Chapter 18 1. The U.S. authorities were forced to seek a truce along the 38th Parallel through negotiations

From the third battle, the war was between the 38th and 37th parallels, forming a situation of repeated see-saw. In the third battle, the Volunteer Army and the People's Army repelled the "United Nations Army" from the 38th Parallel to near the 37th Parallel and wiped out more than 19,000 enemies in just 8 days at the cost of more than 8,500 casualties.However, after the "United Nations Army" launched a counterattack, it took 87 days from January 25 to April 21 to push the front line from near the 37th parallel to near the 38th parallel, and paid more than 78,000 people. Casualties (more than 53,000 casualties of the Volunteer Army and the People's Army).This made the U.S. authorities see that, let alone reaching the Yalu River, every step forward from the 37th parallel to the 38th parallel would be very difficult and would require heavy casualties.After Li Qiwei occupied Seoul in mid-March, the "United Nations Army" once again faced the question of whether to cross the 38th parallel.In this regard, the U.S. State Department and the Pentagon evaded each other. The Pentagon asked the State Department to first determine the political goals of the "United Nations Army" in North Korea, while the State Department asked the Pentagon to first determine where the "United Nations Army" could actually reach.The irresponsible prevarication between them, whether it is Truman, Acheson or Bradley, is not hidden in their later memoirs.Britain, France and other countries participating in the "United Nations Army" operation expressed concern about the situation in the Korean War as early as December 1950 when the "United Nations Army" was repulsed to the 38th parallel, worrying that trapping power in North Korea would weaken Europe's power .Now that the front has returned to the 38th parallel, Britain, France and other countries are paying close attention.In their eyes, "this line has an ominous meaning. Many allied and American officials regard this parallel crossed three times as a symbolic barrier, and believe that MacArthur's army should not go beyond the This line is to be ventured again, so as not to be attacked by the enemy who is superior to retaliatory actions."Britain, France and other countries believe that this is a "psychological opportunity" to resolve the North Korean issue peacefully, and advocate the realization of a de facto ceasefire.

From the perspective of the United States, if this line is crossed again, it will not only greatly increase the possibility of expanding the war to China, and the United States will spend its military resources on indecisive operations in Asia, but will also greatly increase the possibility of Soviet intervention and the outbreak of a full-scale war danger.Under such circumstances, the U.S. authorities began to seriously consider whether to adjust the military goal of occupying all of Korea implemented by the "United Nations Army" since September 27, 1950, and whether to end the war through negotiations.

Although the U.S. State Department and the Pentagon tried to shirk each other, they both believed that it was necessary to find a new way to stop the fighting along the 38th parallel, which seemed acceptable to both sides.Because two attempts by the United Nations have failed, and the US president has never publicly suggested a negotiated solution.So the new approach is a public statement by the President of the United States rather than by the United Nations, a draft of which was prepared by the State Department and discussed by Secretary of State Acheson, Secretary of Defense Marshall, and the Joint Chiefs of Staff on March 19 After drafting the draft statement, the main points of the statement were sent to Tokyo for MacArthur's opinions on March 20. At the same time, the State Department also solicited the opinions of relevant countries participating in the "United Nations Army" operation.The draft statement said: Now that the battle line has returned to the 38th parallel, "here is a basis for restoring peace and security in the region, which should be acceptable to all countries that sincerely hope for peace." Fulfill a deployment that will end the war and ensure that it will never happen again. This deployment will open a wider path to the settlement of the Korean problem, including the withdrawal of foreign troops from North Korea." Truman said in his memoirs, "The purpose of making this statement is to Proposals for a peaceful solution without any threat or condemnation may get a good response."

MacArthur, however, had no positive opinion of the proposed presidential statement and complained that Washington had repeatedly increased restrictions on his movement on the battlefield. On March 24, he publicly issued a statement that was very different from the content of the proposed presidential statement, threatening China to expand the war.In his statement, he flaunted the superior combat conditions of the "United Nations Army", and then threatened: "The enemy must now painfully realize that if the United Nations changes its tolerance decision to try to confine the war to North Korea, and put our military If the operation extends to the coastal areas and inland bases of Red China, then Red China is doomed to be in danger of immediate military collapse." Truman said, "In fact, MacArthur's move is tantamount to threatening the enemy with an ultimatum, which is tantamount to saying that the allies will All superior forces can be used to attack Red China."

