Chapter 12 Chapter Eleven: The Conspiracy to Carve Up Northeast Europe

Poland has been divided three times in history. The last time was in 1795, when Prussia, Austria and Russia dismembered Poland. Since then, Poland has ceased to exist as an independent country, and the Poles have begun to fight for independence for more than 100 years. struggle.After the end of the First World War, Russia and Germany were severely weakened, and Poland regained its independence. However, Russia and Germany, proceeding from their own interests, always believed that an independent Poland was a threat to them. "In the territory, this is the basic background of Poland's dealings with its two temporarily weakened neighbors in the east and west.

After the end of World War I and the settlement of the border dispute between Poland and Germany, the two countries had a period of friendship. When Hitler dismembered Czechoslovakia, Poland also got a share.The breaking point between Germany and Poland is the "Danzig Corridor" issue.At the beginning, in order to allow Poland to gain access to the sea, the great powers forcibly stipulated in the "Versailles Peace Treaty" that: the mouth of the Vistola River, Danzig and the entire delta region should form a free market under international supervision and enjoy free tax rights; Poland should be given the right to use port facilities. rights, and handed over the administration of the city to Poland.In this way, Germany was divided into two by the "Polish Corridor" leading from the interior to the Baltic Sea, and the East Prussian part was separated from the German mainland.However, if Germany takes back the "Danzig Corridor" and reconnects East Prussia with the German mainland, Poland will lose its only access to the sea and become a landlocked country.This pattern shows that the relationship between Germany and Poland is essentially incompatible.General von Seeckt, the former leader of the German Wehrmacht, expressed this attitude as early as 1922: "The existence of Poland is intolerable to the basic conditions of German existence and cannot coexist. Poland must be removed-because it One's own inherent weakness and as a result of Russia's actions - must also be eliminated with our cooperation ... The destruction of Poland must become a fundamental goal of German policy ... and can be achieved using Russia and with Russia's assistance." Sergey Kurt's words came true.

Shortly after Hitler occupied Czechoslovakia, he received Polish Foreign Minister Colonel Baker on January 5, 1939, and said: Danzig belongs to the Germans, it will always be German, and sooner or later it will become a part of Germany.The Polish government took a hard line and said no.Hitler originally wanted to take advantage of the Polish people's consistent hatred of Russia and find a helper in the future war against the Soviet Union, but the premise was to return Danzig. Unexpectedly, his attitude was so tough, so he decided to conquer Poland.When German-Polish relations suddenly became tense, British Prime Minister Chamberlain, who felt that he had been fooled by Hitler diplomatically, changed his Munich policy of appeasement and weak posture, and without consultation with its traditional ally Russia, unilaterally declared that if Poland was invaded by Germany, Great Britain would go to war, and France followed suit.

The relationship between Germany and Western countries became increasingly tense due to the "Danzig Corridor". The Soviet Union, which had been excluded from European affairs, suddenly became worth a hundred times, and its attitude became very important to both sides. On August 11, 1939, Britain and France sent a military delegation led by General Dumanck to Moscow to negotiate with the Soviet military delegation headed by Voroshilov to establish a political-military alliance against German aggression.The key issue in the entire negotiation was whether the Soviet army could fight Germany through Polish territory. Due to the stubbornness of the Polish government and its insistence that the Soviet army should not enter Poland under any circumstances, the negotiation became meaningless.At the same time that Britain and France were in contact with Moscow, Germany also impatiently made a 180-degree turn in its attitude towards the Soviet Union. It tried its best to improve relations with the Soviet Union, and stated that the problems between the Baltic Sea and the Black Sea could be clarified. and a mutually satisfactory settlement.This obviously implied that Germany was willing to negotiate with the Soviet Union to divide the sphere of influence in Eastern Europe, and Germany's eagerness and low profile showed that it would satisfy the Soviet Union's wishes as much as possible.For the Soviet Union, the big price Hitler paid was beyond the reach of Britain and France.

The Soviet Union has not yet recovered from its internal conflicts and is not yet ready for war. It is unwilling to take advantage of Britain and France, not to mention that Japan is aggressive in Asia. Out of self-interest considerations, the Soviet Union decided to suspend negotiations with Britain and France and sign the "Soviet War" with Germany. German Nonaggression Pact.Attached is a secret agreement between the two parties.Its content is as follows: On the occasion of the signing of the non-aggression pact between Germany and Soviet Russia, the signing plenipotentiaries discussed in strictly confidential talks the division of the respective spheres of interest in Eastern Europe.

1. In the event of territorial or political changes in the territories belonging to the Baltic States (Finland, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania), the northern border of Lithuania shall be the frontier of the sphere of interest of Germany and the Soviet Union. 2. In the event of territorial or political changes in the territory of the Polish state, the sphere of interest of Germany and the Soviet Union will be roughly bounded by the line of the Narew, Vistola and San rivers. The question of whether an independent Poland should be maintained and how the country's borders should be delimited in the interest of both contracting parties can only be clearly defined in the course of future developments in the political situation.In any event, the governments of the two countries will resolve this issue with amicable understanding.

