasty." He also said: "The seven chapters of "Cangjie" were written by Qin Prime Minister Li Si Also. The six chapters of "Yuan Li" were written by Zhao Gao, the order of Chefu. The seven chapters of "Bo Xue" were written by Hu Wujing, the order of the Taishi. The seal character is also." However, the big seal script and the small seal script have similarities with minor differences.Now "Shuowen" has recorded more than 220 essays, which should be different.The rest are the same as Xiaozhuan.Xiaozhuan is a popular character after Qin Dynasty.Dazhuan should be a word that was popular before Zhou Dynasty.As for the ancient prose, it should be before the seal script.That is to say, the words that have been handed down since ancient times are not found in the fifteen chapters of "Shi Zhen".Odd characters are part of ancient Chinese.Those who are different, the ancient Chinese can tell the reason of the shape structure of other characters, but not the odd characters.The so-called ancient Chinese is nothing more than that. "Hanshu·Yiwenzhi", "Biography of the Thirteenth King of Jing", "Biography of the King of Chu and Yuan Dynasties" contained Liu Xin's "Book of Dr. Yi Rang Taichang", all said that King Lu Gong destroyed Confucius' house and got many ancient scriptures on the wall.Its statement is suspicious.Because (1) Qin Shihuang burned books for thirty-four years.From then on to the death of Qin Dynasty, there were only seven years.That is to say, it is only 23 years since Emperor Hui of the Han Dynasty removed the book rule four years ago.Kongbi's collection of books is quite large, and it was not done by one or two people.No one knew what should have happened, but it was waiting for King Yu Lu Gong to discover it accidentally. (2) If it happened, it would have been a major event in Han Dynasty.Why is it only found in these three places in the "Han Shu", and no one mentions it except for these three places in other books and "Han Shu" (any important event in history is always related to other things, There are always people mentioning it, so its articles are easily scattered everywhere).These three places: "Biography of King Lu Gong" does not narrate the destruction of Confucius' house under his good governance of the palace, but don't use several words at the end of the biography. After that, it will be added at the end), which is obvious. "Transferring Dr. Taichang", this is what Liu Xin said. "Yiwenzhi" is also based on "Seven Strategies" by Liu Xin.But these two articles are basically the words of Liu Xin alone.Therefore, the acquisition of ancient Chinese classics in the Han Dynasty is extremely suspicious.However, before Ban Gu, it was only said that they obtained the ancient texts. Some of the scripts and sentences of the ancient texts were different from those of the modern texts. They did not speak the words of the ancient texts, which were unknown to people at that time.It was not until Wang Chong wrote "Lunheng" and its "Zheng Shuo Pian" that it was said that King Lu Gong had obtained a hundred "Shang Shu", and Emperor Wu sent envoys to read them, but no one could read them. "Shangshu Preface to the Biography of Pseudo Kong Anguo" calls the characters in Kong Bizhong the tadpole script.It is said that the tadpole book has been abandoned for a long time, and people at that time were ignorant of it.According to the "Shangshu" passed down by Fu Sheng, Kong Anguo studied the meaning of the essays (meaning that he first knew the characters of each chapter passed down by Fu Sheng, and then used this as a basis to read the rest of the chapters), so that he could learn more about the two. Fifteen articles.This is purely wild speculation based on meaning, and the ancients did not say this.All words are always created by the public's joint efforts in the invisible, and they are always gradually changed by the public in the invisible.It has never happened in ancient times that one person formulates the text and promulgates it to the public so that it can be used as it is.Nor will there be clear similarities and differences between the two eras, so that they cannot know each other.

2. The seal script is a round pen, and the official script is a square pen.At the beginning of the official script, because of the "many things in the official prison" ("Han Zhi" language. Officials refer to ordinary administrative organs, and prisons refer to judicial organs) in the Qin Dynasty, "Ling Li Ren Zuo Shu" ("Si Ti Shu Shi"), Hence the name.Tuli are people who can't write, so it's fine to draw on it, so the shape of the strokes changes.However, writing this kind of characters is much easier than seal script, so once it becomes popular, it cannot be discarded.The person who wrote official script for the first time was a scribe, so it was fine to draw on it naturally, not for aesthetics.Now that it has been adopted, the person who wrote it is not only a slave.And gradually seek its beauty.So it became a kind of official script with a challenge method (also known as Bo Zong).People at that time called it the eight-point book.Nine out of ten characters with an artistic nature use it.

