Chapter 9 Rome · Church · AD 1261

In the whole European travel, if you want to choose a city that you are most obsessed with, it must be Rome without a doubt.When I was a child, I heard too many romantic legends about Paris, Milan, and Vienna, and I was fascinated by them. I really went there when I grew up, but my favorite was not any of them, but the oldest Rome in comparison. Rome is the apex of splendor.This city is neither fashionable nor developed. Compared with other international metropolises, its public facilities and residential buildings are relatively dilapidated. When you take the bus out of the city, you can still see dilapidated small shops.But none of that matters, it's still the apex of splendor.Walking in Rome, you won’t even pay special attention to those modern facilities, because you can always see art that has become a classic handed down from generation to generation. They are casually exposed on the streets, just like ordinary decorations. There are so many that people are overwhelmed.A simple church is designed by everyone, and a simple pool is a masterpiece.No other city in the world can match such resources.

This Rome is not the ancient Rome we visited, but another city living on the same land.Ancient Rome makes people feel admirable and grand, but it doesn't have the amazing feeling that this Rome gives people. This Rome is religious Rome.People who don't believe in religion can also be impressed by it. Rome was divided geographically into two distinct halves, just as it was historically divided into two distinct halves. Ancient Rome is in the southeast of the city, spanning the first millennium of history; religious Rome is in the northwest of the city, covering the last millennium of history.Regardless of appearance or temperament, you will never confuse these two Romes.

Ancient Rome was the capital of politics.All the ruins you can see, every place shows the strength and power of the kingdom.Every square means political debate, every triumphal arch means battle and conquest, every water bridge means a huge project, technological leadership, engineering ability, and absolute political domination.The Colosseum is a symbol of masculinity and bravery, the Senate is a symbol of authority, and the thick walls and domes of the temple give people a sense of indestructibility and complement each other with great power. Religious Rome, however, was different.It's more refined and more varied.You feel central, but not particularly dominant.You will constantly be caught by genius and grace.Turn any corner of the street, and you may come across a masterpiece by accident.Enter any museum and you will find one of the most famous and outstanding works in art history.Sitting in the square to rest, there are various lifelike sculptures in front of you.Occasionally, when you pass by a small church and suddenly see a famous painting, you may be so surprised that you point to the wall and ask: Is this the case, and the people around you will nod as usual: Yes, that’s right, it’s that painting.At that time, there was nothing to say but admiration.

This Rome is similar to Rome in the ancient Roman Empire, but different.The similarity lies in the fact that they were once the centers of the world, places of pilgrimage for eminent figures, but the difference is that religious Rome never united its powers into a single state.Ancient Rome was the capital, the capital of the empire; religious Rome was also the capital, but it did not belong to any empire.It is only the capital of the Catholic Church. Although its sphere of power covers the whole world, its territory has always been only a small part, from the Papal State in the Middle Ages to the Vatican after World War II.

The Vatican is a city within a city in Rome. It is very small, only 0.44 square kilometers, making it the smallest sovereign state in the world.Its coverage includes only a few buildings such as St. Peter's Basilica and the Vatican Museum of Art, which can be traversed on foot.It borders Rome on all sides, without any geographical barriers, no borders and checkpoints, you can't even see its borders, and you don't need any special visas to enter its territory.It lacks many functions of the state, and it also lacks the national territory in the general sense. Its power structure is even more different from that of the general state government-subjects.All of this is completely different from the state in the traditional sense, and its status is not regulated by the state at all.It is the core of religion, the core of the church, and the pinnacle of world art.Its scope is small, but it contains far more masterpieces of art than most countries in the world.

It's not the capital of empires, it's the capital of art. In the life of this art capital, at least a few names will never be lost. A city always has its own soul.Its soul is composed of the souls of those who live and have lived in it, it shapes them, and they shape it.These people come and go, disappearing into the dust, yet their souls, as a part of its soul, linger forever in the transparent air. The air of Rome haunts the soul of the artist.This city has been crowded with people since ancient times, and the streets and alleys are often crowded, but it has a transparent power that surpasses the crowd.In its eternal hustle and bustle and people coming and going, in the team of tourists, vendors and pilgrims, you don't feel noisy, but you can feel a strange and indescribable tranquility, as if sitting alone in the open space. At this point, the surrounding sounds disappeared, and there was only a kind of silence overlooking the top of the head.

