Chapter 34 Chapter 26 The Thirteenth Century

In this century, the United Kingdom promulgated the "Magna Carta" and established a parliament on its British island, setting a shining example for mankind.But most of the rest of the world, it was bloody. The reason is that the Mongol Empire rose up on the desolate and poor sea desert group like a giant monster, and its powerful attack power surpassed that of Jurchen a hundred times.The founding Khan Temujin, before he captured the important town of Buhuaci City (Uzbek Bukhara) in the Islamic Kingdom of Huacizm in Central Asia and prepared to massacre, he called the residents to the prayer ground and announced to them: "You must know that you have all committed a heinous crime, so you must be punished. You will definitely ask, what evidence do I have to prove that you have committed a crime. Let me tell you, I am a disaster from heaven. If you have not committed a crime, why did God send me To kill you?"

Under this logic, the four empires on the Chinese territory: Liao, Xixia, Jin, and Song were all wiped out. In the last two decades of this century, for the first time, the entire Han nationality fell under the rule of foreign nations. The Northern Expedition and Failure of Ilhan Wabi In the 12th and 1960s of the last century, General Zhang Jun of the Song Empire launched a large-scale northern expedition, but was defeated in Fuli (Suzhou, Anhui).From then on, no one dared to think about it again. Everyone indulged in the singing and dancing in the capital Lin'an (Hangzhou, Zhejiang), and regarded the counterattack as an ominous act.Until Han Yuzhou became the prime minister, this ambitious figure who turned against the tradition and settled down, determined to make another Northern Expedition.He encountered the greatest resistance, predictably, from the moralists, who accused him of offending his neighbors.Han Wuzhou dealt with them harshly, asking the emperor to ban Taoism and expelling the Taoist leader Zhu Xi from the government.But in the third year (1202) after the beginning of this century (13th), some people advised Han Yuzhou that it should be done in moderation, and that if the oppression was too severe, it might lead to even greater revenge.Han Wuzhou was also tired of internal fighting, so he lifted the ban on Taoism.

Han Yuzhou chose the Northern Expedition at the beginning of this century (thirteenth), and the timing was very wise.The Jin Empire was being repeatedly defeated by the emerging Mongolian tribes in the north, and after Han Yuzhou purged the Taoists, he had completely controlled the government, and received sufficient support for the source of troops and food.However, he didn't have the proper commanders, not even a mediocre man like Zhang Jun. All he relied on were generals who used undignified means to achieve dignified status. action.The Northern Expedition was a serious event, but Han Wuzhou made the mistake of Liu Yilong, the emperor of the Southern Song Dynasty in the fifth century, and took such a serious event too simply.He only checked the enemy's weaknesses, not his own.

In 1206, Guo Ni, the commander-in-chief of the Northern Expedition Army (Jingluo envoy) appointed by Han Yuzhou, made a surprise attack and captured Sizhou (North Xuyi, Jiangsu), an important border town of the Jin Empire.Han Yu was overjoyed, so the emperor Zhao Kuo announced to the whole country, announcing the crimes of the Jin Empire, and ordered the Northern Expedition.The Jin Empire was really taken aback, not by the fact that the Song Empire rebelled against the alliance (the number of times the Song Empire rebelled against the alliance probably ranked first in history), but by how the poor defense forces of the Song Empire repeatedly acted so blindly.The Song army advanced in four directions, commander-in-chief Guo Ni attacked Suzhou (Suzhou, Anhui); general Li Shuang attacked Shouzhou (Fengtai, Anhui); Huangfu Bin attacked Tangzhou (Tanghe, Henan); another general Wang Dajie attacked Caizhou (Ruzhou, Henan) South).The four paths failed one after another, and they failed miserably.The Jin army crossed the Huaihe River in nine routes to pursue, captured more than ten states in a row, and arrived at Zhenzhou (Yizheng, Jiangsu) on the north bank of the Yangtze River again. They threatened to build ships to cross the river, and the Song Empire was shocked.

Guo Ni has always regarded himself as Zhuge Liang, and believes that he can establish miraculous achievements that shake the world while talking and laughing easily.When the army set off, he told the logistics commander: "Wooden cows and horses, I rely on you to support." (Wooden cows and horses, Zhuge Liang's means of transportation.) When the whole army collapsed, he could not control the remnants of the defeated generals, and ran for his life in embarrassment. When an irreparable catastrophe happened, I couldn't help crying.People called him "Zhuge Liang with juice".