3. It is practical to use words that do not seek to be beautiful, so there is still no way to choose them, which are called constitutional documents.It is the official script we use now.Therefore, Bafenshu is a new school of official script, and Wuchao is an old school of official script.The current official script is inherited from the old school, so the current official script was called Lishu in the past.Wang Xizhi has never seen him write a Bafenshu, or the official script before Bafenshu, but the biography of "Book of Jin" is said to be good at official script. 4. The authentic script, also known as the authentic script, is named after the pair of cursive scripts.At the beginning of cursive script, its function should be the same as that of the later running script, it is for drafting. "Historical Records Biography of Qu Yuan" said: King Huai of Chu made the original constitution, but the grass was not up, and the officials saw it and wanted to seize it.The so-called drafting is what is now called drafting.Cao Gao only wanted to be able to read it himself, and not to show it to others. Naturally, his handwriting could be more casual.This is what everyone does. It can't be counted as creating a font, let alone who created it.Later, the writers did not seek their speed, but their beauty.As a result, cursive script is far from the real script.As a result, people who only recognize real script cannot recognize cursive script.So cursive script is getting farther and farther away from practicality.However, before Zhang Zhi, they were always separated one by one.When Zhang Zhi came out, it was "or below the above characters, and above the lower characters", and the characters were unrecognizable.Later generations call the ones separated one by one as Zhangcao, and the ones created by Zhang Zhi are called Kuangcao.

Fifth, Kuangcao is not usable, even Zhangcao also thinks it is a little far away from the official script. (a) People who learn it almost need to know some cursive characters in addition to the official script. (B) Occasionally show the draft to others, and people who do not know cursive script will not be able to read it (after busy work, what is shown to others may not necessarily be copied).So far, cursive script is not suitable for practical use.However, the matter of drafting is absolutely indispensable.So there is another kind of character, which is called running script.The name of running script comes from "the correct script is like standing, and the running script is like walking".There are also two ways of writing: (zi) the person who writes the official script writes it more scribbled, which is true. (Ugly) People who write cursive script write it more dignified, for cursive (see Zhang Huaiguan's "Shu Yi").From a practical point of view, there must be two kinds of real grass in characters, and there cannot be more than two kinds of real grass.Because seeing requires its clarity, and writing requires its quickness; if there are more than two kinds of real grass, it is a waste (Meng Sen said).The reason why writing Chinese characters is troublesome now is because they are written in real books.Therefore, if you want to write all official scripts, it is because cursive script has no definite style.The reason why cursive script has no definite style is because of the change of fonts, and it all originated from art.Art seeks more variety, so the more the fonts are written, the more different they are.This is because most of the people who pay attention to writing are of the leisure class; while those who only want to use them have no time to pay attention to writing.This is also dictated by social conditions.As society evolves in the future, there will be more and more places where words will be used.In terms of practicality, it is absolutely impossible to rely on the scribbled official scripts of the past.Therefore, it is urgent to formulate the draft style.Some people say: the cursive style is too far away from the official script, and it is almost necessary to know another character, so it is better to use running script.There are considerable reasons for this, from the aspect of character recognition.But in terms of writing, running script is not much simpler than regular script.Nowadays, the scribbled official script written by people is almost the same as the running script.If you want the convenience of writing, you should at least use cursive.In official script, no matter how many strokes there are, in cursive script, there are seldom more than five strokes.Now for the convenience of writing, whether to use running script or cursive script is really a question that needs to be studied.As for simple characters, it is not worth advocating.This really makes the fonts complicated, but the convenience of writing is still limited (the difficulty of writing is also due to the neatness and flow of stroke shapes, not just due to the number of strokes).