This is the peace of a face congealed in the air.The faces in the marble are dynamic, but they are frozen in a moment of time, and the smiles and sorrows are quietly condensed, leaving a moment of silence and eternity.Their silence constitutes the silence of the city. Even if there are more tourists, Rome is still a silent city. Rome was Bernini's city.This elegant genius left sculptures in every corner of the city.Bernini lived in the 17th century. He was called a child prodigy when he was very young. When he grew up, he was hired by the Pope and became a popular architect and sculptor.Young, elegant, talented, and self-disciplined, he took on a series of missions to transform the city, carving his stamp on every corner of Rome.He decorated churches, designed squares, and added sculpture to city fountains.His works are vivid, full-bodied, with fresh gestures, and can always capture the momentary movement.The faces of the characters he sculpts are full of emotion, and the sensuality of the body is as real as it is.He has a magic power to make the marble show the wonderful elasticity of the skin and the softness of the cloth.

In many corners of Rome we meet Bernini.On the square in front of St. Agnes Church, you can see the Four Rivers Fountain. The four river gods represent the four big rivers. The strong and dynamic river gods leaned back, raised their hands to block the sky, and looked shocked.In the Church of Our Lady of Victoria, you can see the famous sculpture "The Rapture of Saint Teresa". The devout nuns reveal their intoxicated ecstasy, indulging in their devotion to God, while Cupid's golden light brings God's love."Apollo and Daphne" can be seen in the Borghese Art Museum. Apollo touched Daphne lightly, and Daphne turned into a laurel tree at that moment, Daphne's fingers turned into leaves, her face was terrified, and the figures seemed to fly to the sky , as if to surpass the weight of marble.There is also "The Rape of Persephone", where Pluto's fingers sink into Persephone's waist and legs, and the pressing place feels soft, which makes the stone have the luster of flesh and blood.

Bernini's lifelong rival, Baromini, was also a genius. Although he and Bernini were at odds with each other, they promoted each other's genius in their lifetime competition.Together they created the Rome of the Baroque era, and it was they who made Rome Rome.Baromini designed the clean and simple white San Carlo Church, with graceful curves and full geometric sense, and Bernini designed the gorgeous and elegant golden St. Andrew Church, which is densely colored and full of dramatic sculptures, which is dazzling .The river god covering his eyes in the Fountain of Four Rivers is facing the church designed by Baromini. Some people say that this means Bernini's mockery of Baromini. The most beautiful city.

Rome was the city of Caravaggio.Unlike Bernini's personability, Caravaggio was the other extreme of genius.He appeared suddenly in Rome, wandered with a sword while working, haunted taverns, prostitutes, gamblers, was arrested for libel, and after being patronized by the Pope, he was wanted again for fighting and killing people.He fled all the way, painted while wanted, and died while being hunted down.He was still young when he died.He only painted for more than ten years, but he influenced the entire Baroque era and art history.Caravaggio is a master of light and shadow. The scenes he painted are always half bright and half dark. The large area of ​​darkness makes people fall into panic and contemplation. The focus of light reveals the theme of the painting, which shocks and surprises people, full of contrasting tension.After Caravaggio, countless painters tried to emulate his style, so that the entire 17th century Italian paintings can see large areas of darkness and dramatic light sources.