The signing of the "Soviet-German Non-Aggression Pact" and the above-mentioned secret agreement was on August 23, 1939, which determined the fate of Poland's partition. This was also the fourth time in history that the Germans and Russians partitioned Poland. Poland's geographical location is sandwiched between the two old enemies of Russia in the east and Germany in the west. Poland has always regarded these two countries as imaginary enemies.In view of the fact that Germany is already a defeated country, Soviet Russia has become the main imaginary enemy. The Polish General Staff Headquarters formulated the "Oriental Plan" against the Soviet Union as early as 1935. Only then began to formulate a "Western plan" to deal with Germany.

The Polish army is an army that is behind the times. The Polish High Command has a cavalry mind. They pay more attention to the cavalry than the mechanized construction of the army. They neither foresee the upcoming mechanized war nor have the mechanized army. Industrial and technical capabilities.The Polish military authorities considered the cavalry to be a means of maneuver to achieve decisive goals. The cavalry must fill the lack of technical movement tools in the army. It is the cavalry, the "king of the army", who is responsible for destroying the enemy's will to resist, psychologically disintegrating the enemy and weakening his fighting spirit. task.They even imagined that once the German border attack was repelled, they would go to Berlin with a cavalry group. Obviously this was a big laughing stock in World War II.Obviously, the Polish High Command lacked sufficient estimates of the German army's upcoming large-scale use of mechanized armored forces and tactical air forces.In addition, the Polish High Command also expected: "It is only under these conditions that the Western countries can be urged to act automatically at the beginning of the war, and then the Polish-German war can be transformed from the very beginning into a war between Germany and the Western countries and the Polish alliance. Down below can expect a complete and total victory."

Based on this guiding ideology, the specific combat deployment of the Polish army is: a strategic first echelon consisting of 6 army groups and 1 independent battle group will be deployed near the border, and 1 group army and several battle groups will be left behind as the general reserve. .The main armies are: The "Modlin" Army, commanded by General Psezimirski Krukovich, governed 2 infantry divisions and 2 cavalry brigades, responsible for fighting against the German forces in the direction of East Prussia.If the "Modlin" army fails in battle, it should retreat in the direction of the Vistola River and the Narev River, and fortify and defend this area. The 3 infantry divisions of the "Vishkov" group, as part of the general reserve, were responsible for strengthening it.

The "Pomerania" army consisted of 5 infantry divisions and 1 cavalry brigade, with General Boltnovsky as the commander, deployed in the "Danzig Corridor" to block the German attack from Pomerania. In the western part of Poznan, which protrudes westward, the "Poznan" army commanded by General Kutsheba is deployed, with a total of 4 infantry divisions and 2 cavalry brigades.The task was to defend Frankfurt in the direction of Poznan, pose a threat to the German North and South groups, and if possible, flank the enemy from Pomerania and Silesia. The "Lodz" Army under the command of General Rumel was deployed in the Warta and Widavka River areas, with a total of 4 infantry divisions and 2 cavalry brigades, covering the direction to Lodz and Warsaw.

General Schilling commanded the "Krakow" Army to be deployed in the Czetochowa, Katowice and Krakow areas, with 7 infantry divisions, 1 armored motorized brigade, 1 mountain infantry division, and 1 cavalry The brigade, tasked with defending the Silesian industrial zone and assisting the "Lodz" Army to cover the direction of Warsaw. Behind the "Kracow" and "Lodz" groups, the "Prussian" army of General Dunbu Bernatsky was deployed, with a total of 8 infantry divisions and 1 cavalry brigade.This group was the second strategic echelon in the direction of the main battle, flanking and ensuring the defeat of the enemy attacking from Radomsko towards Pivotlekow. The "Carpathian" Army under the command of General Fabrić consists of 2 infantry divisions, 2 mountain cavalry brigades, and 1 armored motorized brigade. The task is to defend the southern border of Poland. Poland invested a total of 1 million troops, 39 infantry divisions, 11 cavalry brigades, 2 motorized brigades, 3 mountain infantry brigades, 220 light tanks, 650 ultralight tanks, 4300 artillery mortars, and combat aircraft 407. This deployment of the Polish army in hindsight appears to be a self-destructive deployment. The border between Poland and Germany was originally 1,250 miles long. Later, after Germany annexed the Czech Republic, the border between Poland and Germany was increased by another 1,750 miles, almost 3,000 miles in total.The entire western part of Poland, including the important heavy industrial area of ​​Silesia, is surrounded by Germany on three sides, like a tongue sandwiched between Germany's open upper and