Chapter 22 General can rest -1

Mencken once said that journalism is an inexact science.The final years of the Eisenhower era amply borne this out.Six weeks after the Democrats' sweeping midterm election victory, a special Arkansas legislative committee has revealed "certainly confirmed Communist influence" in the dispute over the desegregation of schools in Little Rock.The committee's chairman, Rep. Paul Van Dalsen, said three days of public hearings by the committee had alerted Arkansas to the communist threat.A colleague of Van Dalsen confidently predicted that black Americans would refuse to participate in any new demonstrations instigated by the NAACP and "supported by the Communist Party."He said racial peace was at hand.

Clark Kerr, the new president of the University of California, takes a close look at the 1959 class of undergraduates."Employers are going to love this generation ... they're going to be manageable. There won't be any more riots," he said. In November of this year, the Catholic bishops of the United States opposed the use of federal funds to promote artificial birth control at home and abroad, and believed that it was ridiculous to say that American Catholics would gradually accept contraceptive measures. NBC was looking for a good-looking young American to counteract Elvis Presley, and it picked Charles Van Doren.The man, a faculty member at Columbia University who earns $4,400 a year, had just won $129,000 on Twenty One, the biggest prize-winning quiz show in the 14-week high-profile simulcast.He was hired as a consultant to NBC and as a commentator on the "Today" show, with a salary of 50,000 yuan a year; he edited an enlightening collection "Letters to Mothers."Three-fourths of his mass letters came from parents and teachers thanking him for the shining example he was setting for youth across the country. In late 1958, when a New York state county grand jury began investigating allegations of falsification of the quiz show, reporters raced to his handsome Greenwich apartment.He thought the accusation ridiculous. "I've had no hints or help," he said, "and neither has anyone on the show that I know of." Pressed by reporters, he said sternly, "No. It's an insult to me to keep asking these kinds of questions."

Yet blacks, college students, Catholics, and Charles Van Doren will all surprise those who think they know them. Hopes that black combativeness would die were suddenly dashed on February 1, 1960.On this day, four black students from the North Carolina Agricultural and Technical College walked into the South Elm Street branch of the Woolworth department store in the nearby town of Greensboro, bought a few supplies, sat down at the snack bar, and asked for a drink. coffee.In keeping with the laws and traditions of segregation in the South, the store manager ignored them.They sat there in silence until closing time.The next morning they came to the dining table again, this time bringing five black friends.They call this "sitting".Day after day, more and more people came.They were calm and well-mannered, ignoring white youths who waved Confederate flags in front of them, flicked cigarette butts at them, and booed.Black youth explicitly let people know that they will sit until they get their coffee.

If this only involved local clerks at this branch, they would never have been served.But Woolworths was a national company with branches everywhere, and that was what black youths were counting on to make a difference.In North Carolina, the campaign expanded to Durham, Winston-Salem, Charlotte, Raleigh and High Point; out of state, Nashville, Chattanooga, Tallahassee, Richmond and The snack bar in Rock Hill, South Carolina, was also taken.In two weeks, black people "sit in" at Woolworth's branches in 15 cities. In Boston, four hundred students from Harvard, Brandeis, Boston and other universities and Massachusetts Institute of Technology Picket lines were set up outside 12 Woolworth branches.This made the black people of Greensboro happy.Then something happened that surprised them and the nation.In Walgreens, Kress, Grant and Liggett, these are the largest retail companies in the United States. For example, the aforementioned Woolworth Company (headquarters in New York) had sales of more than 3.1 billion yuan in 1972, and Grant Company’s annual sales The amount also reached more than 1.6 billion yuan. ——Protesters also appeared in the translator’s snack bar.In Englewood, New Jersey, sympathizers of the movement held a fundraiser in support of the demonstration.Yale Divinity School students marched in downtown New Haven to show their support.Enraged, discount-store managers raised the price of coffee sold to blacks to a dollar a cup, removed the seat boards, and threatened to close the snack bar.But it was of no avail; the demonstrators countered all their gimmicks with new forms of passive resistance.Then the movement quickly spread from the snack bar to all public places where racial segregation was implemented in society."Sleeping" in motel corridors, "swimming" in parks, "studying" in public libraries, "watching" in movie theaters, "gambling" in casinos, "bathing" in hammams; and, When spring comes, "swim" in the white-only beach.

On May 10, the blacks scored their first victory.The snack bars of six department stores in Nashville were desegregated, the first general action in a southern state other than Texas.Throughout the spring, a war of attrition was waged all over the South, pushing back a foot here and a yard there along the racial line, and mounting pressure on the bigots. On June 5, the Negro Southern Regional Committee reported the desegregation of snack bars in nine scattered North-South cities; at none of them did violence occur, and not a single businessman threatened retaliation by angry whites losses due to resistance. On June 23, Virginia's hot-dinner restaurants opened to blacks, the first wedge into the state.The Knoxville department store ended its snack bar quarantine on July 18. July 25 was a day of rejoicing for Negroes; Greensboro Woolworth and Kress, which had been the target of action six months earlier, were finally desegregated.On the same day, four department stores in Virginia's Norfolk-Portsmouth area also ended racial discrimination.Since then, the development of the situation has not been so smooth, and the unrelenting extreme south is ready to give up every inch of land. On October 19, police in Atlanta arrested 51 "sit-in" demonstrators led by Martin Luther King.They refused to pay bail and were thrown in jail. The great blitz "sit in" of 1960 passed, and the blacks paused to consolidate their gains.But even the Arkansas legislature now understands that this is only a temporary hiatus.The black nation with 18871831 people is awakening.African-Americans are finally becoming a significant force.