Of the Chinese ancient characters that can be tested now, the book "Shuowen" is still the bulk.More than 90% of the contents contained in this book are seal scripts popular in Qin and Han Dynasties.There were very few words before the week.The characters written before the Zhou Dynasty mostly exist in inscriptions on gold and stones (that is, the characters carved on gold and stones by the ancients), but they cannot be completely true, and the interpretations of later generations cannot guarantee that they are correct.In the 24th and 5th year of the reign of Emperor Guangxu of the Qing Dynasty, tortoise shells and animal bones were found in Xiaotun, north of Anyang County, Henan Province, some of which were inscribed with characters.According to the textual research of later generations, its place is the so-called Yin Ruins in "Historical Records Xiang Yu Benji".Recognize its characters as Yin Dynasty characters.There are many people collecting and researching now.However, since the Academia Sinica and Henan Province cooperated in the excavation in the 17th year of the Republic of China, there were many forgers (see "Test Excavation of Anyang Xiaotun in October 17th Year of the Republic of China" contained in the first issue of "Anyang Excavation Report" Report", and "Oracle Bone Inscriptions Unearthed in Houjiazhuang, Anyang" contained in the first issue of "Field Archeology Report". Also Zhang Binglin's words in a volume of "Guoxue Lunheng" published by Wu County, and "Zhiyan Magazine" 50 Issue Zhang Binglin's "Answer to Jin Zutong on Oracle Bone Inscriptions Second Book").Therefore, except for those who have been discovered by the Academia Sinica, it is best not to have any evidence, so as to be cautious.

The ancients created more single characters, but in later generations, monosyllabic languages ​​gradually became polyphonic, and the words added were not polyphonic words, but polyphonic words.Probably during the Spring and Autumn Period and the Warring States Period, it was the era when the most new characters were created. "The Analects of Confucius·Wei Linggong Pian": The Master said: "I am as old as the Que Wen of History", "I am dead now"!That is to say: in the past, people who wrote characters would ask others for advice when they encountered characters they couldn't write, but now they don't have them.From my point of view, Confucius' view is really out of date.Because the words used before were few, I wrote and wrote, always these few words.If you don't know, you can naturally ask others.There are many words used now, and the spoken language, which has never been represented by words, has to be written on paper.Since there is no such word, what is the benefit of asking people?Naturally, it had to be fabricated. (1) These newly created characters do not conspire with each other. (2) There are also (A) errors in the old characters, and (B) changes.For a while, there were quite different views on writing. "Shuowen Jiezi·Preface" said that in the world of the Seven Kingdoms, "characters were shaped differently" because of this.However (Zi) although its characters are different, its method of creating characters is still the same; (Ugly) and the old and familiar characters will never change, and they are generally unified.Therefore, "The Doctrine of the Mean" also said: "Today's writing", "Books with the same text". "Historical Records: The Chronicle of Qin Shihuang": In the twenty-sixth year, "the book is the same as the text".This is what Xu's "Preface" said: "The first emperor of Qin took over the world at the beginning, and the prime minister Li Si Nai played the same, and those who did not agree with Qin Wen." This decree is not valid. "Hanshu·Yiwenzhi" said: Luli calligrapher, combined "Cangjie", "Yanli", and "Boxue", divided sixty-four characters into one chapter, and all fifty-five chapters were combined into "Cangjie" ".This seems to combine the three books into one, and basically remove the repeated words.Assuming that there are no complex characters at all, there are a total of 3300 characters popular in Qin Dynasty.However, these three books are all in rhyme, except for all the complex characters, which is actually not easy to do, but it is not as good as this number.And "Shuowen" was completed in the later Han Dynasty, and the characters contained in it totaled nine thousand nine hundred and thirteen.Among them, there are inherent characters, ancient characters, and odd characters, but there are not many of them, and the words with the same sound and meaning are too numerous to enumerate.It can be seen that the characters played by Li Si have never been stopped. If this continues, the characters will inevitably become more and more different.This is a very serious problem.Fortunately, the language changed from monophonic to polyphonic, which naturally saved this scourge.It is the easiest way to represent a sound with a word.Because polysyllabic words can be increased day by day, monosyllabic words then only have this number.Literacy is the most difficult thing, if it is outdated, it cannot be learned.There is no change in monophonic sounds, neither increase nor change in words.Those who read ancient books and study advanced literature know more words and grammar than ordinary people, but they know no difference in single characters.Knowing a few thousand characters, you can read books from ancient times to the present, and you can also understand various literatures of the time, because of this.Therefore, using one character to represent one sound is really an evolution of Chinese writing.So far, words have truly become the representative of language.This is also achieved by the evolution of characters to a considerable extent.Not so initially. "Shuowen": Q, a three-year-old cow. , Ma is eight years old.Q follows the tones of Shen and the tones of Ba. When the pen is written in a book, it is written by the side of an ox and horse, and it comes out of the mouth. How is it different from "March 8"?How can the listener know what the words are?However, Q is definitely not pronounced as Can, and it is definitely not pronounced as Eight; the word Q definitely does not represent the two sounds of Shenba, but two sentences representing a three-year-old cow and an eight-year-old horse.It seems easy to write only two words for two sentences, but destroying the example that one word represents one sound is always more harmful than beneficial.So I would rather bear the trouble of writing, and eliminate these words.This shows that natural evolution is always reasonable.If the newly created characters such as 氱氨 are pronounced with one sound, people will not be able to understand them after hearing it, which will only separate the language from the written word. If they are pronounced with two sounds, the regulation that one character represents one sound will be broken, and the gain outweighs the loss.This is really a degenerate move.Therefore, it is always useless and detrimental to search for selfish wisdom.