lower gums.The strategic situation is already so bad, but due to the ignorance of the Polish High Command on mechanized warfare, almost all of the main force is placed in the "tongue-shaped area" surrounded on three sides, and what is worse is that the troops are placed along the long and semicircular border The thread unfolds like an open paper fan.From the perspective of defense, there is no strategic depth, or no defense at all.Judging from the types of arms used, the tank soldiers were just a small embellishment, and the air force was even weaker. It seems that the heated discussions on the latest ideas of land warfare and air warfare in the military academic circle at that time were like a wind to the ears of the Poles. The combat deployment of Germany's invasion of Poland was based on the "White Plan" promulgated by Hitler on April 3, 1939. The operational points in the "White Plan" are as follows: ... (3) The tasks of the National Defense Forces: The task of the Wehrmacht was to annihilate Poland's military power.To this end, preparations must be made, and in order to achieve the surprise of the offensive, a general mobilization, secret or public, will be delayed as far as possible until the day before the offensive.  … (4) The tasks of the various branches of the National Defense Forces: 1. Army The objective of the operation on the Eastern Front was to annihilate the Polish Army.For this purpose, access to the Slovakian region is provided on the southern flank.On the northern flank a link between Pomerania and East Prussia should be quickly established. ... 3. Air Force The air force had to carry out raids on Poland, while on the western front only essential forces could be retained. The air force should annihilate the Polish air force in a very short period of time. In addition, it is mainly responsible for the following tasks: (1) Interfere with Polish mobilization and prevent the Polish Army from proceeding as planned. (2) Direct support to the army, first of all to support the vanguard that has crossed the border. The air force may have to move to East Prussia before the war, which must not hinder the achievement of surprise. The timing of the first border crossing should be coordinated with Army operations. ... It can be seen that the idea of ​​large-scale mechanized three-dimensional warfare has been embodied in the "White Plan", and the German army is preparing to test its war machine in Poland with an unprecedented combat style.According to the above instructions, the German troops deployed on the German-Polish border as follows: The "South Army Group" commanded by Admiral Lundest, including the 14th, 10th, and 8th Army Groups, has a total of 23 infantry divisions, 4 tank divisions, 4 light divisions and 2 motorized divisions. The Silesian region of the country launched an offensive in the general direction of Warsaw.First defeated the Polish army deployed in the border area, entered the Vistola River, and then cooperated with the "Northern Group" army group to destroy the Polish army in western Poland.General Lehr's 4th Air Force provided support. The "Northern Army Group" commanded by Admiral Polk, including the 3rd and 4th Army Groups, has a total of 17 infantry divisions, 2 tank divisions and 2 motorized divisions. It will move from Pomerania and East Prussia to Warsaw launched an offensive in this general direction, and cooperated with the "Army Group South" to annihilate the Polish army north of the Vistola River.General Kesselring's 1st Air Force provided air support. The German army has 1.6 million people, 47 infantry divisions, 7 tank divisions, 4 light divisions, 4 motorized divisions, 2,800 tanks, 6,000 artillery mortars, and 2,000 combat aircraft. Judging from the strategic layout of the two sides, the Poles evenly distributed their forces along the long, large arc-shaped border, trying to hold everything.The German army concentrated its main force on the north and south wings. The arc of the Oder River and the Warta River between the two army groups in the north and the south was almost a gap. Only a small number of troops were dropped to confuse the Polish army and give it the illusion that the attack was mainly from the southwest. , while the real blows are on the sides.In terms of military strength and weapons, the German army has obvious advantages. The outstanding point is that there is no cavalry division. They have completely abandoned the traditional concept of cavalry.The German Commander-in-Chief Brauchitsch's instruction to the army called for the armored forces and the air force to be the main striking force, to encircle the rear of the Polish army from the north and south wings, and to take Warsaw as the target of the two forces. Before launching the attack, the Germans staged a farce of thieves shouting "stop thief". On the night of August 31, 1939, a group of German SS personnel dressed in Polish military uniforms broke into the broadcasting building in the German border city of Gleiwitz. A good speech, claiming that "the time has come for Poland to go to war with Germany", and then shot some German criminals in Polish uniforms, creating a "scene" where the German army was forced to fight back in self-defense.After performing this