On the sunny afternoon of Friday, May 13, 1960, Clark Kerr finally saw the truth of the future.After years of relentless investigations into California communists, the House Un-American Activities Committee is holding hearings at San Francisco's rococo City Hall.Among those arraigned were several public school teachers and a sophomore at the University of California, all said to be active leftists.Several buses filled with students from the University of California, who came to give him moral support.They hadn't planned to hold a demonstration, and the average college student didn't know how to hold a demonstration in those quiet and quiet days.They simply asked for a seat in the hearing room.But the venue was already packed with people.Police barricaded the gate at the top of the steps.Someone starts pushing.A policeman fell and was later said to have been beaten.The police used batons and then water hoses.After half an hour of chaos, 12 people were injured and 52 were arrested.Jessica Mitford of Oakland reported in The Nation that "the current generation of college students has almost completely shed the apathetic, submissive labels of the 1950s." They will dedicate themselves to "shaping the future of the world"."I'm a political virgin, but I was raped on the steps of City Hall," a beaten college student told reporters. For the nation's 3.61 million college students, the University of California's message is a challenge.Insufferable teachers who have long encouraged their students to get politically active now know what to do.

During these turbulent months, as black self-esteem and college students' political consciousness rose, another vehicle for social change emerged.The U.S. Food and Drug Administration announced on May 9, 1960 that it had approved a safe oral contraceptive. The matter was published on page 75 of The New York Times on May 10. — translator.This oral contraceptive tablet for women under the trademark "Inuofeide" is manufactured by the Sale Company in Chicago.The company claims that the drug has been tested by 1500 women for four years and proved to be 100% reliable.20 tablets per month, purchased by prescription, can guarantee infertility for $10 to $11.This birth-control drug, along with new contraceptives and increased use of birth-control surgery, freed women from the fear of pregnancy that became a constraint on their sex life from the onset of childbirth .Now they seem to be able to have sex as easily as men.With millions of women in need of the pill, doctors' offices and pharmacies were suddenly crowded.Never before have so many people not been regularly taking specific drugs to control their disease.Catholic bishops were shocked when Archbishop Owen LeBlanc, director of the National Catholic Family Life Office, reported that Catholic women were taking the pill as regularly as non-Catholics.As recently as November 1959, the bishops had denounced "representatives of certain Christian groups"—protestant priests—for not practicing abstinence.Even Catholic priests, and some priestly nuns, are now reconsidering their religious vows in the light of changed facts of life.

A clay figure of Charles Van Doren begins to crumble, August 1958.Herbert Stempel, a student at the City College of New York City College, who had won $49,500 on the "Twenty One" quiz show before losing to Van Doren, asked Manhattan District Attorney Frank K. ·Horgan and the "New York World-Telegram and the Sun" talked about his distress against his will.He told them that the show was a hoax.He said that the people who competed on the show were given the answers beforehand, and when their popularity with the audience began to wane, they didn't get the answers, so they had to pretend to be defeated.He was ordered to lose to Van Doren, a man who, like himself, had been trained to wrestle with a question, make facial expressions, and bite his lip in a glass soundproof room facing the camera. , Wiping forehead sweat, stuttering.After a rehearsal by the show hosts, Van Doren was able to amaze 25 million TV viewers with tricks such as naming the only three baseball players who have hit more than 3,500 times ( "Ty Cobb, Cape Anson, and...Tris Speek!"), name the singer of the aria "I'm Gonna Live in Joy" in This aria sung at the end... What's her name! Soprano. Her name is... Violetta!"), and the "seven dwarfs" fairy tale "Snow White" characters in . - the translator's name ("sleeping, sneezing, stupid, happy" - pause - "the curmudgeon is called - oh, the stubborn - doctor - oh, the shy one - is called shy! ").

Stempel and other contestants on Twenty One and CBS's $64,000 Challenge quiz told the New York grand jury what they knew.Van Doren denied it under oath, but Judge Mitchell Schweitzer, enraged at the libel of contemporary folk heroes, sealed the grand jury case for unsubstantiated charges.Outside the jury court, Van Doren told the press that he was "sad" and "shocked" by the lies about him.He reiterated that he participated in the quiz show "in good faith ... never received coaching or pointers". The trouble with perjury is that the perpetrator has no way of knowing if anyone can prove that they are lying.Since Whittaker Chambers once hid the truth in a pumpkin, it means that the truth will eventually be revealed, and Van Doren was not immune.There was an artist named James Snodgrass, who was also the winner of the "Twenty One" quiz show. A registered letter containing questions and answers about the programme.The registered letters were unsealed by the House Legislative Oversight Subcommittee.It was this relentless interrogation agency that brought down Bernard Goldfein and then Sherman Adams.The letters confirmed Snodgrass' revelations, and the committee took over the work that had been put aside by the Manhattan grand jury and began to lay a trap for the charming, generous, easygoing Charles, who came from a well-educated family and a prestigious university. ·Van Doren threw himself into the trap, let him testify under oath first and then present physical evidence.

They started operations in October 1959.Van Doren, posing as a framed lord, like Heath not long ago, telegraphed the subcommittee, categorically denying all charges of defamation against him, declaring that he had received "no assistance of any kind." , and said that whenever the subcommittee needed to question him, he would "obey."The committee called back inviting him to come and testify before congressmen of his own accord, but at that point he disappeared.The subpoena was officially issued, but the sender of the subpoena could not find him.The Americans did not know whether he was dead or alive for a full six days.On the seventh day, October 14, after pre-arrangement, he suddenly appeared at the Roosevelt Hotel in New York, received a subpoena, held a press conference with a packed house, and read a prepared statement.He said he was so "distressed" by the turn of events that he took time off from Columbia to go to New England with his wife, "to gather my thoughts . . . during a beautiful October in that area." Knowing he was arraigned.The reporter was surprised.How could he not know about the subpoena, which was in the headlines of every newspaper and news broadcast? He said with a bleak smile that, out of respect for the United States Congress, before he stepped into that "appropriate place for discussion," That said, he doesn't plan to make further comments until he walks into the hearing room.