MacArthur's statement was strongly protested and condemned by the Chinese people.Because this statement ran counter to what Truman was about to issue, the careful planning and all efforts of the American authorities were wasted.This caused confusion and anger within the United States and its allies.Allies are asking the United States what this means and whether there has been a change in proposed U.S. policy.Truman was even more annoyed. He said in his memoirs: "It is extremely unusual for a military commander of the United Nations to issue such a statement on his own initiative. This is a complete disregard for all instructions not to issue any statement on foreign policy It is a flagrant disobedience to the orders I have issued as President and Supreme Commander. It is a challenge to the powers vested in the President by the Constitution. It is also a defiance of the policies of the United Nations."

Originally, the failure of the United States in the Korean War made the United States lose face in the world.Although crossing the 38th parallel and occupying the whole of North Korea with armed forces was the decision of the US authorities, MacArthur was the battlefield commander who implemented this decision. MacArthur had an unshirkable responsibility for the failure of the United States on the Korean battlefield.From December 1950, after the "United Nations Army" retreated to the 38th parallel, it was only a matter of time before MacArthur was dismissed.After Ridgway succeeded the dead Walker, he performed satisfactorily on the battlefield to the satisfaction of the U.S. authorities, so there was a suitable candidate to replace MacArthur.Beginning in late January 1951, Bradley wrote in his memoirs, "we got Ridgway's solid military assessments and enlightened advice, aside from MacArthur. Although we continued to send cables and instructions from the Joint Chiefs It was sent to MacArthur, but it gives the impression that MacArthur has "rising and descending" and has become a figure like the chairman of the board of directors. In terms of military operations, he has become a symbolic commander that we have to perfunctory."

Coupled with MacArthur's rebelliousness, he has always expressed disrespect to the President, the State Department and the Pentagon, which greatly angered the top decision-making authorities of the United States. On March 24, MacArthur's statement undermined the efforts of the US authorities to consider the issue of negotiations, which just provided an opportunity for the authorities to remove him from his post. On April 11, Truman relieved MacArthur of all positions including the commander-in-chief of the "United Nations Army", and Matthew Ridgway took over all his positions. At the same time, James Van Fleet replaced Ridgway as the commander of the US Eighth Army.The removal of MacArthur by the U.S. authorities, on the one hand, shows that the U.S. has acknowledged its defeat on the battlefield in this way, and on the other hand, it also shows that the U.S. has prepared a new step for adjusting its policy in North Korea and seeking to end the war through negotiations.

On April 22, the Volunteer Army and the People's Army launched the fifth campaign. This was the largest battle since the Volunteers entered the DPRK. By the end of the first phase of the campaign on April 29, the "United Nations Army" in the central and western regions of the front line "Retreat from the 38th Parallel to Seoul and the Han River.This made the U.S. authorities see that the Chinese People's Volunteers have a steady stream of powerful troops, and the U.S. will be in a bottomless pit in this war, with no hope of victory. The United States has paid a huge price for this war, paying more than 100,000 casualties (the number announced by the United States is more than 78,800), and the direct war cost is more than 10 billion US dollars.The United States has put 6 army divisions and 1 airborne regiment into the Korean War, accounting for 1/3 of the 18 divisions of its army (in addition, there is 1 marine division fighting in North Korea), and the US Navy has nearly half of its combat power Put into the Korean battlefield, the U.S. Air Force has also put 1/5 of its combat power into the Korean battlefield.Paying such a huge price did not win the war, especially after the Chinese People’s Volunteers entered North Korea to participate in the war. The U.S. military suffered consecutive defeats on the battlefield. , and unable to advance north of the 38th parallel, it can only "see-saw" with the Volunteer Army and the People's Army in the 38th parallel area.This aroused strong dissatisfaction among the American people, and also increased the contradictions within the American ruling group.How long this war will last and how much the United States will have to spend to end this war is immeasurable.These circumstances prompted the US authorities to consider the way out of the Korean War.