cutscene, Hitler claimed on the radio the next day that Germany had been invaded by Poland, and the German army had begun to fight back in self-defense, "From now on, we will respond to bombs with bombs." At dawn on September 1, 1939, the German army launched an attack from several directions at the same time according to the predetermined plan.The German Air Force first began to compete for air supremacy, carrying out surprise attacks on the first-line airports of the Polish army. Ground mechanized troops also advanced at high speed to the front-line airports of the Polish army, and almost paralyzed all first-line airports of the Polish army on the first day of the war.However, the Polish first-line air force had already transferred the day before, and its main force was still there. Beginning on September 2, the Polish Air Force began a fierce battle with the German Air Force to compete for air supremacy on the battlefield.Due to the exhaustion of aircraft spare parts, the depletion of logistics supplies and the serious damage to the airport facilities, after a week of fierce fighting, Polish aircraft almost disappeared in the sky. The remaining 116 aircraft fled to Romania and Latvia respectively on September 16.The Luftwaffe now has complete control over the battlefield. While the air force carried out devastating blows to the front and rear airports, barracks, transportation hubs, and command and communication centers of the Polish army, ground army troops also began to cross the border and rush into the hinterland of Poland in several ways.The modern mechanized armored force pioneered by Guderian, as the spearhead of the attack in all attack directions, was unstoppable, flooding from every breakthrough like a tide, flooding the Polish plain.Soon, the German ground offensive quickly developed into two pincer encirclement operations inside and outside. A part of Kuechler's 3rd Army and Reichnau's 10th Army formed an internal clamp. Kuechler's Army went south from East Prussia to crush the Polish Army "Modlin" and approached Warsaw.The Reichnau Army Group attacked from the Silesian region of Germany to the general direction of Warsaw, forming a counter-advancing trend with the Kuhir Group Army. The 15th Motorized Army of Hoth and the 16th Armored Army of Hopner, which belonged to it, fought against the "Lodz Group" in Poland. " and the joint of the "Kracow Group" implemented a rapid breakthrough, and after quickly defeating the enemy in front of them, they began to pursue. On the evening of September 8, Hopner's 4th Armored Division of the 16th Armored Corps threw off the infantry, took advantage of a gap in the Polish defense line near Lodz, and appeared on the outskirts of Warsaw at an alarming speed. The Army High Command was shocked.At this time, the German Supreme Command judged that the main force of the Polish army had retreated to the east bank of the Vistula River, and ordered the 10th Army to cross the river in pursuit.However, Lundster, the commander of the "Southern Army Group", accurately judged that the main force of the Polish army was still on the east bank of the Vistula River. After some debate, the German Supreme Command revised the order.As a result, the Reichnau 10th Army immediately turned northward near the east bank of the Vistula River, and established a blockade line on the Bzura River, and cooperated with the 8th Army of Bunaskowitz in frontal operations. On September 20, when the Battle of the Bzura River ended, the German 10th and 8th Armies surrounded and annihilated the "Poznan" Army, the main force of the Polish Army, and captured nearly 200,000 Polish troops, 320 artillery pieces, and aircraft. 130 and 40 tanks.Since then, the German internal force began to close to Warsaw. The German army's outer pincer encirclement proceeded with great momentum, as if destroying everything.In the north, Guderian's 19th Armored Army, the offensive spearhead of Kruger's 4th Army, dispatched from Pomerania, the German mainland, cut off the "Danzig Corridor" and encircled the Polish "Pomeranian" Army.When crossing the corridor, the Pomorska Cavalry Brigade of the Polish Army, wielding swords and spears with medieval equipment, launched an intensive charge against Guderian's tank group, which failed miserably. After September 5, the 19th Armored Army completed the encirclement and annihilation of the Polish army in the "Danzig Corridor", crossed the Vistula River and the Narew River continuously, drove straight along the Bug River, and attacked the rear of Warsaw.In the south, Kleist's 22nd Armored Army, the attacking spearhead of the 14th Army of Liszt, jumped out from the vicinity of the Jabrunka pass in the Carpathian Mountains, and defeated the Polish army with the momentum of plowing and sweeping holes. The "Krakow" Army and the "Carpathian" Army successively crossed the Baira River, the Durajack River, the Wisloka River, and the San River, and then turned north near the famous Fortress of Pusemis, and finally In Brest Ridovsk behind Warsaw, Gudri's armored troops that surged from north to south joined forces. At this moment, the Polish army has been beaten dizzy and fragmented. Except for a small number of troops in the Russian-Polish border area, the Polish army is