He then appeared at the hearing on Nov. 2, dressed modestly and visibly, and by his own admission, nervous. "If I could change the course of my life for the past three years, I would do it almost at any cost... I've learned a lot about good and evil. But good and evil are not always what they seem. I really got involved , was deeply involved in a deception... I almost convinced myself that what I was doing was doing no harm, because it had such a good effect on the attitude of the nation towards teachers, educational enterprise, and cultural life." He went on to say that he ended up feeling "terribly disturbed" and "terrified" afterward.He begged the show host "multiple times" to let him go.They replied that they would remove me "in a dramatic fashion".Finally, an attractive blond lawyer entered the contest, and one of the hosts "told me ... I was going to lose to her. I thanked him." When the public began to learn that the quiz show was a hoax, Fando Len said he was "terrified to death... I just ran away... and I was mostly trying to get away from myself".There is "a way out, and of course I have considered this way over and over again, and that is to tell the whole truth."But "emotionally speaking", this is not "possible".Then the subpoena was issued. "...one small thing changed my attitude. I got a letter from a total stranger who had seen me on a quiz show hosted by Galloway and said she appreciated my presence there. The work I did on the show. She told me that the only way to deal with myself and to remedy what I did (and of course she didn't fully understand what I did) was to be clear, frank, Honestly admitting everything. It dawned on me that she was right." Van Doren went on to work up the courage to call his lawyer the next morning.After hearing all that Van Doren had to say, the lawyer said, "God bless you." That was the end of Van Doren's testimony.He put down the manuscript, turned to the prosecutor, and smiled at him. This is ridiculous.It was the subpoena, not an unknown woman, that forced his confession.And if he's really "very disturbed" about the show, he doesn't have to ask the show hosts to let him go, all he needs to do is answer a question wrong while the show is on.A Republican member of the subcommittee, Rep. Steven Derunian of New York, saw through Van Doren's fraud.He told Van Doren, "I don't think adults with your brains should be credited for telling the truth." But that's exactly what other members of Congress went on to do.Subcommittee Chairman Oren Harris says he wants to 'applaud' his candor; Illinois Rep. William Springer says hope Columbia doesn't fire him 'prematurely'; Illinois Rep. Peter Marks said he believed NBC would forgive him; others said they wanted to "pay tribute" to his "perseverance" and his "candid" account that "touched the soul."Columbia University, on the other hand, fired Van Doren five hours later; NBC fired him the next day.But this is not a popular reaction.The hearing crowd all sided with Van Doren, applauding him and those who admired him on the subcommittee, while responding with icy silence to Congressman Derunian's comments.Students at Columbia University staged a protest rally against his removal.Polls show that three out of four Americans think "most people" would do what he did if faced with the same situation.Crowd letters received by NBC supported him by a 5-to-1 majority. The Harris subcommittee has presented new evidence that the TV show was falsified after Van Doren and 13 other high-profile figures were charged with perjury in New York.Dick Clark, the number one disc jockey on teen entertainment, admits that he benefits financially from the discs he picks.This is commonly referred to as "secret kickbacks".FCC Chairman John Dorfer actually defended the matter.He argued that it hurt no one and that any attempt to control it would "undermine our cherished freedom of speech".That's when it was discovered that Dolfer himself had taken covert bribes from a broadcast giant he was supposed to oversee.Eisenhower accepted his resignation.However, the public doesn't seem to care about it.Given that TV viewers don't care about such things, it's not surprising that they accepted the bland