In the Church of San Luigi, you can see two famous works by Caravaggio.The first is "The Call of Matthew": In an ordinary and dilapidated tavern, old people, children, and knights wearing feather hats sit around the table, Jesus is hidden in the dark, his handsome face is covered by the shadow of the hat, but his eyes are focused on , Matthew pointed at himself with a surprised face, as if asking, is it me, the golden sun fell from the sky, accompanied by Jesus' finger: You, it is you.Another masterpiece is "The Passion of Matthew". He made this painting very dramatic, like a brutal violent attack on a street corner. It is different from the sacredness of previous religious works, but it is full of thrilling power and astonished faces. Surrounded by darkness, Matthew fell to the ground, but the center of light and the focus of sight fell on the assassin who committed the crime, horrifying the pious.In St. Augustine's Church, there is his famous painting "The Madonna of the Pilgrims", which is extremely realistic, and the poor, ragged pilgrims and the girly Madonna next door pull down the unattainable heights of religious paintings.The same work is "Death of the Virgin Mary", an ordinary farmhouse room, a fallen woman in red, a worldly and heavy body, far less ethereal than traditional Madonna paintings, but more touching.In addition, there is also "David Holding Goliath" preserved in the Borghese Art Museum. The picture contains a thrilling scene: the painter's own head is cut off.He paints himself in the picture, but not the teenage hero David, but the slain giant Goliath.The bloody and shouting faces, the struggling soul, pass through the canvas and reach the bottom of people's hearts.Caravaggio hoped to atone for himself in this way. Rome is also the city of Michelangelo and Raphael.These two geniuses among the geniuses in human history, Renaissance heroes, both left their pinnacle works in the Vatican. In 1506, Michelangelo was commissioned by Pope Julian II to paint the frescoes on the ceiling of the Sistine Chapel. For this task, Michelangelo invented the elevated frame and painted with his head up for four years. After suffering a lot, the last unrivaled magnificence was left behind.The myths of the Old Testament are arranged in order, from the creation of the world to the flood. When God endowed Adam with a soul, the fingertips met at that moment, becoming an eternal allegory.Huge prophets are lined up on both sides, with ancient Jewish priests on the outside and Greek prophetesses on the inside, who are larger than human figures, witnessing the myths of human beings, falling in the Garden of Eden, and redeeming in the prehistoric.The back wall of the chapel is the Last Judgment, painted between 1535 and 1541, the strong Christ is in the center of the doomsday flood, becoming a halo, surrounded by thousands of people, forming a circular composition, rising in one direction, falling in one direction, countless Lifelike faces, including fear, anger, pain, and joy, are huge, complex and rich in layers.The Sistine Chapel is a place that must be seen once in a lifetime. It is unreservedly beautiful and grand, and no photo can convey the shocking feeling of the scene. Raphael contributed the most classic murals to the Vatican.In the handed down classic "The Academy of Athens", Raphael placed Plato and Aristotle at the focus of perspective and the center of sight.Philosophers each show themselves according to their talents, and each character is in his face.Pythagoras sits on the left under the steps, and Euclid sits on the right, both immersed in calculations.Diogenes lay lazily on the steps, while Heraclitus bowed his head in meditation alone—the artistic conception of philosophy is all in the colors. "The School of Athens" is one of four theme murals painted by Raphael for the Pope's Palace in the Vatican. In addition, there are "The Debate of the Eucharist" painted for theology and "Parnaso Adams" and "Virtue, Goodness and Law" painted for jurisprudence.These paintings are all elegant and graceful. Although there are many figures, they do not appear crowded and complicated.The murals in another room show a completely different dynamic from this quiet beauty. "Heliodorus Expelled from the Temple" depicts the story of expelling the invaders from Jerusalem by the power of Christ, and "The Fire of the Palace of Bol" The people fleeing and struggling in the fire are drawn, and the power of life burns with the fire in sorrow.These rooms are called the Raphael Room, which embodies Raphael's hard work for many years. Raphael's most beautiful masterpieces are also housed in the Vatican Gallery. "Ascension of Christ" - the