completely trapped in two layers of encirclement by the German army.The commander-in-chief of the Polish army, Marshal Smigli Ritz, had lost control of the troops. The Polish army had collapsed and fallen into chaos, with only sporadic resistance in a few areas such as Warsaw.The Polish government and the Polish Army High Command fled in a panic to a village on the Romanian border on September 15, where they called on domestic troops to resist to the end. On September 28, 120,000 Warsaw defenders surrendered under the pressure of the superior enemy.Polish resistance in individual areas did not completely cease until October 5.The losses of both sides are: 66,300 Polish troops were killed in battle, 133,700 were wounded, and 420,000 were captured.10,600 Germans were killed, 30,300 were wounded, and 3,400 were missing. When Poland was on the verge of collapse militarily, the Soviet government became anxious, because the Soviet leaders did not expect Poland to be so vulnerable and defeated so quickly that the Soviet Union could not find an excuse to invade Poland for a while.In order to obtain as soon as possible the secret part of the Polish agreement that belonged to him, Soviet Foreign Minister Molotov asked the German ambassador to the Soviet Union Schulenburg on September 10 whether he agreed to use Germany's threat to the Ukrainians and Belarusians "in Poland" as an excuse. The reason why the Soviet army entered Poland was to make the Soviet Russian division famous.German Foreign Minister Ribbentrop replied: "The Soviet Union is welcome to take military action now. As for trying to find an excuse to put the blame on Germany, it is absolutely impossible." Therefore, the Soviet Russian government issued a statement: Since Poland no longer exists, therefore The "Soviet-Polish Non-Aggression Treaty" was no longer valid. The Soviet Union had to protect its own interests and the interests of the Ukrainian and Belarusian minority compatriots in Poland, so it decided to send troops into Poland. On September 17, the army crossed the Soviet-Polish border from the east and entered Poland. At this time, Poland was no longer able to deal with the invasion from Soviet Russia and became a lamb to be slaughtered. On September 18, the Soviet Russian Red Army and the German Army met in Brestridovsk on the Bug River, and the armies of the two sides exchanged respect. It turned out that Hitler and Stalin once planned to retain a remnant Polish state based on the Napoleon’s Grand Duchy of Warsaw, but Stalin changed his original intention and told the Germans that it was wrong to leave an independent and remnant Polish state. Carve up all Polish territories.This suggestion played into Hitler's hands.In the subsequent negotiations to divide the border between the two countries, Stalin demanded that Estonia and Latvia, which were independent after the First World War, be brought back into the territory of the Soviet Union, and reached a territorial deal with Hitler in exchange for the two Polish provinces belonging to the Soviet Union in the secret agreement. . During the Battle of Poland, 85 divisions of the French army on the western front faced 34 divisions of the German army, while only 11 divisions of the German army were better, and the rest were in reserve. After September 10, the German army added about 9 reserve divisions, and all armored, motorized units and air forces were transferred to Poland.But Gan Malin only made a gesture of saving Poland on the western front to evade world public opinion. On the night of September 7th and 8th, he launched a so-called "Saar Offensive", and the German army quickly retreated into the "Siegfried Line" behind the border as planned.The French advanced about 5 miles on a 15-mile front on September 12, capturing about 20 deserted villages.After that, Ganmaling ordered them to stop advancing, and instructed the frontline troops to immediately retreat to the Maginot Line in case of a German counterattack.When the commander-in-chief of the Polish army and the headquarters of the general staff requested emergency support, Ganmaling also lied that more than half of the army's troops had been put into battle.In fact, the French Saar offensive only used 15 divisions, and even after the war most French military experts believed that only 9 divisions were invested. There are three main reasons for Poland's failure: From the perspective of international diplomacy, its tough attitude on the Danzig issue and its refusal to accept military aid from the Soviet Union and its stubborn anti-Soviet stance led to the Soviet Union and Germany coming together, while their allies Britain and France were far apart geographically , out of reach, thus putting oneself in a disadvantageous position in the international military strategic situation.When the war actually unfolded, Poland was practically in a desperate situation of fighting alone.All this is the result of inflexible diplomatic errors. From a military point of view, the concept that the Polish army believes that cavalry determines everything is almost 80 years behind the times. As early as the American Civil War in the 19th century, the cavalry group’s battlefield charge was already contained by new rapid-fire artillery