Language can go from divergence to unity, and from unity to divergence.From divergence to unity is the assimilation of separate tribes.From unification to divergence, the traffic is inconvenient, and the pronunciation is gradually corrupted; new things create new names, and old things have new names.Therefore, (1) phonetics and (2) parts of speech can gradually diverge.Only grammar is not easy to change.The Chinese language, which is unified under these conditions, also diverges under these conditions.Therefore, pronunciation and parts of speech are different from place to place, but there is no problem with grammar.In the era of revering the ancients, the ancient teachings cannot but be studied.To study ancient precepts, one must read ancient books.Ancient books don't matter if they are not unified.People who have read a lot of ancient books can naturally write ancient Chinese when they write.Although the ancient language cannot fully express the meaning of modern people, (1) use the ancient language in general, and add one or two common sayings according to the rules of the ancient language, or (2) create a language that exists in the pen but not in the mouth according to the law of the ancient language. Not incomprehensible.Then it became a phenomenon of unified writing and different languages.Commentators are proud of it.This has indeed achieved considerable results in the unification of the Chinese nation.However, it is not enough to be able to unify on paper but not in mouth.Because (1) in some places, the pen cannot replace the mouth after all. (2) The evolution of writing is later than that of language, and I always feel that it is not enough. (3) Only some people can understand the characters.Then there were two problems: (1) unification of language, and (2) integration of classical Chinese. The unification of language progresses along with the progress of transportation.That is, (1) frequent exchanges between various places. (2) (A) metropolis, (B) large group gradually occurred.Using the methods taught in schools will have little effect.Because language is a practical thing, it must be used every day to be able to learn it successfully, and it will not be forgotten after being successful.If there is a person who was born in a remote area and has no contact with non-native people, if he is taught Mandarin only in the form of school professors, he will definitely not learn Mandarin well. After learning it well, he will eventually forget it.Therefore, this problem must not be solved by man-made methods. I hope that it will achieve great success in a short period of time.As for the unity of language and writing, simply, as long as the language spoken, written on paper is enough.In the past one thousand years, the language style has gradually become popular and gradually expanded, and it has already embarked on this road.But still feel its not enough.But recently, another problem occurred that the characters were difficult to recognize, so some advocated to switch to pinyin characters.And the discussion, then swayed to the Chinese characters themselves. Pinyin is to analyze the language in the mouth to find its phonemes, make the phonemes into letters, and then spell the letters into words.This kind of writing, as long as you know the alphabet and spelling, it is very easy to learn the characters, so you will naturally find it easy.But characters are not self-generated, but learned from advanced nations, can use this method to create characters.A nation whose writing is created by itself will never use this method.Because at the beginning of writing, it was not used to represent language. How can one analyze language to find its phonemes?Later, when they evolved, they knew this principle, but the characters are connected to each other, and they cannot abandon the old and make new ones. Pinyin characters cannot be used in these ethnic groups.India uses phonetic characters. After China and India communicated, they only used the method Yuqieyin, and the soldiers could not transform the characters. That is because of this.The use of pinyin characters in China, the earliest, should be pushed by Christians.In view of the difficulty of knowing Chinese characters, they use the Latin alphabet to spell Chinese language to teach the poor, which is quite effective.It was advocated by the Chinese themselves, which originated from Lao Naixuan in the late Qing Dynasty.Later, there were many people who advocated this argument.In terms of traditional concepts, it is not easy to discard the old characters.So instead of using pinyin characters, it changed to using phonetic characters to annotate the pronunciation of the old characters.Then there are phonetic symbols promulgated