simulcasts of 1960. "The Drama News" once said that if 1959 was the year of the quiz show, then 1960 was the year of the western story.This year CBS had eight such shows, NBC had nine, and ABC had 11—accounting for a total of 24.5 hours of prime weekly airtime. After seven years of basking in Eisenhower's sunshine, national opinion makers, including those who had supported the president, were growing impatient.As early as 1958, the Chicago Daily News asked: "There's a lot of noise going on. What's Eisenhower doing? All you read about him playing golf. Who's Govern the country." However, the readers remained unmoved.While the president was in Europe, the vice president scored a personal victory by negotiating an end to the 116-day steel strike.The results of the polls were virtually unaffected, and the public paid no heed.The newly free Congo is bleeding in a sad civil war, and Laotian rebels led by Captain Kong Le overthrew the pro-Western government of Prime Minister Chao Sassonet: Neither country is on the map for the average American where.At home, a newspaper strike shut down all newspapers in New York, a series of prison riots occurred, and bombs were smuggled on board planes, one of which was placed by a young man obsessed with money in order to get his mother's insurance money. , killing his mother and everyone else on the same plane.According to the survey, most of the first few pages of the newspaper are not read, and readers like comic strips and sports news.When Khalil Chesman was finally executed in California after eight reprieves, opponents of the death penalty also objected, but the numbers were few, and the general indifference did not seem to have contributed to a series of extremely cruel and inhuman Excited by the murder.One of the homicides of this period was that of Kansas farmer Herbert Kellert, who was murdered along with his wife, children and family. Time magazine published a story about the crime in its November 30, 1959, issue under the headline "Deliberate Murder," when its readers included a writer named Truman Capote. The cliche of the year was to use "something" everywhere, using the word as a punctuation mark in colloquial speech.Negroes in Greensboro are on "protests and such," Romance is on "love and such," Metrickle is "diets and such," Alfred Hitchcock's " Psychoanalysis is "what a surprise".It's used almost everywhere, but never for one branch of the federal government.No one ever said that John Foster Dulles was doing "diplomatic stuff."It's not very decent and inappropriate to say that, because Dulles belongs to the older generation, to the statesmanlike profession formed by foreign ministers in tuxedos and striped trousers.His arrogant preaching and simplistic theory of "massive retaliation" had been rendered obsolete by the explosion of Soviet rocketry. In the first months of 1959, as he languished in and out of Walter Reed Hospital with the disease that eventually killed him, he seemed to have recognized the stalemate between East and West that he had worked so hard to perpetuate , it seems to be unsustainable.He still fought for it.When he left Washington for the last trip to Europe in the pain of illness, he said to his friends: "If it is not cancer, I think this trip is very important and cannot be postponed any longer. If it is cancer, then adding some pain is not enough. Earl." He did have cancer.Under daily million-volt X-rays at Walter Reed Hospital, or resting in the Florida sun on Cupid Island, the Secretary of State was engaged in a desperate battle with death, and as he fought , the reins of state affairs finally slipped from his hands.Outwardly, the balance of power in the world has not changed.The United States still had the defense obligations of 42 countries under the treaty; and Dulles, to use another new buzzword, was still a figure of great power.American editorial writers paid tribute to the "sage advice" and "strength of single-mindedness" of this "indispensable man."The British Foreign Office greeted him, saying it was "deeply saddened", while the French Foreign Office expressed concern about the "greatest possible loss to the West".Bonn deeply regrets that "one spoke" has been removed from the