perfect work of the late Raphael.The purity and fullness of the color of the picture has reached the point of perfection, full-bodied, but clear, with deep light and shadow, like the clear air after rain, refreshing.In the picture, the expressions of the characters are rich, the crowd in the foreground is in the dark, and the layers are clear. Some people doubt it, some people disdain it. Mary Magdalene points to a sick child and debates with opponents.In the background, Christ is in the sky, flanked by Saints Peter and John, and the stunned apostles fall to the ground.The ethereal color of the sky contrasts sharply with the foreground, eye-catching, and the dramatic contrast brings upward detachment.Thorough and beautiful, a painting worth lingering and staring at for a long time. Finally, in any case, you can't miss the most important scenic spot - St. Peter's Basilica. St. Peter's Basilica is the world's largest cathedral, the most spectacular church.The beauty of the Vatican's architecture, paintings, and sculptures has ignited centuries of faith.The square in front of the church was designed by Bernini. Two circular corridors protrude from the church and surround the central obelisk, like a key and two arms, embracing believers from all over the world. At the top of the circular corridor are 140 statues Different sculptures of saints are as lifelike as they have souls.The design of the entire square is later than that of the main body of the church, and Bernini has properly chosen the scale, which is neither too overwhelming nor too grand.The church itself is in the neoclassical style after the Renaissance. The revival of the ancient Roman dome and the majesty of the Greek columns have all been fully interpreted in modern times.The interior of the church is magnificent, with a huge space scale that cannot be grasped, solemn marble structure, cross-shaped structure, and the center of the cross is St. Peter's tomb, which is covered with Bernini's masterpiece bronze canopy.What makes people breathless is the huge dome of the church. You can't see the details when you look up. With a diameter of more than 20 meters and a perfect spherical arch, the dome constitutes the commanding height of the entire city of Rome.The murals on the dome spiral up, as if they have been ascending into the kingdom of heaven.The dome started with Bramante, took over by Raphael, presided over by Michelangelo, and was finally completed by Martel in the 17th century. It took more than a hundred years to write a remarkable stroke in the history of human architecture. In St. Peter's Basilica, you can see Michelangelo's sad and beautiful sculpture "Pieta". The Virgin Mary's young face is beautiful and gentle, holding the dead Jesus in her arms, showing a subtle but infinitely deep sadness on her face.This is such a mature and perfect masterpiece that almost no one in the Roman critics at that time believed that it was made by the young Michelangelo. Michelangelo carved his name on the skirt of the sculpture at night in a fit of anger. At 23, it was the only signing in his life.There are countless lifelike sculptures and paintings in the church, 48 pulpits, 390 sculptures, 790 columns, rich and magnificent to a luxury level, the statue of the pope sculpted by Bernini, the murals drawn by Raphael, any of them Take it out to ordinary churches, it is a treasure worthy of publicity.After looking at it for a long time, the portrait seems to have entered another world. When viewing works of art, we always hope that knowledgeable people can explain the meaning, style, genre, historical background, expression techniques and historical status, even including the painter's thoughts, philosophical meaning, and political views.It seems that if you don't know these things, you don't know how to appreciate a work.This makes us often shy about talking, for fear of making a mistake.But here, everything is different. You don't need to know any art theory to appreciate those beauties, because they are so direct, so plain, so shocking, and directly reach people's hearts, without any sloppy explanations.Where you are, beauty is there. On the day I visited St. Peter's Church, I had a stomach ache and a slight trembling in my body, which had an unexpected shocking effect on everything around me.The trembling of the body and the magnificence in the eyes blend together, making the world rise into the sky. Rome, a place where your eyes cannot rest. St. Peter's Basilica was built where Peter was buried. Peter was the most important disciple of Jesus. Jesus once asked Peter who he was, and Peter replied that he was the Son of God.Jesus then said that Peter was