Han Yuzhou's dream was shattered, and he hurriedly asked the Jin Empire for peace.The Golden Empire replied: The culprit must be handed over first.So Zhao Kuo's wife, Empress Yang, laid a net to kill Han Wubi when he entered the court, and sent his head to Zhongdu (Beijing), the capital of the Jin Empire, 1,100 kilometers away, and hung it on the street.However, it was the Taoists who were most happy about Han Wuzhou's death, and they began to return to the government in large numbers.Successive prime ministers, such as Shi Miyuan, who participated in the killing of Han Yuzhou, and Jia Sidao, who was praised by students of the National University as "Master Prime Minister", were all favorite figures of Taoists at that time.Relying on political power, Taoism is becoming more and more solid.

——However, the term "Taoism" has gradually taken on an ironic meaning because of Han Yuzhou's anti-Taoism school and his continuous public exposure of scars.Therefore, "Taoism" was gradually no longer used, and the original name of "Confucianism" was restored. The Rise of the Mongol Empire In the year when the Northern Expedition of the Song Empire failed and the Nine Routes of the Jin Army counterattacked (1206), at the upper reaches of the Onon River (Onen River) in the north of the Hanhai Desert Group, 960 kilometers northwest of Zhongdu (Beijing), Jin The various tribes of the Mongolian tribes of the empire are holding a major gathering.At the rally, Temujin, the fifty-two-year-old head of the Borjijin tribe, was elected as the Great Khan, called Genghis Khan, which means the emperor of the ocean, and the Mongolian Empire was officially born.

——The ancient Chinese liked to use monosyllables most, and "Khan" was sometimes shortened to "Khan". The Mongolian nation is a descendant of the Huns. I don't know why and when, it was renamed Mongolia.They live in the desert area centered on Burhan Mountain (Kent Mountain), surrounded by the famous Onon River (Onon River), Qilulian River (Kerulun River), Tuwuci River (Tula River) ).The Mongolian nation seems to have never had a unified government organization, and even if there was, it was probably for a short period of time.For as far as we know of their history, the tribes were independent and fend for themselves.The most important tribes are: Borjijin tribe (the tribe of Temujin as the chief), Zhuerqin tribe, Taichiwu tribe (descendant of Ibaki), Hongjici tribe (the queen of the Mongolian Empire, mostly from this tribe).The Mongolian tribes are surrounded by Turkic tribes, such as the Tatar tribe (that is, the world-famous Tatar), the Kelei tribe (chief Wanghan), the Mierqi tribe, and the Naiman tribe (the chieftain Sun Ke). sweat).

Due to the long-term intermarriage, the ethnic boundaries between them are not obvious.It is obvious that the tribal boundaries are based on economic interests.In the desert area, water and grass are limited. In order to compete for water and grass, tribes continue to attack, kill and plunder, often becoming blood feuds.Not only water plants were robbed, but women were also robbed. Temujin's mother was robbed by Temujin's father, and Temujin's wife was also robbed and taken back.Even in a state of peace, the assassination has never stopped.Temujin's father also died soon after being poisoned at a banquet held by the Tatar tribe.But it also has the benefit of making everyone in Mongolia, including women and children, strong and alert warriors.Once united with the outside world, it will be overwhelming.

History seems to be repeating itself. How the Jin Empire treated the Liao Empire back then is how the Mongol Empire treats the Jin Empire now.In 1210, the imperial envoy of Wanyan Yunji, the seventh emperor of the Jin Empire, visited the Mongolian region. He obviously didn't know that Temujin had been elected as Khan.When convening a meeting of tribal chiefs, he ordered Temujin to kneel down and worship the edict as in the past.Temujin asked: "Who is the emperor?" The imperial envoy told him that it was Wanyan Yunji. Temujin had met Wanyan Yunji before, and had a deep understanding of his stupidity, so he couldn't help but spit on the ground: "I thought the southern emperors were all Heavenly Man, so he is such an idiot." While the imperial envoy was stunned, he straddled his horse and galloped away.