wheel of Western policymaking.But this was all diplomatic rhetoric, as Dulles must have expected.Although he was in close contact with the White House and State Department by phone, alert to any heresy against the Cold War, it was clear to those who could read the signs (and he was a man of the trade) that only waiting With him gone, Washington and Moscow will move toward détente.Emmett John Hughes wrote that "the clenched fist of Dulles" was about to be replaced by "the outstretched hand of Eisenhower." In the aftermath of the GOP's midterm election defeat, Haggerty compiled a long memo looking ahead to the 1960 elections in which Eisenhower, running for the Republican presidential succession, must build on his record as a peacekeeper.Based on conversations with the president, the memo made everything Dulles opposed during his six years in Foggy Bottom a goal.The memo bluntly assumes that the time has come for diplomatic flexibility.The Eisenhower-Haggerty Memorandum held that the president must take center stage on the international stage as a peacemaker.The memorandum goes on to declare the President's appearances at the United Nations on various occasions, during his travels as far as the ends of the earth, including neutral India, and during his warm reception with Khrushchev who asked him to attend meetings with Russia. Such a role must be played with regard to proposals such as summits and talks in the United States. The Prime Minister of the Soviet Union was ready to accommodate such suggestions.On January 26, 1959, Khrushchev welcomed Deputy Prime Minister Anastas Mikoyan back from his visit to the United States, saying that "the possibility of a thaw" in Russian-American relations "is not ruled out."He said "everything that could be done" to improve relations between the two superpowers had to be done because thermonuclear war was unthinkable.Some people in the West say that Khrushchev "fears war more than anyone else", and this statement is absolutely correct.In the past, Dulles had routinely replied that any conference would require a show of good faith from the Soviet Union, which he was skeptical because, in his view, the Soviet Union was interested in winning the Cold War, not ending it.But this time, another government spokesman had a different opinion.Vice President Nixon said that the United States also wanted a thaw, "because we realize that if we do not thaw, we will all end up frozen in ice that only a nuclear bomb can break." On May 24, Walter Reed Hospital concluded Dulles' dying care with the following announcement: "Mr. John Foster Dulles died in his sleep at 7:49 this morning (Eastern Daylight China died suddenly and forever." Undersecretary of State Christian Herter was already at the helm of the State Department.His highest priority was the latest development in the tiresome string of crises in Berlin.Khrushchev issued an ultimatum to the Western powers: "If they do not withdraw from Berlin within six months, the Red Army will drive them out." Replying in the style of Dulles, it would have been an ultimatum in return, and A show of strength, forcing a showdown on the brink of war. Eisenhower took a different tack. The president read a cautious statement at a press conference, declaring that if there was a fire in Berlin, it would be "to prevent us from fulfilling our obligation.We're not saying we're going to break into Berlin by force.We said we were just going to continue to fulfill our responsibilities to the people there.So if we are being thwarted, someone else must be using force. ” Herter used this ultimatum as a strategic means of making deals before the summit meeting, and the development of the situation is exactly the same. As soon as Dulles was in the grave, events unfolded with almost too hasty momentum.Five weeks later, on June 28, Soviet Deputy Prime Minister Flor Kozlov led an official Russian delegation to New York to inaugurate an exhibition of Soviet science, technology and culture. On July 11, Eisenhower personally invited Khrushchev to visit the United States.Exactly two months after Dulles' death, on July 23, the Vice President of the United States inaugurated the American National Exhibition in Moscow's