the cornerstone of the church and gave him the keys of heaven.The Holy See was built on such a foundation. Peter served as the bishop of Rome. In the process, he was executed by Rome, crucified head down and feet up, and buried on the outskirts of Rome. Later generations of pilgrims turned this place into a place of religious gatherings.More than two hundred years later, in order to commemorate his martyrdom, Emperor Constantine built a memorial hall where he was buried in the legend, which is the predecessor of St. Peter's Basilica.For 1,900 years, no one actually found St. Peter's remains until, in 1939, during the cleaning of the catacombs, priests discovered a skeleton missing a foot, which was scientifically identified as belonging to the first century AD. Where Peter died, so was the Holy See.As the successor of Peter's mantle, the pope took over the key left by Peter-the key of the kingdom of heaven.The Roman Church thus became the governing body above all other churches, and Rome has since become the religious center for more than a thousand years. The power of Christianity had entered the city of Rome long before the fall of the Roman Empire.Jesus' most important follower, Paul, like Peter, preached in Rome.Both Paul and Peter died in Rome. One of them developed the alien race to join Christianity and became a key figure in the spread of Christianity. The other was authorized by Jesus himself and became the cornerstone of Christianity.In the religious art of later generations, we can always see Paul and Peter standing on both sides of Jesus, one holding a sword and the other holding a key.They are the two most critical people, and they established the status of Rome. After the fall of the Roman Empire, the power of the empire shifted to the east. On the one hand, the Byzantine Empire located in today’s Turkey, and on the other hand, the Holy Roman Empire, which includes today’s Germany and Austria. Both empires regard themselves as the legal successors of the ancient Roman Empire. By.Rome itself lost its political power, but only the Holy See remained as a purely religious center. This retention is important to civilization.The medieval world was very different from today.For at least 500 years, from AD 500 to AD 1000, civilization was in a nearly extinct desert state.Then writing disappears, science disappears, artists disappear, kings can't even read and write.The school of philosophers is gone, and so are the historians.Everything in the secular world seems to be in a blank, and nothing is known about the heights of Greco-Roman.In such an environment, only the church retains the old culture.The church maintained the tradition of writing, education continued from generation to generation, grammar and rhetoric in the monastery remembered Cicero and Virgil, although geometry, astronomy and music courses disappeared, church art became the only remaining art of this time.The structure of the Middle Ages was also scattered. At that time, there were no territorial divisions such as Germany, France, and Italy, and there was only "Tianxia" but no "country."The world is chaotic, with many kings, feudal vassals, and wars between any one side and another. There is no national border, sovereignty, or nationality.Among the scattered sands, only Rome can be regarded as the core of civilization. In the first few centuries, the Holy See had only spiritual ruling power, but no substantive political power.It wasn't until Pepin - the short French courtier we once saw - offered the Pope a piece of land that the Pope gained power of his own.In exchange, Pepin's usurpation was approved by the Pope.In 800 AD, the pope crowned Pepin's son Charlemagne.It was a seminal moment, a new empire not only for Charlemagne but also for the Pope.Henceforth the pope has the power to crown the king - in other words, the pope is above the king. Thus began the age of the Papal States.From the tenth century onwards, the mighty pope seized every opportunity to expand his influence.The Pope expressed his opinion on the marriage of the King of England, expressed his views on the succession of the King of France, and even competed with the Holy Roman Emperor who ruled Germany.Popes always want to put themselves above kings, and kings certainly don't.The struggle between the pope and the king has never stopped. There are always tough kings who want to break away from the control of the church, and there are always tough popes who continue to strengthen their positions. The struggle between the Pope and the Holy Roman Emperor is the main thread of the struggle.The Holy Roman Empire consisted of kingdoms of the Germanic peoples, whose kings, along with