The U.S. authorities have tried to send more troops to North Korea to break the military balance between the two sides on the battlefield.However, the United States itself lacks military strength, and there is no mobile force to transfer to North Korea.Not only that, but the replenishment of US troops in North Korea is not easy.In fact, before the U.S. landed in Incheon, the U.S. military recruited more than 8,600 South Koreans to join the 7th U.S. Division, and another 2,100 South Koreans were added to the 2nd, 24th, and 25th U.S. Divisions and the 1st Cavalry Division. .In order to solve the difficulty of replenishing the troops of the US military invading North Korea, the Washington authorities later approved that each US division operating in North Korea could have 2,500 South Koreans.

The U.S. authorities also had hoped that their allies would provide more troops to the "United Nations Army" fighting in North Korea.The U.S. military believes that Turkey, Greece, the United Kingdom, the Philippines, Argentina, Brazil, Mexico, Australia and New Zealand are all capable of sending division-sized troops to North Korea.As early as the end of January 1951, the Department of Defense had asked the State Department to seek reinforcements from these countries. In late March, the Defense Department again asked the State Department to press allies to provide more troops. In May, the United States requested Pakistan, India, Guatemala and other countries through the United Nations to send troops to participate in the "United Nations Army" combat operations in North Korea.Some of these countries did not send troops to North Korea at all, and although some sent troops, it was only symbolic, and they were delayed in sending troops. It was not until May 1951 that all of them arrived in North Korea.They have seen that the United States has no hope of winning in North Korea, so they expressed indifference to the United States' request for military reinforcements and rejected them.Some countries also claim to recall part of the troops sent to North Korea to strengthen their own defense.At this point, "the resolve of the United Nations allies to initially support the United Nations action in North Korea is fading," said U.S. Army Chief of Staff Collins.