Sokolniki Park as what Eisenhower called a "payback" to Soviet officials visiting New York . What happened next hardly contributed to the easing of tension between East and West, but it did shed some light on the pugnacious instincts of both Nikita Khrushchev and Richard Nixon.The most interesting display at the exhibition was a typical ranch house with six rooms, with a viewing corridor in the center, allowing the audience to see all the furnishings inside.The Soviet leader couldn't help but be furious at the model residence.It hit him where it hurt.Russia built Sputnik at the expense of consumer goods production and services to consumers.The opening of the exhibition was televised in the Soviet Union, and Khrushchev felt he had made a mistake.He was gearing up, and Nixon was the one who challenged him.The opening ceremony will also be shown on American television.Nixon was determined to be the Republican presidential nominee next year, and whatever Haggerty thought about campaign strategy, Nixon had a plan of his own that never included exposing himself to bullying Communists on television.The end was what the press called a "kitchen debate" or a "Sokolniki summit". The debate begins when they stop in the sleek, modern kitchen of the model home.Nixon said it was a typical American house, and that almost any American worker could afford a house like this or something like it.The Soviet premier threw his head up in contempt. Khrushchev: You would think that the Russians would be dumbfounded by this exhibition, but the fact is that all new Russian residences will have this equipment.In America you have to be rich to get this house, but with us you just have to be born a citizen of the Soviet Union.If American citizens have no money, they only have the right to... sleep on sidewalks.And you say we are slaves to communism! Nixon: ...We don't think this exhibition will surprise the Russian people, but it will interest them as much as your exhibition will interest us.For us, variety, choice, the fact that we have thousands of different builders, that's the spice of life.We don't want a government official at the top to decide that we only want one style of housing.That's the difference— Khrushchev (interrupting): In terms of political differences, we will never agree.If I agree with you, I will be seduced by Mikoyan.He likes spicy soup and I don't.But that doesn't mean we disagree. Nixon: Wouldn't it be better to talk about the advantages of our washing machines than the power of our rockets? Isn't that what you want? Khrushchev: (puts his thumb on Nixon's chest): Yeah, that's the kind of competition we want, but your generals say they're powerful enough to destroy us.We can also show you something to show you the spirit of the Russians.We are strong and we can defeat you.In that regard, we can also give you something to look at. Nixon (pointing to Khrushchev): I think you are powerful, and so are we.In some ways, you are stronger than we are.In other ways we are stronger... Stopping at a table of California wines, they had a final bout.Khrushchev proposed a toast to "peace and the abolition of all military bases abroad." Nixon (no toast): Let's drink only peace. A Russian standing aside: I wish Prime Minister Khrushchev a long life! Nixon: I want to drink to this.We do not agree with your policies, but we wish you well.I wish you a long life. Khrushchev (after the toast): We will discuss these issues further when we are 99 years old.what are we in a hurry Nixon (he said the last words): Are you saying that you will still be in power when you are 99 years old, and there are no free elections? It was a curious encounter, more like a quarrel than a debate between two combative people, each trying to appear more peaceful than the other.Both have disadvantages of their own making.Nixon didn't fit the Soviet leader's stereotype of a quintessentially capitalist politician acting as a Wall Street stooge in a thousand speeches.Nixon's disadvantages resemble Khrushchev's difficulties, mirroring each other.His archetype of the villainous Communist chief was essentially a scarecrow and as dynamic as a Sunday Illustrated genie.The US vice-president scored more points