by the Ministry of Education.However, its effect is extraordinary.This is because unified pronunciation and unified pronunciation are fundamentally two different things.Because of the unified pronunciation, the pronunciation is affected, at least the pronunciation of the language style, and the effect may be faster.If you want to rely on the unity of pronunciation to affect the pronunciation, the possibility of doing so is extremely small.Because language is a living thing, it can only be used with the mouth.Write it on paper and then read it, no matter how popular the text is, it will always be out of tune.The reason why languages ​​are different is not that the pronunciation determines the intonation, but the intonation determines the pronunciation.Prophecy: The tones of people in different places are different, not because the sounds they utter are different, so that they accumulate into sentences and articles, and become different intonations.But because of the different intonations, each sound is arranged within a sentence, and its pronunciation has to be like this.So it is possible to teach a language by means of teaching.Using teaching methods to teach pronunciation, hoping that it will gradually lead to a unified language, there will be no such thing at all.If it is really necessary to use artificial methods to promote the unification of languages, only by setting the language of one place as the standard language, that is, using the people of this place as teachers, and spreading them around to teach, can there be considerable effect.When teaching, it is advisable to focus on language and not necessarily involve reading.Once the language is learned, the pronunciation will be corrected, to a certain extent.Even if the method of teaching is used to correct the pronunciation, the impact will not stop there, and will never exceed it.Or even two problems, mutually restraining each other, making it difficult to achieve results.Phonetic symbols are intended to be made into a language according to the sounds that people in the country can pronounce.This is now, in fact, no such language.Therefore, no matter where the words are, they cannot be closely related to the national language.It is not easy to create a new language by relying on tools such as phonetic symbols and teaching methods.Therefore, ninety-nine percent of the so-called people who can speak Mandarin now still have some dialect mixed in.Since there is always no close connection, why not choose a language that is closest to the national language and set it as the standard language, so that it will be more enjoyable? As for changing Chinese characters into pinyin characters, I think that under the current situation, it is most reasonable to allow the two languages ​​to run side by side.People in the old days regarded the newly created alphabetic characters as a scourge, thinking that they would destroy the old Chinese culture, thus causing the Chinese to lose their national character; It's all biased.Recognition of words has a great relationship with age.After a certain age, it is extremely difficult for ordinary people to learn.Even if you study hard, it's hard to match the level.Therefore, the old Chinese characters must not be applied to adults.That is to say, people who are not very old and have a short education time are also difficult to learn.Because thousands of words cannot be recognized in a short time after all.For example, it is not appropriate to forcefully reduce the number of characters in the common people's thousand-character literacy class.Those who embrace the old ideas think that the new characters are about to destroy the old culture.And it will cause the Chinese nation to lose its unity.Little do they know that only a few people know the old script.There are still a few people who are proficient in the old characters who also use pinyin characters.People who use the new characters are not familiar with the old characters. The Chinese culture they have been exposed to is not derived from the characters. How can they destroy the old Chinese culture and the unity of the nation?As far as the actual situation is concerned, in all fairness, does the old Chinese culture, on the contrary, acquire new tools that are easier to spread, and thus make it easier to unify China's national character?Wu Jingheng said: "Chinese scholars always stick to the idea of ​​writing for thousands of years, thinking that writing on a piece of paper can pass it on forever." So he imagined that things written in new characters will also be like old books today. There are so many things left to future generations to study, and Chinese culture has lost its unity because of it.Little do they know that these