Although the South Korean Syngman Rhee Group believes that South Korea still has sufficient manpower to use, it has repeatedly asked the United States to expand the South Korean army.However, all the equipment for the expansion of the South Korean army must be provided by the United States, and all the training of these troops must also be completed by the United States. Ridgway and Van Fleet have always been dissatisfied with the combat effectiveness of the South Korean army. In addition, it is impossible to provide expansion in a short period of time. All the equipment and training required by the South Korean army. The Chiang Kai-shek Kuomintang group in Taiwan, China has repeatedly expressed its willingness to send troops to participate in the combat operations of the "United Nations Army" in North Korea, and has made preparations.However, Syngman Rhee firmly opposed the use of Chiang Kai-shek's army in North Korea, and countries such as the United Kingdom that participated in the "United Nations Army" operation also firmly opposed the use of Chiang Kai-shek's army in North Korea. The Pentagon of the United States has also considered MacArthur's various proposals, namely bombing military bases and industrial systems in Northeast China, blocking the Chinese coast and allowing Chiang Kai-shek's troops to attack the Chinese mainland, so as to force the Chinese People's Volunteers fighting in North Korea to withdraw from the 38th Parallel withdraw to China.The Pentagon believes that these are difficult to achieve the expected goals, and may cause the Soviet Union to openly participate in the war according to the "Sino-Soviet Treaty of Friendship, Alliance and Mutual Assistance", and may even cause the Third World War. Coalitions that barely hold together are compromised. At this time, for the United States, if it continues to fight in North Korea, it will be powerless to win; if it seeks military reinforcements from its allies, it will not receive a response; if it seeks a long-term stalemate, it will not be exhausted; if it seeks to open up a battlefield outside North Korea, it will cause a world war, so it will withdraw. It would be too embarrassing to leave North Korea.The United States has reached a desperate situation in its attempt to rely on military means to solve the problem on the Korean battlefield. America's global strategic focus is on Europe, and America's main opponent is the Soviet Union.One of the important considerations for the United States to invade North Korea with armed forces and form the "United Nations Army" under the banner of the United Nations to fight in North Korea was to contend with the communist forces represented by the Soviet Union in North Korea.However, the United States fought in North Korea for a year, and the main combat opponent it encountered was not the Soviet army, but the Chinese volunteer army.The U.S. military was being held back to fight the Chinese army in North Korea, constantly attrition, while the Soviet Union just watched from the other side, not even a single soldier was required to go into the war.The United States consumes a large amount of military power and strategic materials in North Korea, while the Soviet Union is consolidating its energy and accumulating strength. The main military force of the United States has been trapped in North Korea for a long time instead of deploying in Europe. The global strategy is seriously contradictory. At the beginning of April 1951, when the "United Nations Army" returned to the 38th parallel from near the 37th parallel, Britain, France, Australia, Canada and other countries all publicly advocated the realization of a de facto ceasefire on the 38th parallel. On April 30, when talking about the Korean War, the British Minister of War said: "The British government is resolutely—I can also say desperately—trying to prevent the expansion of the war through the new Foreign Secretary Morrison." In fact, the U.S. authorities are also fully aware that a long-term fight in North Korea will affect its interests in Europe. Therefore, Truman said in his memoirs: "I never let myself forget that the main enemy of the United States is sitting in the Kremlin; Or forget: as long as this enemy is not involved in the war and is only pulling the strings behind the scenes, I will never waste our mobilized power." Acheson, Marshall, Bradley and other US military and political leaders are also worried The United States has been trapped in North Korea for a long time, and Europe may lose to the Soviet Union. These show that the United States will never disregard its interests in Europe for the sake of South Korea, and it is even less willing to take the risk of causing World War III in order to defeat the Chinese Volunteers instead of the Soviet Army.Since it is impossible to solve the North Korean issue by relying on military means, and since keeping the main military power in North Korea for a long time is in contradiction with the US global strategy focusing on Europe, the US authorities have to reconsider their policy in North Korea. Regarding the question of what kind of policy the United States should implement in North Korea, on April 11, when Truman dismissed MacArthur, he delivered a radio speech. In this speech, for the first time, the United States clearly stated that the United States should "fight a limited war" in North Korea. .As MacArthur was dismissed from office, heated debates and quarrels were launched within the US ruling group, and differences and contradictions became intense and public.This intense quarrel was concentrated in the so-called "MacArthur hearings". The hearing was co-chaired by the U.S. Senate Armed Services Committee and the Foreign Affairs Committee. It began on May 3, 1951 and ended on June 25. It lasted for more than 50 days. MacArthur, Secretary of Defense George Marshall, Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff Omar Bradley, Army Chief of Staff Lawton Collins, Air Force Chief of Staff Hoyt Vandenburg, Chief of Naval Operations Forrest Sherman, Secretary of State Dean Acheson, former A total of 13 U.S. military and political officials, including Commander-in-Chief of the U.S. Army in China, Wedemeyer and former Secretary of Defense Louis Johnson, attended the testimony. MacArthur was the first to testify.When he testified on May 3, he still advocated the use of military means to completely resolve the North Korean issue, that is, to expand the war to China, to play the role of the superior navy and air force, to block the Chinese coast with the navy, and to strengthen the