and heavy machine guns. Its efficiency has been greatly reduced.Judging from the proportion of the Polish army's arms and the combat style adopted, the Polish military authorities seem to have never heard of the idea of ​​mechanized warfare, and are insensitive to the development of world military technology. An absurd drama in which the ancients fought against the moderns.In the final analysis, all this is caused by the serious backwardness of military thought and military theory.Outdated military theory will inevitably adopt backward strategies and tactics and wrong postures. If the Polish military can fully recognize the military gap between the enemy and us, then the best deployment should be strategically defensive, and the main force should be deployed on the Neman River. , Narev River, Vistula River, and San River, the only combat objective is to gain time.Even if the Poles take this only realistic approach, the future remains dire.These uncertain factors are: Will Britain and France launch a swift and powerful offensive on the Western Front?Would the Soviet Union strike from behind to assist Germany?How long can the backward Polish army last in the face of the mechanized three-dimensional combat style of the German army?These are uncertain numbers.General Weygand of France once suggested that the Polish High Command adopt the above-mentioned more realistic plan, but the Poles did not adopt it in the end.Since the Polish army lacks a basic understanding of the strength of the enemy and ourselves, and according to this plan, it is necessary to abandon the entire western region, including the important Silesian industrial area. It is fundamental for the Poles with strong national self-esteem to abandon a large area of ​​​​the country. unacceptable. From the perspective of war history, the Battle of Poland was the first practice of the idea of ​​mechanized warfare.Guderian of Germany, as the first practitioner of this epoch-making military thought and the founder of modern mechanized armored forces, has a detailed record of the results of "practice": "When he (Hitler) saw the destroyed Poland When I was in the Artillery Regiment, Hitler asked me, 'Is this what our dive bombers did?' I replied, 'No, it was our tanks!' He couldn't help being surprised. Between Wiz and Grodenz, all the armored units of the 3rd Division that did not need to participate in the encirclement were all adjusted for Hitler to inspect in person. After that, we went to inspect the units of the 23rd Division and the 2nd Division. Walking along , we were talking about the combat experience of our army this time. Hitler asked me how many people were killed and wounded, and I told him the latest figures. 700. He wondered at such a small number of casualties, compared with his experience in the First World War, when his regiment lost more than 2,000 on the first day of operations. I told him This time the enemy is certainly strong and brave, but the main reason why our losses are so small is that our chariots can exert high power. The chariot is really a life-saving weapon." Liddell Hart's military summary of the Polish campaign is: "In the east, a hopelessly outdated army was quickly overwhelmed by a small tank force, in cooperation with an excellent air force. , and put a novel technology into practice.” When Fuller looked back on history in his later years, he also concluded: “The theory of strategic paralysis has found its actual representative, and that is General Guderian.” The mechanization created by German Guderian The armored corps successfully turned the "fantasy" of British Fuller, Liddell Hart, French Etienne, Charles de Gaulle, etc. into reality, and it marked the advent of the era of mechanization in the history of warfare.From the static state at the end of the 19th century, the world war has regained the form of movement.So far, the coordination of ground mechanized forces, mainly tanks, and the air force has become the main form of land warfare after the 1940s. When the Soviet Union exchanged two Polish provinces with Germany for Lithuania, it was out of strategic considerations that the temporary partner Germany would be its future imaginary enemy. For example, the new border between the two countries was divided according to the secret agreement between the Soviet Union and Germany. The threat of the left wing stretching far forward, once the war starts, Germany can easily use this situation to insert behind the Soviet Union's central defense line.In World War I, Ludendorff delivered such a blow from this direction with excellent effect.After the exchange, the right wing of the Soviet Union moved forward, while the center retreated, basically straightening the Soviet-German border line, and the Soviet Union's border strategic situation was greatly improved.Then, Stalin began to consider the security of the Baltic flank. At the end of the Polish War, the Soviet government signed treaties with Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania on September 28, October 5, and October 10, 1939, stipulating that the Soviet Union could Military deployment at strategic points. On October 14, the Soviet government formally made the following requests to the Finnish government: 1. Move the