things written in new characters are just like the current leaflets and newspapers, which are discarded after reading. As for permanent works, they must be written by people with a slightly higher level of education, and such people, Most of them can read the old characters.So according to my guess, even if the old and new texts are paralleled at the same time, there will never be many books piled up.Moreover, people who can only learn new characters have nothing to do with characters in their lives.Now, although he is barely taught a few characters, he has managed to learn a few characters, but the relationship with characters is still very shallow.I am afraid that there will not be many publicity materials for temporary use.How can it destroy China's cultural and national unity?Based on this, we know that some people say: Although the language in China is not unified, the writing is unified.If Pinyin characters are not limited to the spelling of the national language, but allowed to spell the dialects of various places, it will hinder the unification of the Chinese language, and the same is true.Because (1) although the written language is now unified, it must not be used as a tool to further unify the language. (2) For those who can only spell dialects, that is, those who do not know the national language, their languages ​​have never been unified.As for saying that once the alphabet is used, literacy will be far easier than it is today, so the culture will advance by leaps and bounds, which is also nonsense.Life is the greatest education.Except for a few scholars, reading has very little relationship to their personality.Even if people all over the country can read a considerable amount of books, it may not be that their views will change much.What's more, people who know a few words may not all read books?It is a fact that it is easy to recognize older characters in alphabetic characters, and there is no difference between difficulty and difficulty in familiarizing them.Those who are familiar with reading can know it at a glance, not by spelling the sound of each word, knowing it and reading it.It is much more convenient to know and read, pinyin characters.However, this can only be done occasionally, how can it always be like this?If it is often like this, it will be very troublesome. Who else is willing to study?If you know it at a glance, what is the difference between Book and book?Therefore, the alphabetic characters are only used for a moment and a place at present.Its greatest effect is here.That being the case, miscellaneous uses such as phonetic symbols, Roman letters, etc. are also okay.Not worth arguing about.Those who advocate the use of the Roman alphabet say that we can adopt the languages ​​of all countries in the world and expand the language of our country. This is also nonsense.What does adopting a foreign language have to do with changing Chinese characters?Since the communication between China and India, how is the language of Buddhism imported into China?Why switch to Sanskrit? The language is different from China, and there are three ways to use Chinese characters: (1) Use Chinese characters directly, such as Korea. (2) Use the radicals of Chinese characters to create characters by yourself, such as Liao. (3) Use Chinese characters instead of making phonetic notes, such as in Japan.Among the three methods, the third method is the most convenient.The second method is the most meaningless.Therefore, the Liao people also have small characters, which originated from Huihe, so that they can be used.Most of the characters are not self-created, but taken from other tribes, and it is convenient to use the method of pinyin.所以如辽人造大字之法，毕竟不能通行。又文字所以代表语言，必不能强语言以就文字。所以如朝鲜人，所做华文，虽极纯粹，仍必另造谚文以应用（契丹文字，系用隶书之半，增损为之，见《五代史》。此系指契丹大字而言，据《辽史·太祖本纪》，事在神册五年。小字出于回纥，为迭剌所造，见《皇子表》）。 满、蒙、回、藏四族，都是使用拼音文字的。回文：或说出于犹太，或说出于天主教徒，或说出于大食，未知孰是（见《元史·译文证补》）。藏文出于印度。是唐初吐蕃英主弃宗弄赞，派人到印度去留学，归国后所创制的（见《蒙古源流考》）。蒙古人初用回文，见《元史·塔塔统阿传》。《脱卜察安》（《元秘史》。元朝人最早自己所写的历史）即系用回文所写。后来世祖命八思巴造字，则是根据藏文的。满文系太祖时额尔德尼所造。太宗时，达海又加以圈点（一种符号），又以蒙文为根据。西南诸族，惟倮有文字，却是本于象形字的。于此，可见文字由于自造者，必始象形，借自他族者，必取拼音之理。 文字的流传，必资印刷。所以文字的为用，必有印刷而后弘，正和语言之为用，必得文字而后大一样。古人文字，要保存永久的，则刻诸金石。此乃以其物之本身供众览，而非用以印刷，只能认为印刷的前身，不能即认为印刷事业。汉代的石经，还系如此。后来就此等金石刻，加以摹拓。摹拓既广，觉得所摹拓之物，不必以之供众览，只须用摹拓出来的东西供览即可。于是其雕刻，专为供印刷起见，就成为印刷术了。既如此，自然不必刻金石，而只要刻木。刻板之事，现在可考的起于隋。陆深《河汾燕闲录》说，隋文帝开皇十三年，敕废像遗经，悉令雕版。其时为民国纪元前1319年，西历593年。《敦煌石室书录》有《大隋永陀罗尼本经》，足见陆说之确。唐代雕本，宋人已没有著录的，惟江陵杨氏，藏有《开元杂报》七页。日本亦有永徽六年（唐高宗年号。民国纪元前1257年，西历655年）《阿毗达磨大毗婆娑论》。后唐明宗长兴三年（民国纪元前980年，西历952年），宰相冯道、李愚，请令判国子监田敏，校正九经，刻板印卖，是为官刻书之始。历二十七年始成（周太祖广顺三年）。宋代又续刻义疏及诸史。书贾因牟利，私人因爱好文艺而刻的亦日多。仁宗庆历中（民国纪元前871至前864年，西历1041至1048年），毕昇又造活字（系用泥制。元王祯始刻木为之。明无锡华氏始用铜。清武英殿活字亦用铜制）。于是印刷事业，突飞猛进，宋以后书籍，传于后世的，其数量，就远非唐以前所可比了（此节据孙毓修《中国雕板源流考》，其详可参考原书，商务印书馆本）。