the Pope, elected the Emperor of the Empire.This is a seemingly incongruous power struggle, seemingly cooperation, but in fact competition, the result is often a loss for both sides, but the status of the Papal State is established in the struggle. In the 11th century, Gregory VII fought with Henry IV of the Holy Roman Empire. Gregory expelled Henry IV, deposed him, and forced Henry to kneel down in the snow to apologize, and Henry returned to the throne immediately. Return to attack Rome.Gregory proclaimed many absolute authority of the pope, making many small countries submit to their feet.Urban II succeeded Gregory, who launched a campaign against the Muslims to retake Jerusalem - the Crusades - that dragged all of Europe into a world war. It continued to rise in the 12th century, and in the 13th century, during the period of Innocent III, the Pope's rule reached its peak.Innocent III used fox-like tactics to control the election of the Holy Roman Emperor, suppressed Otto IV, seized a lot of soil in Italy, sanctioned King John, and made him pay tribute to himself.The Holy See was very capable during this period, and the popes were ambitious and ruthless.Gregory IX excommunicated Frederick II and created the Inquisition.Frederick II turned to defeat the Pope's army in Sicily and restore his position.However, the newly appointed Innocent IV was merciless. He not only re-announced the previously revoked excommunication, but also drew forces against Frederick and defeated the emperor in battle.Four years later, Frederick died suddenly, the Hohenstaufen family was interrupted, and there was a 19-year interregnum in the Holy Roman Empire. From 1254 to 1273, there was no emperor in the empire, and the game was suspended, just like the players who abstained left the winner in a daze. In 1261 we came to the center of the void.In this brief gap, we see the peak of the pope's power, and also the shadow of the gap behind the peak.This was the heyday of the Papal States, and it was also the end of its heyday. At the peak of power, the pope's tentacles can extend to all aspects. They have the power to appoint cardinals everywhere, and they can also supervise all bishops, and then the bishops supervise all priests.They can influence the appointment of the king, and they can even decide to excommunicate the king, thereby removing him.They can start wars, form alliances, join one faction, and decide the direction of the war.They were able to tax all parts of the Catholic world and amass great wealth. All this inevitably slipped in the 14th century.During the reign of Clement V, the Holy See experienced a great decline.The pope was taken to Avignon by the king of France. From then on, France elected a new pope and declared it orthodoxy. Although Rome re-elected the pope and confronted France, it could not win everyone's approval.England is an enemy of France and therefore supports Rome, Scotland is an enemy of England and therefore supports France.For a long time, there was a big split in which the two places established popes and acted independently.This was a period of humiliation for the Holy See, and its revival would wait until the 15th century—the century of artistic revival. People sometimes have doubts about the Holy See.In the books of later generations, popes often appear as corrupt, hypocritical, greedy, and powerful. They did many unscrupulous things to suppress heresy, and the religious reformers called for reforms based on this.How the Middle Ages came to be subservient to such a Church is hardly comprehensible to us far away. But that's only one side of the story.There is always another side to the story. Many of the popes actually appear as benevolent and learned figures. They help the poor, fund science, and are the greatest support for the arts.They studied theology themselves. Gregory I, the founder of the Papal States, was named one of the four saints of theology. The other three were Ambrose, Jerome, and Augustine that we mentioned in Milan.Bernini was hired by the Pope, Caravaggio was patronized by the Pope, and Michelangelo and Raphael were funded by the Pope.It can be said that it is an indisputable fact that the pope expanded his ambition on the one hand, and transformed this expansion into splendid results on the other hand.Without the supremacy of the Holy See, there would be no splendor of Rome today.The later Protestant Reformation emphasized a simple style: simple architecture, simple rituals, and simple theories, which are easier to get close to people's hearts, but Protestant countries no longer have the magnificence of religious Romanesque. The yin and yang of things have become landscapes in