Soviet-Finnish border on the Karelian Isthmus to the north of Finland by tens of kilometers, so that Leningrad is out of range of heavy artillery; 2. Ceded Holland, Sescari, Lavanscari, Taitarscari, Rovisto and other islands; 3. Request to lease the port of Hanko in Finland, establish a military base and deploy coastal artillery, so as to communicate with the opposite shore The Soviet Union's Badarsky Naval Base effectively blocked the Gulf of Finland; 4. Adjusted the northern border to increase the security of the Murmansk port.In this way, Finland will cede 2,761 square kilometers of territory, but the Soviet Union is willing to cede to Finland 5,529 square kilometers of territory in Karelia.Objectively speaking, Finland does not suffer. The northward movement of the border does not damage Finland's important defense line - the "Mannahan Line of Defense". The security of the Soviet Union has been greatly guaranteed, and Finland's security has not suffered much. It cannot be a springboard for Germany to invade the Soviet Union, and if the Soviet Union attacks Finland, it will not have much advantage to take advantage of. On the contrary, Finland's most dangerous bee's waist can be relaxed a lot.Although many people in the Finnish government advocated accepting the Soviet Union's request, the nationalist sentiment prompted the Finnish government to reject the Soviet Union's proposal, saying that Holland could not be ceded, and Hanko Port could not be leased, because it violated Finland's neutral position.The Soviet Union expressed its willingness to pay a high price for the purchase, but was firmly rejected by Finland.The Soviet-Finnish relationship became tense. On November 26, the Soviet Union accused Finnish artillery of shelling the border. Finland proposed a joint investigation between the two countries, which was rejected by the Soviet Union. On November 28, the Soviet Union unilaterally abolished the "Soviet-Finnish Nonaggression Pact" signed in 1932. On November 30, 1939, the Soviet Union attacked Finland; the 7th Army of the Soviet Army attacked the "Mannahan Line of Defense" in the Karelian Isthmus; ; The 9th Army of the Soviet Army went out to the northern part of the Gulf of Bosnia in an attempt to cut off the land communication line between Finland and Sweden; the 14th Army marched to the Baishamo area to prevent other countries from aiding Finland from the sea.However, the Soviet army’s logistical supplies were very difficult. There was only one railway line between Leningrad and Muransk, and the only branch line leading to the Soviet-Finnish border. The combat areas were mostly swamps and forests, making it difficult for the Soviet army to move. .Therefore, in the first phase of the battle, the Finns not only took advantage of the convenience of domestic railway transportation to hold the "Mannahan Line of Defense", but also used well-trained ski troops to cut off the rear communication line of the Soviet army that penetrated into the treacherous terrain, making a large number of troops The Soviet army was in a desperate situation of hunger and cold. Using this tactic, the Finnish army annihilated the Soviet 8th Army and part of the 9th Army in one fell swoop. After suffering a serious setback, the Soviet army took a month to redeploy. On February 11, under the command of Timoshenko, the Soviet army made a frontal attack on the Karelian Isthmus. Timoshenko used 13 divisions to break through the narrow front of 20 kilometers. On February 15th, the Soviet Army finally broke through the "Mannahan Line of Defense" with an absolute advantage. After exhausting the reserve, the Finnish Army abandoned the western section of the line of defense, retreated to the second line of defense, and put the last reserve team into Viborg. Centered on the defensive line. Although the Soviet Union won the second phase of the battle, the pressure of international public opinion is great. Britain and France are preparing to send volunteers to assist Finland, so the Soviet Union wants to end the war as soon as possible.Finland is weak, the main defense line has been breached, and there is no reserve team to deploy. Can the British and French "volunteers" arrive before the Finnish army collapses?Marshal Mannahan, the commander-in-chief of Finland, was really not sure, not to mention the example of Poland. Therefore, after the two sides conducted a peaceful test through Sweden, on March 6, 1940, the Finnish government sent a delegation to Moscow for negotiations.Relying on its favorable military position, the Soviet Union, in addition to adhering to the original conditions, also ceded the Finnish Shala and Kunshamo regions, the entire Karelian Peninsula including Vyborg, and Finland on the Fischer Peninsula. part. On March 13, Finland announced that it fully accepted the conditions of the Soviet Union and signed a peace treaty on March 15.Considering Finland's defeated and helpless situation and the Soviet Union's consistent domineering style, this peace treaty of the nature of an alliance under the city is relatively lenient for Finland. During the Soviet-Finnish War, although the Soviet Red Army talked about war on paper, it was clear and logical, and there were a lot of high-end military