in the debate, but the Russian prime minister appeared effusive, forthright, and perhaps more suited to his role.Nixon appears to be a man who likes to talk about ideas, while Khrushchev seems to be a man who loves his people and is willing to do everything possible to protect them.As if to confirm the point, he condoned Nixon's insolence (as he apparently thought it was) and accepted Eisenhower's invitation to visit the United States immediately after Nixon's return.With his feigned frankness he said: "I'm going to turn my pockets inside out and show everyone that I'm harmless." "In ancient times, when people came into a house to negotiate peace,武器留在门厅里。我们现在也应该这样做，不应该磨刀霍霍。”就这样，他悄悄撤销了关于柏林问题的最后通牒。 杜勒斯反对这类最高级会议的一个原因，是他担心美国的盟国可能觉得他们会被抛弃。为了使他们放心，总统在8月末飞赴欧洲，以两周的时间分别同康拉德·阿登纳、哈罗德·麦克米伦和夏尔·戴高乐进行会谈。这是一次令人惊异的旅行。在华盛顿，人们很容易忘却欧洲人对德怀特·艾森豪威尔所抱有深厚的感情。他们对他的感情没有受到党派界限和意识形态上的侵扰。在他们看来，他是领导胜利的远征军，把他们从纳粹统治下解放出来的和蔼、正直、不唱高调的美国将军。德国人看来也像英国人和法国人同样感激。当艾森豪威尔所乘的默塞德斯-奔驰轿车进入波恩时，估计有比该市人口还多一倍的31.5万人排列在路旁，向他欢呼，手持横幅标语，上面写着：“我们信任你”和“我们仰仗你”。在伦敦，他的座车是一辆鸽灰色的劳斯莱斯。这里几十万人群欢呼“见到你很高兴，艾克”和“干得好，艾克”。当车队进入格罗夫纳广场时，记者们看到他的眼睛里含着泪水，从这个广场，艾森豪威尔将军曾经指挥联军打败了希特勒。 现在正进入困难时期的戴高乐，本来宁愿巴黎人表现得更节制一些，但那是不可能的。在布尔歇机场，这两位将军出身的总统互致颂辞，接着从人群中发出的“艾克”(在法语中叫成了“夷克”)的欢呼声淹没了一切。在“夷克”逗留巴黎的两天中甚至当他在凯旋门下的法国无名战士墓前放置粉红百合花和红玫瑰花圈时，或是当他在巴黎市政厅对持续的欢呼表示答谢时，这种欢呼声也从未完全停息。他在答谢时说：“激情满怀，舌滞口呆。一句短短的法语，可以表达我的感情——Jevousaimetous(我爱你们大家)。”显然，在这样的背景下要举行严肃的会谈是不切实际的。戴高乐确曾提出他的由三国理事会指导北约组织的计划。艾森豪威尔则应许通过横越大西洋的电话保持更密切的接触，暂时搪塞过去。(“我知道他是一个顽固的人，”艾克对他的一个助理说，“但是，只要他顽固地站在我们这一边，那就一切好办。”)在苏格兰的卡尔泽安堡(他在这里住在有九间房间的一套单元，是苏格兰人民在欧战胜利日后送给他的)度过周末后，总统在9月7日乘机返国。他对欢迎的人群说：“我确信至少在目前一切令人满意。” 尼基塔·赫鲁晓夫在美国进行的巡回访问，则将是缓和世界紧张局势的又一阶段。9月15日，在马里兰州的安德鲁斯机场，苏联大使米哈伊尔·缅希科夫对着飞机舷梯喊叫：“尼基塔·谢尔盖耶维奇，我在美国土地上向你致敬!”在美国观众惊愕莫名之际，他走下梯级，秃头，粗壮短矮的身材，在黑色上衣上佩戴着三枚小勋章，陪伴他的有腼腆的妻子尼娜·彼得洛芙娜、女儿朱莉亚和拉达、儿子谢尔盖和63名随行的俄国官僚。艾森豪威尔总统对他们表示了正式的欢迎，随后东道主、美国驻联合国大使亨利·卡伯特·洛奇陪同他们对美国进行了为时两周的导游旅行。 整个说来旅行是成功的。美国人对坏脾气的人是偏爱的，而此公之尖锐泼辣不亚于托马斯·爱迪生和亨利·福特。在对美国企业家发表的演说中，在艾奥瓦州农村的旅行中，在同纽约市长罗伯特·瓦格纳和洛杉矶市长诺里斯·波尔森共进午餐时，赫鲁晓夫表现得机智，自以为是无所顾忌，但是很有人情味，而且决心同他的邻人和平相处。免不得也出过些事。赫鲁晓夫在同20世纪福克斯公司董事长斯皮洛斯·斯库拉斯的争论中赢了他，而在另一次争论中则输给了沃尔特·鲁瑟和他的工会的六名副主席(于是他指责他们是“资本家的代理人”，而且在鲁瑟大笑时他感到莫名其妙)。在好莱坞一个歌舞团为他表演了康康舞之后，这位总理显露出了一副道学家的神态，说这种舞蹈“下流”，而且加上一句，“一个人的面孔总比他的屁股好看。” 在戴维营，这位于马里兰州卡托克廷山上的总统别墅，赫鲁晓夫表现得最好。他没有说一句咄咄逼人的话，事实上，他说的几乎尽是不着边际的空泛议论。他的慎重似乎就是避开对实质问题的探讨。在他们会谈的第二天的中途，艾森豪威尔向他发出个人的呼吁：“你完全可能使紧张局势缓和下来，从而对历史做出巨大贡献。这完全取决于你。”但是这位俄国领导人不肯受约束。他表示欣赏美国的烤牛肉，同艾克一起欣赏一部西部影片，在坐直升机到葛底斯堡访问之后，他称赞了总统的珍贵的黑色安古斯牛群。在目前，他对缓和的贡献就只到此为止。 相处三日后，两位领导人发表了联合声明。他们同意普遍裁军是全世界面临的最重要的问题；关于柏林问题的谈判应该“重开，以便获得一项符合有关各方意见、有助于维持和平的解决办法”；“一切重大国际问题不应诉诸武力而应通过谈判以和平方式予以解决”；以及艾森豪威尔总统将于来年访问苏联。 有一阵，报纸都大肆宣传“戴维营精神”。一时间，它几乎像罗斯福-丘吉尔的大西洋宪章那样重要。人们认为美苏关系的转折点终于来到。这一切都是幻想。美国总统和苏联总理甚至没有触及在世界和德国前途问题上由于观点不同而产生的基本的和严重的问题。温良的情绪也难持久，随着时间推移，逐渐恶化，人们也就不再抱什么幻想。参与其事的人中有的认为在同俄国人举行任何新的会议之前必须打好更加坚实的基础。理查德·尼克松就是其中的一个。 但是，尼克松并不认为这次会谈结果令人失望，证明杜勒斯对举行最高级会议持死硬的反对态度是正确的。全世界各国政治家都已投身于《时代》周刊所说的“新的个人外交的全球竞技”，谁也不愿意再回到过去的冰冷状态。他们经过精心安排的纷纷出游，正在遵循一项导向圆满结局的明确计划。下一步就将是举行被人叫做“西方最高级会议”的一种半决赛会议，参加者将是艾森豪威尔、麦克米伦、阿登纳和戴高乐。这四个人将重申他们保持柏林自由的誓言，并且为他们与赫鲁晓夫之间举行的决赛会议订出共同的方案。 这个半决赛会议12月在巴黎召开。不过，艾森豪威尔的12月之行却并不只限于法国。由于新式的波音707型喷气飞机能大大减少人的劳累，使得个人外交的冒险探索大有可为。西欧各国首都对他举行激动人心的欢迎，激起了他天真的希望，以为向车队欢呼的那股群众热情可以通过某种方式转变为持久的友谊和更好的国际关系。抱着这种想法，再加上摆在面前的哈格蒂备忘录，总统决定，他既已出国，不妨也去访问一下意大利、土耳其、巴基斯坦、阿富汗、印度、伊朗、希腊、突尼斯、西班牙和摩洛哥等国的执政者。在他出国作此为时19天、行程1.95万英里、地跨三大洲、行经11国的旅行前，他向全国发表了电视演说。他说：“在执行这次和平和友好的使命期间，我希望增进外国对美国的了解，并更多地了解我们海外的朋友。” 此行是否增进了相互的了解值得商榷。但是，它提供了总统颇孚人望的令人惊讶的新证明。在意大利，罗马市民为一瞻他的风采而伫立在滂沱大雨中。在这里，“艾克”叫成了“夷凯”。一位记者在《晚邮报》上写道：“我们欢迎这个人，他对我们讲话，用的是那种植着海洋般广阔的麦田的堪萨斯农夫们的口音，是他出生前不久才往西部拓荒的人的口音。在紧迫的危险面前，他号召'和平，和平'，讲起来一点也不讲究辞藻。”下一站是土耳其，艾森豪威尔自己说安卡拉对他的欢迎是“我所经历的最盛大的”。75万以上的巴基斯坦人欢迎他到卡拉奇访问。在新德里，他说他被欢迎的群众弄得“完全不知所措”，看来也确实如此：百万大喊大叫的印度人，高举着各种横幅，向他欢呼，有的人喊叫：“艾森豪威尔，和平之王!”他们向他乘坐的敞篷车投掷了大量鲜花，使得他竟站在一英尺深的花朵中。其他各国，都是如此。在德黑兰，欢呼的伊朗人达75万，他向伊朗议会两院联席会上发表了演说；当他对希腊国民议会致词时，50万热情的雅典人聚集在议会厅外；弗朗西斯科·佛朗哥元帅在马德里欢迎他时，参加欢迎的西班牙人也有50万；在卡萨布兰卡也有50万人欢迎他。 此情此景使人目瞪口呆却也使人难以理解。在西欧受到的欢呼可以追溯到第二次世界大战时期，但是在他此行访问的国家中，惟一参加过二次大战的是意大利，而当时意大利人是站在另一方面的。为什么印度的贱民愿意步行40英里来看看美国总统·为什么阿富汗的部族人不惜花费很多天时间编扎花环放在总统座车的轮前·部分原因似乎在于众口一词赞颂的“和平，和平”。战争到处都被认为是人类最大的灾难，即使从未听到过枪声的人民也有同感。但是这并不是这些令人望之生畏的群众场面背后的全部原因。显然美国远比美国人自己所料想的更受爱戴。反美分子吵嚷得厉害一些，但这些国家的大多数人看来是赞许和信任美国的。 艾森豪威尔于12月22日返国。这一年的圣诞节是他的总统任期和美国外交史上的一个顶峰。在一年一度向全国发表的圣诞节贺辞中(这次以28种语言向国外同时播送)，他谈到这次旅行：“我的目的是要改善气氛，使外交进行得更加成功；这种外交旨在为所有的人寻求……正义的和平。”