military embargo; China's airports, stations, and industrial bases; let the Chiang Kai-shek clique in Taiwan carry out activities to counterattack the mainland, and take these actions without worrying about causing the Soviet Union to enter the war.MacArthur believes that only taking these actions is the best way to quickly end the Korean War. He even advocated that if other countries in the United Nations are unwilling to assist, the United States will take action alone. Acheson, Marshall, Bradley, the chief of staff of the armed forces and former Secretary of Defense Johnson, etc., all supported the removal of MacArthur when they testified. To China, on the contrary, they both advocate a limited war in Korea. When Bradley testified on May 15, he made a famous statement. He believed that Red China is not a powerful country capable of seeking world hegemony. If the war is extended to Communist China, "the Joint Chiefs of Staff believes that this Strategy will lead us to fight the wrong war in the wrong place, at the wrong time, with the wrong enemy.” “Attacking Communist China is not a decisive action that will guarantee the end of the Korean War, nor will it bring China submits." (This passage about Bradley has been misquoted by many people in China for nearly 60 years, which is exactly the opposite of Bradley's original intention.) When Acheson testified on June 4, he said: If the war is extended to China, it will give the Soviet Union a legal excuse to intervene in this war. The treaty between China and the Soviet Union has such a nature.At the same time, the Chinese will also ask the Soviets to do the same according to this treaty. When Marshall testified on May 12, he even said that it was wrong to order the "United Nations Army" to cross the 38th Parallel and march northward in October 1950.Before the Chinese army enters the war, we should stop near the central part of North Korea. Acheson later blamed MacArthur for the "United Nations Army" to cross the 38th parallel and advance northward.In his memoirs, he said: The difference between the war goals of the United Nations Command and the long-term political goals of the United Nations was originally very clear, "However, during the period from October 1950 to April 1951, were clouded by the eloquence of General MacArthur, who at the time spoke and acted repeatedly in disregard of President Truman's orders." With the start of the Senate's "MacArthur Hearings" on North Korea's war policy, the U.S. National Security Council also held a meeting from May 2 to 16 to systematically review the U.S.'s Korean War policy, and believed that the United States could not win a victory in North Korea. It is impossible to solve the North Korean issue by military means alone.On the 16th, the National Security Council passed a policy memorandum on the North Korean issue. This memorandum clearly distinguishes the ultimate goal of the United States in North Korea from its current goal, and determines that the current goal of the United States in North Korea is to establish a favorable Line of Defense, seeking to conclude an armistice that would end the Korean War.Ridgway once said in his memoirs: "When we determine military goals, we first need to realize that most of the most basic distressing problems in the world are not suitable for purely military solutions." The memorandum of the National Security Council of the United States has determined the guiding line of the US military action policy in North Korea. Its content is as follows: a. The ultimate goal is to find a solution to the North Korean problem through political means that are as outstanding as military means, and finally establish a unified, independent, and democratic North Korea.The current objective is to find, through the appropriate United Nations machinery, a solution to the Korean conflict acceptable to the United States that at a minimum: (1) end the war effort under an armistice agreement; (2) establish a Republic of Korea regime south of the northern border, which The regime should at least meet the administrative and military defense needs of the area south of the 38th parallel; (3) ensure that non-North Korean armed forces withdraw from North Korea at an appropriate time; (4) allow the Republic of Korea to build up sufficient military power to resist or repel the revival The subsequent North Korean offensive.Before the above goals can be achieved, the aggressors must be consistently opposed and severely punished. b. While achieving the above immediate goals and maintaining the security of U.S. and United Nations forces, strive to prevent North Korea's military operations from devolving into a full-scale war with the Soviet Union, and strive to avoid the development of North Korea's military operations without the support of major allies into an all-out war with Communist China. The main principles of military operations Dealing with North Korea: 1. The United States has always regarded the establishment of a unified, independent and democratic North Korea as its ultimate political goal.Since North Korea launched its aggression, the military objectives of the United States in the United Nations have been to resist aggression, establish and maintain national defense and regional security.After the CCP’s military intervention, it changed the situation. It seems that it is impossible militarily to establish a unified and non-communist North Korea through political means.Therefore, while we will never give up our ultimate political goal towards North Korea, the most urgent task is to find a solution to the North Korean issue. We must not only refuse to recognize the Communist Party’s rule of the area south of the 38th parallel in North Korea, but also allow non North Korean troops withdraw from North Korea in stages. 2. Because both the UN and Communist forces seem to have the possibility of controlling the military situation in parts of North Korea, it is possible for the situation in North Korea to develop in any of the following directions: a. The CCP agrees to an end to war operations and a political solution to the North Korean issue. b. During the period when the CCP neither proposed nor accepted any proposals to solve the problem, the two sides were in a state of political and military confrontation. c. The United Nations advances north. d. It is possible that with the support of the navy and air force of the "Volunteer Army" of the Soviet Union or satellite countries, the Communist Party will launch a large-scale storm. 