papers, and the terminology of Marxism was also mechanically applied to the field of military science, and some new terms such as "military dialectics" were created. The practical things but did not do a few.The Soviet army's logistical support was extremely chaotic, lacking basic mental preparation for operations in complex terrain, let alone targeted training, even some basic training subjects, such as drills through minefields, coordination between tanks, etc. None have been done.The combat effectiveness of the Soviet army was an important factor in Hitler's decision to invade the Soviet Union. He believed that it would be more certain to defeat the Soviet Union when the Soviet army was not yet strong. Geographically, Denmark and Norway are of great strategic importance to Germany.First of all, once there is a confrontation between Britain and Germany, Britain can organize a blockade network across the North Sea from the Shetland Islands to the coast of Norway, blocking the way for the German navy and German merchant ships to enter the North Atlantic Ocean, so Germany can only get Denmark and Norway. Only the naval base can break the British North Sea blockade, open the door to the vast ocean for the German navy, and in turn blockade the United Kingdom at sea.Second, Germany's survival, including the operation of its war machine, depended on iron ore imported from Sweden.During the war, 11 million tons of the 15 million tons of iron ore that Germany needed each year depended on Sweden for imports.During the warm season of the year, iron ore can be shipped from northern Sweden to Germany via the Gulf of Bothnia and across the Baltic Sea.Even in wartime, this transportation line would not cause problems, because the German navy could effectively block the Baltic Sea.But in winter, this transportation line cannot be used due to thick ice. It can only be diverted to Narvik, a Norwegian seaport, and then shipped along the Norwegian coast to Germany.再次，占领挪威空军基地，可使德国空军轰炸英国的距离缩短几百英里。 由于冬季那条挪威铁矿砂运输线处于挪威领海区内，所以，希特勒认为一个中立的挪威对德国是有好处的，它实际上掩护了德国的海上生命线。英国的海军大臣丘吉尔也看到了这点，他曾建议内阁在挪威领海布雷，但张伯仑和哈利法克斯不愿侵犯挪威的中立，丘吉尔的建议也就被搁了起来。 1939年11月30日，苏联进攻芬兰，斯堪的纳维亚半岛的局势变得严重起来。英国和法国组织了援芬志愿军，但英法志愿军只有通过挪威和瑞典才能到达芬兰。1940年2月5日，在巴黎召开的盟国最高军事会议决定：在志愿军派往芬兰的同时，顺手牵羊地占领挪威海港纳尔维克，以及离此不远的瑞典格里维尔铁矿场，以便截断对德国铁矿砂的供给（由此可见英国人在国际事务中的蛮横一点不亚于德国人，恐怕和他们共同继承了古代日耳曼血统有关）。 早在战争爆发时，德国海军上将卡尔斯就一再提醒雷德尔海军元帅德国占领挪威海岸的重要性。波兰战役结束后，雷德尔向希特勒提出了占领挪威的问题，但当时希特勒忙于即将展开的西线大战，尚顾不上挪威问题。两个月后苏芬开战，英法跃跃欲试，德国人准确地判断出英法出兵芬兰时，将占领挪威港口和瑞典铁矿的企图，便开始考虑抢在英国人之前，占领挪威的计划。这时德国人获得一个意外收获，挪威的亲纳粹集团头目吉斯林，自告奋勇充当引狼入室的角色，受到包括希特勒在内的德国要人的频频召见，并提供其经费，让其组织颠覆国内政府的活动。希特勒还命令最高统帅部与吉斯林会商，草拟占领挪威的计划，最高统帅部最初定名为“北方计划”。 但是德国海军作战参谋部研究结论认为，如果没有英国进攻的威胁，德国占领挪威就是一个危险的行动，因而最有利的解决办法就是维持现状。希特勒对海军和最高统帅部的结论均不满意，由海、陆、空军各派一名代表，组成代号为“威塞演习”的占领挪威的军事计划小组，并置于自己的直接监督之下，时间是1940年1月27日。2月17日，英国海军闯入挪威领海攻击并俘获德国“阿尔特马克号”供应舰，救出被俘的英国船员。挪威的中立实际上已被德国和英国共同践踏，这一事件使希特勒占领挪威的决心变得不可动摇。2月21日，希特勒任命福肯霍斯特为占领挪威的远征军总司令，并负责一切准备工作。 4月初，不断有消息证实，德国的陆军和海军在波罗的海港口集中，准备在挪威南部海岸登陆，丹麦和挪威政府对此都没有重视。英国内阁则批准丘吉尔于4月8日在挪威海岸线水道上布雷的计划，还决定派一小批英法军队在纳尔维克登陆，控制靠近瑞典的边境地带，以便对付德国因铁矿砂被封锁而采取的反应，另外还准备派一些军队占领更远的特隆赫姆、卑尔根和斯塔瓦格尔等，以防止被德国人占领和利用。这就是所谓的“R-4计划”。 德国人到底是这方面的高手，不等英国人动手，已捷足先登。4月9日这天充满了戏剧性，报纸上刊登了英法两国海军于前一天已在挪威水域布雷的惊人消息，但上午的新闻广播报道：德国军队已在挪威海岸的一连串地点登陆，并同时进入丹麦。这个更为惊人的行动立刻使英法海军布雷的消息黯然失色。 4月9日上午5点20分，德国驻哥本哈根和奥斯陆使节向丹麦和挪威政府递送了德国政府的最后通牒，要求两国接受德国的“保护”。德国拟定了和平与武力两种占领方式，丹麦在毫无准备的情况下，被迫屈服。德军只用1个营和盘旋天空的一队轰炸机群就占领了丹麦首都哥本哈根。挪威政府断然拒绝了德国的要求，从入侵者一进入自己的领海就开始了英勇的抵抗。 德军动用了2艘战斗巡洋舰、1艘袖珍战斗舰、7艘巡洋舰、14艘驱逐舰、28艘潜水艇和若干辅助舰，以及1万多名先头部队（计划用3个师来征服挪威），于一天时间里，采用海上攻击、空中轰炸、伞兵空降和陆军登陆作战的陆海空三军协同的立体作战样式，在挪威的5个港口分头登陆成功。 德军占领挪威首都奥斯陆的过程充满了戏剧性，可谓浑水摸鱼的典型。挪威海岸炮台的火炮和鱼雷起初击退了运载陆军的德国舰队，1万吨的“勃吕彻尔号”被击沉，舰队司令和陆军指挥官落水后勉强游到岸上，做了俘虏，他们的任务是准备逮捕国王和政府人员的。虽然海上入侵暂时被击退，但德军的伞兵和空运步兵部队，从天而降，分别占领奥斯陆和斯塔瓦格尔的机场，这也是战争史上首次使用空降部队。实际上，只要在机场上放些车辆堵塞跑道，就可阻止德军飞机着陆，而首都的挪威部队也可以轻易地消灭在机场着陆的德军，但在一片恐怖和混乱的气氛中，军队既没有召集起来，更没有进入阵地，挪威政府已被一连串德军登陆消息弄得惊慌失措，王室和政府在上午便向北部山区逃去。在福纳布机场着陆的德军5个连，以一支临时拼凑的军乐队为前导，一路吹吹打打地进了首都。 在纳尔维克港驻地的陆军指挥官是个吉斯林分子，不战而降。海军两艘老式装甲舰却表现英勇，向10艘驶来的德国驱逐舰开火，但很快被击沉，300名挪威水兵全部阵亡。上午8点，德军在狄特尔将军指挥下占领了纳尔维克。接着，德国重型巡洋舰“希伯尔号”和另外4艘驱逐舰载着军队也轻易地拿下了特隆赫姆海港。在挪威第二大港口城市卑尔根，德国的“柯尼斯堡号”巡洋舰和一艘辅助舰被海岸炮台击成重伤，但其他舰艇上的德军仍然在午前登上了岸。下午，附近的英国海军开始支援卑尔根港的挪威军队。英国的15架轰炸机一举炸沉“柯尼斯堡号”巡洋舰，创下海战中飞机炸沉大型军舰的先例。由于丘吉尔过分小心，不敢进攻卑尔根港内的德军舰队，丧失了最初重创德国海军的良机。南部海岸的克里斯丁散港的海岸炮台曾两次击退德国舰队的进攻，德国空军赶来炸毁了要塞，港口于下午3时左右陷落。这样，在4月9日一天时间里，从斯卡格拉克到北极圈长达1500英里地区的5个主要港口城市和一个大机场，都落入德国人之手。 但整个挪威还没有陷落，希特勒命驻挪威公使勃劳耶数次与挪威国王哈康七世交涉，要求像丹麦那样停止抵抗，都被国王和他的政府所拒绝。他们联合英法登陆部队同德军继续作战。 英国人根本没想到德国会抢先在挪威来这么一手，在最初的沮丧过去后，开始在挪威同德国展开争夺。德国海军占领纳尔维克港24小时后，英国皇家海军的一支舰队冲入港内重创德军舰队，德舰队司令邦迪少将被击毙。两天后，英国另一支舰队赶来增援，全歼了残余德国军舰。狄特尔率领的德军陆地部队已退进山里。4月20日，1个英国旅和3个法国营在特隆赫姆东北80英里登陆，另一个旅在西南100英里登陆，对该港形成南北夹击态势，但遭戈林一手创建的强大的德国空军夜以继日的轰炸，其前进基地遭到严重破坏，补给品和增援部队的登陆也受到严重阻碍，无法按计划向特隆赫姆进攻。4月21日，英、德两军在利勒哈默尔首次交战，德军凭借掌握制空权的优势，攻陷利勒哈默尔，迫使英、挪军队向昂达耳斯内斯做远距离撤退。4月29日，挪威国王和政府人员在莫尔德仓皇乘英国巡洋舰“格拉斯哥号”到达北极圈上的特罗姆索，5月1日在该地建立临时首都。 5月28日，一支由法国、波兰、挪威军队组成的2.5万人的联军将一小撮德军赶出了纳尔维克，德国的命脉——铁矿砂通道似乎被彻底卡住了，看来希特勒在挪威算是白忙了一场。但就在此时，德军在西线发起了强大的攻势，英、法、比军队在比利时境内面临全军覆没的危机，于是联军急急忙忙放弃纳尔维克，从海上撤走。坚守在瑞典边境附近山区的德军狄特尔部队，于6月8日重新占领了这个港口，4天后，狄特尔接受了卢格上校残余部队的投降，后者曾领导挪威部队进行了英勇的抵抗。6月7日，挪威王室和政府人员从特罗姆索乘英国巡洋舰“德文郡号”去伦敦，开始了五年的流亡生活。 从军事上看，挪威战役具有深远的意义，英国人的失败固然有其行动迟缓的因素，但主要还是没有真正意识到制空权的时代已悄悄地降临，没有认清制空权是现代制海权的前提。从这个基本错误出发，他们在挪威作战时，步兵没有空军掩护，缺乏高射炮，而从挪威机场起飞的德国空军则对英国舰只、港口基地实施不断地轰炸，炸沉了装有大炮的英国运输舰，导致陆地上英军只得用步枪和机关枪同德军的大炮和轻型坦克对抗。所以挪威战役可以看成是：信仰海权的英国人败在了信仰制空权的德国人的手下。