The Golden Empire began to decline in the 12th and 1950s.The Jurchens have no written language, and their cultural level is very low, even inferior to the Khitan people.Suddenly exposed to the bustling world, although the Jurchen script was created in time, it could not stop the trend of Sinicization.Especially after moving the capital to Zhongdu (Beijing) and accepting the traditional Chinese court system, no wise monarch can be produced anymore.The fifth emperor, Wan Yanyong, was alert to the acceleration of Sinicization.He once issued an order to prohibit the Jurchens from changing their surnames to Han people, and they were not allowed to wear Han clothing.But these are subsections, the problem is not here, and he just talked casually to show that he is very smart, and he didn't do it seriously. The next year (1211) when Temujin spit on the ground, he declared revenge for a chief of Mongolia who was crucified on a wooden donkey by the Golden Empire in the past, and attacked the Golden Empire.Xijing (Datong, Shanxi) of the Jin Empire fell immediately.The Mongolian corps pursued the Jin army, intercepted and killed them along the way, and broke through Juyongguan (Changping, Beijing)-pay attention to this Juyongguan, which is the most dangerous Great Wall pass on the boundary line between China's headquarters and the Northern Sai Desert. It is 40 kilometers away from Zhongdu (Beijing) in the south. Surrounded by mountains.After Mongolia broke Juyongguan, it went straight to the city of Zhongdu, and then broke through most of the counties and towns in the sixteen prefectures of Yanyun in one breath, burning, killing and looting.The Golden Empire was shocked, thinking that it was just the accidental negligence of the general.But two years later (1213), the Mongolian Corps broke through Juyongguan again, and the most elite main force of the Golden Empire was completely annihilated, with corpses lying 150 kilometers away, and Zhongdu was surrounded again.The commander-in-chief of the Jin Army told Shi Lie (surname) Hu Shahu (name) that the emperor Wanyan Yunji would be held accountable for his defeat, so he simply killed Wanyan Yunji and appointed Wanyan Yunji's nephew Wanyan Xun as emperor.Wanyan Xun asked Mongolia for peace and offered the princess of Qi State (Mongolia calls her Princess Han, which shows the degree of Sinicization of the Jurchen nation, at least in the eyes of the Mongols it is impossible to distinguish the difference between the Han nationality and the Jurchen nationality), After donating five hundred boys and girls each (no one knows the fate of these children), three thousand horses, and a large amount of gold, silver and silk from the Song Empire, the Mongolian army retreated happily. The withered original shape of the Golden Empire is fully exposed here.Just a short distance from the central capital is the enemy's territory, and there is a danger of falling under another surprise attack at any time.Wanyan Xun decided to take refuge, and he moved the capital south to Kaifeng (Kaifeng, Henan), the former capital of the Song Empire, which had once moved south.When Temujin got the report, he roared: "Since the reconciliation and moving south, it's just a lie to us." Immediately launched a third attack.In 1215, Zhongdu fell. However, Temujin did not send his troops south. His interest turned to the Kingdom of Huacizm in Central Asia (Uzbek Samarkand), leaving only a small number of troops for his general Mu Huali, who ordered Mu Huali to completely destroy the Golden Empire. the countryside.Mu Huali adopted guerrilla tactics to avoid attacking the city, and only sent all kinds of cavalry troops across the North China Plain, killing, looting and burning them, as if no one was in the land. Three Liao·Flower·Xixia·Falled one after another Temujin was one of the greatest organizers and military strategists in history. Before the twentieth century, few people could match him for his glorious achievements in politics and on the battlefield.Temujin has the disadvantages of being cruel and easy to kill as a barbarian nation, and also has various advantages that heroes are not easy to combine.Temujin was open-minded and magnificent, and he could immediately make correct judgments on obscure situations.He presides over his daily-expanding empire with popular impartiality and tough police tactics.His high intelligence enables him to display his high talents. First, the chaotic tribes in the Mongolian region are deeply separated from each other, and some of them are feuds.After his unification, he merged into a solid core group immediately, and there was no fatal split and rebellion. This is his rare political talent.Second, apart from Temujin’s defeat once when he joined forces with Jamu, the chief of the Zagija tribe (in the middle reaches of the Ergun River in Russia) when he started his army when he was young, he has never been defeated since.Even his next generation is the same.This is his rare military talent. After Temujin seized the central capital (Beijing) of the Golden Empire, he marched westward in person.In this century (thirteenth), the Mongol Empire launched a total of six large-scale military operations, establishing a huge empire that was unprecedented until the twentieth century.We list these six major expeditions as the following table.Among them, the three western expeditions had nothing to do with China.The other three southern expeditions brought disasters to the Chinese. Tie Benzhen's attack on the Jin