3. With regard to the above possibilities, the following related considerations should be made: (a) the "United Nations Army" will not accept a solution that leaves any part of South Korea to the aggressor; (b) the "United Nations Army" may be able to drive the aggressor out South Korea; (c) the "United Nations Army" can continue to deal heavy blows to the Chinese; (d) the solution is to have Chinese troops withdrawn from North Korea for use elsewhere, thereby ending Chinese losses in North Korea; (e) the current UN General Assembly Most oppose crossing the 38th parallel again; (f) It is important to achieve maximum unity on North Korea within the UN.Ending the conflict and achieving a political compromise would still be credible if the Soviet Union did not provide increased military assistance to North Korea's massive Chinese offensive southward.Such a compromise would enable the withdrawal of non-North Korean troops from North Korea. 4. Given the situation in North Korea, the United States should: a. Find an acceptable political solution to the North Korean issue that takes into account the Soviet Union, Taiwan, and Communist China, which is a member of the United Nations, without compromising the status of the United States. b. In the absence of such a solution, and recognizing that there are currently no other acceptable alternatives, to continue the current course of military action in Korea without military unification of Korea, provided that: (1) Give the enemy maximum damage. (2) To prevent military aggression against South Korea. (3) Limit the Communist Party's ability to invade the rest of Asia. c. Continue efforts to influence our allies' support and assistance for UN military operations in North Korea. d. Develop the military strength that South Korea relies on as soon as possible, so that it will eventually have enough strength to undertake the defense of the United Nations in the main areas of South Korea. e. If the "volunteer army" invested by the Soviet Union in the war is enough to threaten the security of the "United Nations Army" in North Korea, it should immediately consider withdrawing the "United Nations Army" from North Korea and place the U.S. military in the best place to prepare for a big fight. f. If the Soviet Union suddenly launches a major war, it should withdraw the "United Nations Army" from North Korea as soon as possible, and quickly mobilize active-duty US troops deployed in other regions. g. Using and relying on the feasibility of the United Nations, continue to strengthen the construction of the government and democratic institutions of the Republic of Korea, and continue to strengthen assistance to the economic recovery and revitalization of the Republic of Korea and its liberated areas from the Communist Party. 5. At every stage of the settlement of the Korean problem, the United States should pay special attention to building and developing a strong military force of the Republic of Korea to continue the struggle against the Communist forces (in a state of confrontation), and to build a strong military barrier to defend the Republic of Korea from aggression.Special emphasis should be placed on the cultivation of the capabilities of South Korean military officers.The basic elements for achieving military stability are to restore the authority of the Republic of Korea in the area south of the demarcation line, and provide economic and technical assistance according to South Korea's economic absorption capacity. This will consolidate the stability after the withdrawal of the "United Nations Army" from the Korean peninsula.The Republic of Korea may still need to provide air and sea military assistance after the withdrawal of U.S. troops and "United Nations forces." On May 17, President Truman approved the document.This is the first time since the U.S. authorities ordered MacArthur to cross the 38th parallel and advance northward after the U.S. Army successfully landed in Incheon in September 1950, it has adjusted its Korean war policy for the first time. The goal of all of Korea.In fact, it is also a manifestation of the U.S. authorities acknowledging the defeat of the Korean War. Since then, the US authorities, as Acheson described, "looked for clues everywhere like a pack of hounds" and contacted Beijing.The State Department conducted testing through its representatives in Paris to the political advisers of the Soviet Control Committee in Germany, through the US representatives to the United Nations to Soviet representatives, through the United States and Sweden to Moscow, and through the State Department’s Policy Design Office to send people to Hong Kong. On May 31, George Kennan, who worked in the Institute of Princeton University and served as the US ambassador to the Soviet Union, was entrusted by US Secretary of State Acheson to meet with Jacob Malik, the permanent representative of the Soviet Union to the United Nations in his personal capacity. .Kennan obliquely expressed the willingness of the US authorities to realize the Korean armistice along the 38th parallel through negotiations.Kennan stated that the United States is ready to meet with the Chinese Communists in any committee of the United Nations or in any other way to discuss the issue of ending the Korean War.The United States has also made representations through other channels. According to the US National Security Council Document No. 48/5 approved by Truman on May 17, the Joint Chiefs of Staff issued a new instruction to Ridgway on June 1, stipulating the battlefield action policy of the "United Nations Army".The content of this instruction is: As the supreme commander of the "United Nations Army", you must always put the safety of your troops first, force the North Korean army and the Chinese Communist army fighting in North Korea and its nearby waters to make great sacrifices in personnel and materials, and at least complete the following: tasks to create favorable conditions for resolving the North Korean conflict: 1. Conclude a reasonable armistice and end hostilities. 2. To establish the regime of the Republic of Korea leading the whole of Korea in the area south of the northern border line suitable for administrative management and military defense, and this border line must not be drawn south of the 38th parallel. 3. Prepare for the phased withdrawal of all non-Korean armed forces from North Korea. 4. Strengthen the armed forces of South Korea so that they are sufficient to prevent or repel North Korea's further aggression. According to these instructions and guidelines, the "United Nations Army" switched to strategic defense across the board in early June 1951.