他的任务完成得如何，不到五个月的时间就见分晓。届时，他将和西欧的三位领导人一起在最高级的首脑会议上同赫鲁晓夫当面打交道。此次会议预定1960年5月16日在巴黎举行。 在50年代末期，《纽约时报》的读者们不时地读到赫伯特·马修斯写的引人入胜的署名报道：一群大胡子的年轻古巴革命者，已在古巴的马埃斯特腊山区莽莽丛林中落脚藏身。他们的领袖是一位身躯魁伟、说话噜苏、三十岁刚出头的律师，名叫菲德尔·卡斯特罗·鲁斯。卡斯特罗在1956年圣诞节带着仅仅12个人在古巴登陆。富尔亨西奥·巴蒂斯塔的军队没来得及抓住他们，他们就进了山区，打出了7月26日运动的红黑两色旗。号召古巴热爱自由的人们参加的运动的名称，来自1953年7月26日由卡斯特罗领导对圣地亚哥巴蒂斯塔分子发动的一次冒死攻击。 在开头几年，卡斯特罗的运动在美国是颇得人心的。巴蒂斯塔统治下的古巴是由恐怖分子和腐败官僚操纵的警察国家，这些人靠卖淫业、赌场和侵吞公款大发横财。为了镇压造反的大学生，哈瓦那大学被关闭；持不同政见的人被暗杀；尸体被肢解后送还给父母，或者像垃圾一样扔进沟渠。华盛顿对出现真正民主古巴的前景感到欢欣。早在1958年3月，一切向巴蒂斯塔提供美国武器的活动便已停止。马修斯等美国新闻记者写的都是同情的报道，把卡斯特罗和他的大胡子造反者，描绘成要为同胞争取自由和正义，毫无私心，罗宾汉式的人物。记者们错了，但是这种错误在当时是常见的，大部分古巴中产阶级和许许多多对巴蒂斯塔早已憎厌的有影响的古巴军官也犯了同样错误。这就是巴蒂斯塔毁灭的原因。卡斯特罗只有不到两千的大胡子兵来对付4万名装备精良的巴蒂斯塔分子，但是商人和土地所有者资助他，中产阶级也为造反者欢呼，因为造反者大部分也都出身中产阶级——年轻的自由职业者和知识分子，如菲德尔、他的弟弟劳尔，以及后来成为卡斯特罗的托洛茨基的阿根廷医生埃内斯托·“切”·格瓦拉少校。 1958年最后的几周内，在距首都150英里的拉斯维利亚斯省，格瓦拉打垮了3000政府军，攻占了省会圣克拉拉。巴蒂斯塔派遣去的一列车军队，甚至拒绝下车。旧政权末日已到，巴蒂斯塔也明白这一点。他在元旦那天乘飞机出亡。于是卡斯特罗沿着古巴中央公路长驱直下，进行了为时七天行程600英里的胜利进军。菲德尔的官兵举着手枪和冲锋枪朝天鸣放。他们亲切地把领袖称为“ElCaballo”(老马)。他是“卡冈都亚”文艺复兴时期法国作家拉伯雷在1552年出版的政治讽刺小说的主角，此人食欲惊人，身躯硕大，武功卓绝。——译者式的人物，在出名之前，就是具有非凡魅力的人物，他私生活刻苦，不近女色。除了价值50美分的基督山牌雪茄以外，他没有其他个人享受。谁也难让他换掉那一身肮脏的绿军装。 “我对权力不感兴趣，我也不想要权。”卡斯特罗说，“从现在起，人民完全自由了。”他恢复了古巴失去的尊严，使之具有民族特征，铲除了腐败现象，推行了教育古巴儿童和激励他们的父母的庞大计划。有人暗中传播说他是一个共产党人，他的一般反应是嗤之以鼻。反动派总是把改革者叫做赤色分子。《纽约时报》的马修斯一类的人对20年前反动派在西班牙的做法记忆犹新，他们也是这样说的。 为了表明自己是美国的友邻，菲德尔带着100箱表示友好的兰姆酒飞到华盛顿。他同代理国务卿克里斯琴·赫脱同吃牛排，共饮香槟——即使在这种场合，他仍穿着那身军装——并在参议院外交委员会的会议室里同18位国会议员谈过话。他对他们说：“7月26日运动不是共产党的运动，成员大多数是天主教徒。”问到美国在古巴的投资，他回答说：“我们无意没收美国的财产，我们接管的任何产业都将付款补偿。”他是招人欢喜的。当然，也有一点刺耳的音调。在和卡斯特罗进行了三小时会议之后，副总统尼克松写了一份长达12页的机密备忘录，分送中央情报局、国务院和白宫。在备忘录中，他说他确信古巴的新领导人“如不是对共产主义具有不可思议的天真态度，就是受共产党纪律约束的。”但是中央情报局将这备忘录归档了事，国务院置之不理，艾森豪威尔则不屑一顾。本届政府已有点厌烦尼克松那种遍地都是共产党妖魔的看法。 到1959年的春季，美国人才猛然醒悟，夏天美古关系也就日益恶化。当独裁者的名字换为卡斯特罗的时候，看来卡斯特罗对独裁者的憎恨也就消失。他对权力不感兴趣云云也消逝了。他以一种连巴蒂斯塔也会为之瞠目的残酷态度中止了使用人身保障法，在全岛建立起军事法庭，并下令终止已判有罪的被告者上诉的权利。到9月份，他转向左倾。他承认了红色中国，称美国为“以人类为食的……秃鹫”，废除了1952年古美军事协定，并且扬言，量美国佬也不敢侵犯古巴。 7月26日运动的理想主义者和幻想家们被出卖。他们认识到这一点时，他们遭到挫折而发出的愤怒声震撼了整个古巴。他们有一百多人被监禁，其他人北逃到佛罗里达。其中之一是曾经领导过卡斯特罗的哈瓦那地下组织的激进的年轻工程师曼努埃尔·拉伊。另有两人是著名的自由派：曾由卡斯特罗选任新政府的第一任总理的米奥·卡多纳，以及被遴选出任该政权第一任总统的曼努埃尔·乌鲁蒂亚。其他感到被出卖给赤色分子的人包括一些勇敢的军官，像何塞·佩雷斯(“佩佩”)·圣罗曼、埃尔内多·奥利瓦和马埃斯特腊山区的“7.26”英雄之一乌维尔·马托斯。有些人在第一次听到卡斯特罗背叛的消息时竟然还不相信。他们说除非亲自看到，他们是不会相信的。有些人确实是亲耳得闻了。奥连特省卓越的年轻省长曼努埃尔·弗朗西斯科·阿尔廷梅博士就听到卡斯特罗亲自概述过他要在三年之内使古巴共产主义化的计划。阿尔廷梅后来说：“我那时才认识到，我是一个打进共产党政府内的民主派。” 这些人同他们视为绝对邪恶的东西是不能妥协的。如果他们不想出卖灵魂，他们就只好逃出美国记者当时所谓的“蔗幕”，以期有朝一日能收复祖国。古巴人自有他们的风格，有些人的逃亡也是很勇敢的。阿尔廷梅就是一例。他先给卡斯特罗写了一封私函，宣布由于“从你的嘴里听到使古巴共产主义化的全盘计划”，因此决定退出运动。他装扮成神甫，随身携带一本内藏手枪的弥撒书，走进美国大使馆去。在那里他被介绍给一个名叫“威廉斯”的人，此人负责把他藏入一艘往北开的洪都拉斯货船的秘密房舱中。在坦帕码头，迎接阿尔廷梅的是一个高个子美国人，自称是“威廉斯的朋友伯内特先生”。在迈阿密(这里由于很快就麇集了许多难民，简直像个古巴城市)，又有另一些威廉斯和伯内特的朋友出面，他们自我介绍为“吉米”、“桑尼”、“西比”、“唐”等等。阿尔廷梅后来发现这些人全都是美国中央情报局的特工人员。 当然，他们自己并没有自认是中央情报局的特务。即便问他们，他们也并不承认。他们编造的说法是，他们受雇于一家决心解决古巴问题的美国大公司。他们的领导人尤其十分注意维持这种假象。他个子很高，衣着豪华，是惟一有名又有姓的特务：“弗兰克·本德”。弗兰克一再提醒阿尔廷梅：“记住，马诺洛，我不是美国政府的人员。我与美国政府毫无关系。我只是为一家要同共产主义作斗争的巨大的公司工作的。”后来，这些美国人还试图给人一种印象，他们的后台是一位古巴的百万富豪。古巴人彼此挤挤眼，开玩笑说那位百万富豪的名字叫“山姆大叔”。很久以后，其中一个人说：“那时我们也真够蠢的，以为山姆大叔在支持我们。他希望秘密地干，那也无所谓，因为他是山姆大叔，而且他是强大的。”中央情报局的特务们严肃地对他们说，如果联邦调查局发觉他们的所作所为，他们全都有坐牢的危险。特务们解释说，这就是他们不能透露自己的真名实姓的原因。这也被说成是要用黑布蒙眼、传口令、使暗号之类的鬼把戏的原因。美国人惟恐两面特务打进来。古巴人都需要接受测谎器测验，罗沙克测验瑞士心理学家赫尔曼·罗沙克(1884～1922年)发明的通过所谓“墨迹测验”方式进行的心理测验。被测者须对一大堆无意义的墨迹提出他认为可能的解释，从中分析他的心理活动。——译者和一位带很重的德国口音、态度和蔼、戴眼镜的精神病学者(他叫“马克斯”)长时间的盘问。测验合格的人就派出执行神秘任务——举个典型的例子，要求他们当中某个人飞往纽约，在斯塔特勒·希尔顿饭店以“乔治·林戈”之名登记下榻，然后按照一连串别人打来的电话行事——直到美国人消除怀疑。 审查合格的人被分成两组。年纪轻一些愿意参加实际战斗的人，编成一个旅——后来一直被称做LaBrigada(旅团)。年纪大一些的在迈阿密组成一个联合政治阵线，以后准备接替卡斯特罗的政府。这“阵线”的实际作用，就是把什么秘密都泄露出去了。不过，有关那些年轻战士的情况则泄露不多，因为它自己知道的也有限。其实泄露了也没有什么了不得。如果有人告诉卡斯特罗这支要去攻打他的小小部队的实际力量多小，他也不会相信。他估计这支部队大约两万多人。可是迟至1960年11月，实际只有450人，而且从未超过1200人。为了有人被俘时，欺骗敌人，军人编号是从2500开始的。有一名新兵在训练中死亡，这个旅就以他的编号2506作为自己的番号。旅徽的图案就是在一个十字架上压着2506这个数字。他们的符号和战旗也都用这种徽记。 后来，特务们的伪装被揭穿，大家才知道行动计划完全是按照华盛顿最高级命令行事的。负责日常监督工作的是中央情报局局长艾伦·杜勒斯，全面计划来自一个叫做“特别小组”的机构——由白宫、国务院、参谋长联席会议和中央情报局官员组成的高级指挥机构。艾森豪威尔总统不参加他们的会议，但是他知情，而且当卡斯特罗在1960年3月17日拒绝艾森豪威尔政府为达成一项谅解所作的最后努力时，总统批准训练古巴流亡者以备用来反对卡斯特罗的意见。 “古巴旅”行动的许多细节，简直好像出自当时日益畅销的伊恩·弗莱明所写，以詹姆斯·邦德为主人公的一本离奇的间谍小说。负责监督流亡者训练的美国军官都借自美国陆军和海军陆战队，大都是一些老兵。他们往往是在第二次世界大战和朝鲜战争中得过勋章、勇猛有余、智谋不足的人。训练地点的选择看起来几乎是毫无计划的。起初由一个古巴人出面用中央情报局通过弗兰克·本德给他的钱租下了墨西哥湾中的名胜乌泽帕岛；古巴人舒舒服服地住在乌泽帕乡村俱乐部，其中一些高尔夫球爱好者因之提高了球艺。随后，一架C-54型运输机把他们运到了巴拿马运河区古利克堡美国陆军丛林战训练营。原本不让他们知道他们究竟在哪里，但是有一位中央情报局的教官丢下一张巴拿马市的报纸，而且从训练营地的一个小山头上看去，运河也清晰可见。