Empire was deliberate, a response to the oppression it had suffered for more than a hundred years, and a necessary means to consolidate the new state.However, it has no intention of aggression against the Huacizimo Kingdom, which is 3,500 kilometers away, in the Turan lowlands south of the Weihai Sea in Central Asia, and only hopes to be able to trade freely.However, the border general of Huacizimo Kingdom slaughtered the Mongolian caravan sent by Temujin.Temujin sent another envoy to ask for an apology and promise that there would be no second incident. As a result, half of them were killed by the king, and the other half were shaved off and sent back.A country's weakness is a crime, and it is an unforgivable crime not to admit weakness but to challenge a strong enemy.For the sake of the empire's face and commercial interests, Temujin temporarily put down the Golden Empire and marched westward. This was the first western expedition of the Mongolian Corps, led by Temujin himself, and set off in 1218.In order to clear the way, Temujin sent General Zhebie to attack the Liao Empire (Kirgi Stokemark) that survived to the present after moving westward. The Liao Empire fell under one blow, and it was established in 303 years.Xunsigan (Uzbek Samarkand), the capital of Huacizimo Kingdom, fell under the siege of Temujin. The king fled to a desert island in the Caspian Sea and died of illness; after the general who slaughtered the Mongolian caravan was caught, he poured hot silver juice He died in ears and eyes.After destroying the Kingdom of Khwacizm, Temujin continued to lead his troops south to destroy several ancient kingdoms located in present-day Afghanistan and eastern Iran.This expedition lasted eight years and ended in 1225.Temujin enfeoffed most of the original Liao Empire (Xiliao) and the former land of the Huacizimo Kingdom to his second son, Chagatai, and called the capital of the Chagatai Khanate Ali Mari (Huocheng, Xinjiang). The demise of the Huacizm Kingdom was a turning point, and Temujin and his outstanding sons, who had no ambitions, are now encouraged.The fragility of the Liao Empire and Huacizimo Kingdom, and the spiritual and material satisfaction and enjoyment after the victory of the war changed their outlook on life.On his way home, Temujin drew up an expansion plan for the empire and decided to quickly conquer the Xixia Empire and the Jin Empire. In the second year (1227) after returning to the army from the Western Expedition, the Mongol Corps attacked the Xixia Empire. This stubborn small state that had exhausted the Wei Empire resisted fiercely against Mongolia. Every inch of land was fought, and houses and cities were burned. After that, turn into the cave.However, bravery and confidence are not the only factors that determine the outcome. When the soldiers are dead and the bones are covered, one must surrender.The last emperor Li Yan surrendered, and Temujin immediately beheaded him and slaughtered all the royal family surnamed Li. This Xixia Empire, which was not qualified to establish a state, had been established for one hundred and ninety-six years. After the demise of the Xixia Empire, Temujin died in Liupanshan (north of Longde, Ningxia).When he was dying, he told his youngest son, Tuo Lei, to say: "The heavy soldiers of the Jin Empire are all stationed at Tongguan (Tongguan, Shaanxi Province). There is a river on one side and mountains on the other. It is not easy to attack. The Song Empire and the Jin Empire are feuds. The Song Empire took advantage of the road and wedged in from Dengzhou (Dengzhou, Henan), an important town in the south of the Jin Empire, and went straight to their capital Kaifeng (Kaifeng, Henan). The Tongguan defenders were bound to return to the army for rescue. to crush it." After the death of many famous emperors in the western world, such as Alexander and Charlemagne, the empire that worked so hard to manage collapsed.However, Temujin's death did not shock the growing Mongolian Empire.This is a miracle, once again showing Temujin's organizational skills.In 1229, Temujin's third son, Okuotai, succeeded him as the second Great Khan, and acted against the Jin Empire in accordance with his father's will. The End of the Four Gold Empires One of the phenomena that the Jin Empire is too Chinese is that there are red tapes in the government, and everything is based on the Song Empire, which failed under its own hands.The only job of the national leadership is to contest who is more perfunctory.When encountering problems, I hope that the other party will solve them, so that I will not be responsible when I fail.During the meeting, he spoke in a low-key manner, with elegant words, mutual humility, and no disputes. At that time, it was called "maintaining the demeanor of a prime minister" (raising a prime minister's etiquette).When encountering major changes and having to respond, we said: "The Holy Master is troubled, and we should not report to him rashly." The sincere person decided: "We will discuss it in the next meeting." "All kinds of perditions that Chinese dynasties must have when they are about to perish are available one by one. Since the Golden Empire moved its capital to Kaifeng (Kaifeng, Henan Province) in 1214, its heavy habit made it unable to make painstaking reforms, but on the contrary produced two wrong decisions.One is that because of the loss of their homeland in the Northeast and the territory north of the Yellow River, they wanted to go south to seize the land of