the long river of history. In 1261, a relatively quiet and eventful year.This year, Rome has a new pope.Meanwhile, a scholar quietly entered Rome.He was invited by Urban IV to give lectures.He made some speeches and left soon after.No one realizes his brilliance. This man was called Thomas Aquinas.He was a scholar who studied theology in Paris, and later worked as a theology professor and abbot in Paris and some places in Italy.Judging from his life story, he is a very ordinary scholar, traveling and giving lectures, and devoted himself to writing books.But from several aspects, he is by no means a mediocre scholar, but an epoch-making figure.On the one hand, he is a master of theology and philosophy in the Middle Ages, and his writings have become the mainstream scriptures of Catholicism. He was canonized by the church in the 14th century, standing shoulder to shoulder with the four saints of theology.On the other hand, he is the guide of the Renaissance and the rediscoverer of Aristotle. The rational issues he discussed rediscovered the ancient Greek philosophy to the world, thus leading to the enlightenment after the Renaissance. This is an era of connecting the past and ushering in the future.One era is coming to an end, and another is about to begin. The Crusades were a two-hundred-year-long campaign in which the West invaded the East, and the Christian world and the Islamic world competed for the holy city of Jerusalem.There was heroism, there was also humor, and the end result was the Western world's own harvest: the Greco-Roman classics preserved in the Eastern world were finally brought back to the West after 10 centuries of obscurity.The works of Plato, Aristotle, and Euclid were preserved in Arabic for centuries and finally translated into Latin, which greatly shocked medieval scholars. Aquinas was the forerunner of later generations.He advocated rationality, and believed that people can use rationality to observe and think about the world, so as to understand God.This is very different from the way people used meditation, penance, obsession and rituals in the early Middle Ages. Aquinas observed the world, established propositions, logical derivations, and rational explanations.This laid the foundation for future breakthroughs. Aquinas reinterpreted Aristotle.His predecessor Augustine had introduced Neo-Platonism into theology, while he incorporated Aristotle's cosmology into the framework of Christianity.He proposed the most famous five ways to prove the existence of God, each of which is a certain extension of Aristotle's philosophical concepts. Aristotle proposed that all movements have impetus, and all changes have reasons. A Quina gave God the ultimate impetus and the ultimate reason, and he continued the unique way of thinking in the Middle Ages: the highest, best, and most perfect thing exists in all things, and it is God, so God exists.Unlike Aristotle's way of explaining the universe, Aquinas, like other theological thinkers, was concerned with the issue of creation. He tried to explain not only how the world exists, but also why the world exists. In our hands, these ideas still have their unique enlightening significance.It is not the conclusion, but the problem.Philosophy in the Middle Ages is often ridiculed, thinking that the problems that scholars thought about at that time were only the problem of how many angels could stand on the tip of a needle, but we often ignore some fundamental problems.In fact, medieval philosophers thought about many difficult issues, such as the origin of the universe, the origin of the soul, consciousness and existence, and order issues.Even if we moderns deny the answers of the Middle Ages, we cannot say that we already know the answers to these questions. There are many Christian saints with unique personalities. According to legend, St. Francis of Assisi, who was almost contemporary with Aquinas, talked to the birds, made them surround him, attracted by his voice, he asked them They don't fly away.In the painting, St. Francis is always in the company of flowers and birds.It is interesting to recognize the marks of these saints.When looking at a painting, this allows us to recognize the figures in the painting.Saint Sebastian was a man in early Rome who was shot to death by random arrows, and it is he who is covered with arrows in the painting.St. Jerome's desk always has a skull, St. Luke is accompanied by a winged bull, St. John's emblem is an eagle, and St. Mark's is a lion.St. Stephen was stoned to death, so the stone always appears in the painting.San Lorenzo died on a barbecue grill, and is always grilled repeatedly in the painting.St. Catherine was hanged by a wheel, so the broken wheel always appears in the picture.Of course, there is St. Paul with the sword and St. Peter with the key. The saints in the religious paintings moved the posterity with their posture of going to death and their piety of contemplation. In the cathedral hall, it was shocking.This is an important way of spreading and preserving Christianity, without which the power of inspiration would be greatly reduced.Christianity has a rich history of sufferings and tortures, they were suppressed, saints died, but heresies were suppressed and people were put to death in the Middle Ages.This bloody history is both holy and sinful. When facing those paintings that keep the flesh and blood in front of your eyes forever, all the issues about suffering and persecution are raised in people's minds. The footsteps of history go to the 13th century and to the peak of the Middle Ages.This is the common world of God and man.The rumbling footsteps of the times can already be heard faintly in the distance. After two centuries of depression, the church began to revive in the 15th century. The new St. Peter's Basilica was built at the beginning of the 16th century by Pope Julio II to commemorate the return of the Holy See to Rome.At the same time, another voice broke out from the religious world, from slight to concentrated, and then to shocking the world and resounding through the sky, that is——Renaissance. rome - vatican middle Ages 1.Vatican Museums and Galleries: The Vatican is an independent country, where the masterpieces of art accumulated by the Pope for thousands of years are collected.In the ancient Greek and Roman pavilion, there are the most famous sculptures "Apollo" and "Laocoon". In the three "Raphael rooms", there are murals such as "Athens Academy" and "The Raid of Jerusalem". Famous paintings such as Raphael's "Madonna of Foligno" and "Ascension of Christ" are just a few of the most famous paintings among all the masterpieces, and there are countless masterpieces. 2.St. Peter's Basilica: If only one attraction can be selected in Europe, my personal recommendation is St. Peter's Basilica.Squares, colonnades, domes, architectural designs, sculptures and murals, each of which is a famous masterpiece, can write a heavy stroke in the history of art.The clothing checks for entering the church are very strict, and shorts and sleeveless tops are not allowed. 3.Sistine Chapel: Located in the Vatican, Michelangelo drew the zenith and the "Last Judgment" according to the "Old Testament", surrounded by famous murals such as Botticelli and Ghirlandaio. 4.Church of San Luigi: Caravaggio's fresco "The Call of Matthew"; St. Augustine's Church: Caravaggio's fresco "Madonna of the Pilgrims". 5.Church of St. Agnes: Curvaceous facade designed by Borromini; Fountain of the Four Rivers in the piazza, designed by Bernini. 6.Church of Our Lady of Victoria: Via Santa Susanna, Bernini's sculpture "The Rapture of Saint Teresa"; Church of San Francesco: Bernini's sculpture "Blessed Luisa"; Piazza Barberini: Bernini Terai Dayton Fountain. 7.Borghese Gallery: The most important art gallery in Rome, housing important works of Bernini, Raphael, and Caravaggio. The Spirit of Medieval Philosophy [Method] Gilson (1884～1978) translated by Shen Qingsong 自文艺复兴以来，反击神学哲学的书籍远比澄清和辩护的书籍多。中世纪的哲学往往被纳入神学领域，普通教材谈到哲人，常常从柏拉图跳到启蒙运动，对中间过程一带而过。 然而中世纪哲学自有其深意所在。《中世纪哲学精神》想要澄清的就是这一点。这是一本难得的耐心之作，从每一个环节，试图还原中世纪哲学家思考的方式和其中有道理的地方。 中世纪哲学家比我们想象的更理性，他们如此重视思索自我和意义，从自我深入，寻找天主的存在，将万事万物放入意义的框架，这种深入和自省都是我们现代人深深匮乏的。 “假如我们当代人不再像莱布尼兹那样毫不犹豫地引用《天主之城》和《福音》，并不是因为他们已经逃脱了两者的影响。 “天主教哲学家所自问者，是在他透过信仰相信为真理的命题中，是否有一些也可以由理性来认识为真理？” 《阿奎那政治著作选》 ［意］托马斯·阿奎那（1225～1274） 马清槐译 托马斯·阿奎那开创了后世称作的托马斯主义。他是中世纪与现代的分野，从阿奎那开始，对亚里士多德的重新解读和对理性的重视开启了现代思想的蓬勃。正是阿奎那强调对自然的观察——在他之前，受到奥古斯丁影响，人们更重视内心的体悟——以理解神的光辉，才使得在他之后，自然万物重新回到哲学的聚光灯下。 阿奎那在政治上最著名的贡献就是对自然法的论述。他的理论框架自洽、符合逻辑，在宗教的时代背景中也显得合理。他由神的存有推导出人世间应有的政治模式，他相信“人是政治的动物”这一亚里士多德命题，并将其成功地纳入神的框架。他和孟子在论述善政与暴政时有诸多相像，但出发点和论述过程都有许多不同。 “上帝对于创造物的合理领导，就像宇宙的君王那样具有法律的性质……这种法律我们称之为永恒法。 “理性的动物在某种程度上分享神的智慧，并由此产主一种自然的倾向以从事适当的行动和目的。这种理性动物之参与永恒法，就叫做自然法。 “在推理时，我们从天然懂得的不言自明的原理出发，达到各种科学的结论，这类结论不是固有的，是运用推理的功夫得出的；同样地，人类的推理也必须从自然法的箴规出发，达到其他比较特殊的安排。这种靠推理的力量得出的特殊的安排就叫做人法。” 《发现教堂的艺术》 ［英］理查·泰勒（1967～） 李毓昭译 对于一次欧洲的旅行，这本书是非常有帮助的旅行助手，很可惜在我们出发之前并没有读过。这本书并没有很深的教义或美学哲学，而是非常清楚明白地讲了教堂各种艺术元素中蕴含的意义。欧洲的教堂是最美的景点，理解这些元素，对欣赏教堂意义非常。 作者分教堂陈设、神学概念、圣经故事、动植物和符号几大方面介绍了教堂的方方面面，其中蕴含的丰富的意象足够写出很多本不同的。最重要的部分是圣经故事和圣徒，关于如何辨认一个故事和一个人物，以及这个人物的象征和器物，在欣赏宗教绘画的时候，这是必要又必要的基础知识。作者并没有加入对基督教的宣传或贬损，只是讲述含义，言简意赅，清晰隽永。 “有时候语言是一种造成困扰的媒介，象征和图像可以在超越智识的范畴中派上用场。 “十字架是基督教最重要的象征，虽然它在教堂里的意义很复杂。依照绘制或呈现的方式，十字架能使人想到牺牲和死亡，或者爱与希望。 “没错，许多教堂都在向我们展现其历史的切面。是的，教堂往往是精雕细琢的美的艺术品，但教堂的精髓还是在于其精神力量。没有精神力量，教堂就会变成空荡荡的房子。仅仅称赞教堂的美和历史，就好像只是在称赞莫奈作品的画框一样。”