the Song Empire as compensation.But the Jurchen Corps at this time is no longer the Jurchen Corps of the last century (twelfth), and the corruption is getting worse.Although the Song Empire was still unable to resist, the progress of the whole army was still very difficult, and finally had to stop on its own. Apart from losing more troops and increasing the hatred of the Song Empire, there was nothing to gain.The other is that they believed that the reason why the Jurchens could not be as brave as before was because the family was poor and had no property, so the Jin government ordered the distribution of land to the Jurchens.The Yellow River and Huaihe River basins are the intensively cultivated areas of the Chinese nation, and there is no barren land.But whether barren land is barren land depends on the judgment of the Jin government, and the result of its judgment is that all fertile fields are barren land.A large number of Han people were sent to be driven from their farmlands. This action only made the Han people have a deep hatred with the Jurchens, and the Jurchens could not fight as before.At this time, only a small corner of the Jin Empire was left south of the Yellow River and north of the Huai River. In the second year (1231) after the Mongolian Great Khan Wo Kuotai ascended the throne, the emperor's younger brother Tuo Lei sent envoys to the Song Empire very quickly to negotiate a way.However, when he reached Mianzhou (Lueyang, Shaanxi), he was killed by the guard Zhang Xuan.Tuo Lei was furious and invaded the Song Dynasty from Dasan Pass (southwest of Baoji, Shaanxi).Conquered Xingyuan (Hanzhong, Shaanxi) and Jinzhou (Ankang, Shaanxi) in a row, went down the Han River, and entered Jinjing in Guanghua (Laohekou, Hubei).The Song Empire paid the price of hundreds of thousands of deaths because of a general's embarrassment, and solved the difficulty of borrowing the road for Tuo Lei; now there is no need to borrow the road, the road has become his.Wanyan Heda, the general of the Jin Empire stationed in Dengzhou (Dengzhou, Henan), faced off at Yushan in the southwest of Dengzhou, was defeated, and retreated to Dengzhou to hold on, and reported the victory to the central government.The capital, Kaifeng, was jubilant, running around to tell each other, and all the officials congratulated the emperor.Li Qi, Secretary-General of the State Council (Shang Shusheng Zuo Cheng), was moved to tears at the celebration banquet. He said: "If it is not for this victory, the people will suffer even greater disasters." The Golden Empire spent the New Year in a carnival, and in the spring of next year (January 32), the Torpedo Corps bypassed Dengzhou and marched northward.Wanyan Heda abandoned Dengzhou, led the army northward, and rushed to Kaifeng to enter the guard at night.However, the Mongolian Great Khan Wo Kuotai personally led another army, riding the ice in Heqing County (Meng County, Henan Province) to cross the river down the river in the middle of winter when the Yellow River froze.Divide the troops into two groups, one led by general Su Buhe, attacking Kaifeng eastward;Wanyan Heda's Jurchen Corps arrived at the right time and entered the pocket position of Mongolia.Under the charge of the Mongolian cavalry, it collapsed in an instant. When it collapsed, 150,000 people scattered and fled for their lives, making a loud noise like the sky falling and the earth cracking.At this time, the defenders of Tongguan also hurriedly marched to help Kaifeng. They took their wives and children, exhausted and frightened, and finally walked to the south of Luoyang.Everything was as Temujin expected. Kaifeng is now an isolated island, and Jin Emperor Wanyan Shouxu (the son of Wanyan Xun) had no choice but to beg for peace.Subotai agreed, retreated to Zhengzhou (Zhengzhou, Henan), and dispatched envoy Tang Qing to Kaifeng to negotiate. Tang Qing insisted that Wanyan Shouxu must go to the Mongolian military camp to hold a high-level meeting with Subu in person. Wanyan Shouxu refused. Seeing the emperor being so humiliated, the imperial imperial guards (flying tiger pawns) were so ashamed and indignant that they killed Tang Qing and all the Mongolian envoys led by him.Wanyan Shouxu couldn't bear to punish these patriotic soldiers. At the same time, he also wanted to take this opportunity to go to Hebei (north of the Yellow River) in person to recover some land and gather a field force.So, in the severe cold at the end of the year, he left Kaifeng and went north.Subotai got the news and surrounded Kaifeng again. In the spring of next year (January 233), Wanyan Shouxu went to the north of the Yellow River and used the imperial flag to summon the towns to surrender, indicating that the emperor was coming in person. However, none of the towns responded, and some even went to the city to resist the war.Only then did Wanyan Shouge realize that his government did not have the support of the people, and the army he led was disintegrated due to lack of food. He had to retreat, but he could not return to Kaifeng, so he retreated 130 kilometers east of Kaifeng. Outside Guide (Shangqiu, Henan).Cui Li, the governor left behind in Kaifeng, surrendered to Mongolia and sacrificed the entire Wanyan royal family, including the queen, concubine, prince, princess, and son-in-law.This is an interesting comparison. Just in the last century (twelfth)—one hundred and six years ago, in this huge city and in this court, the Song imperial government gave away all its royal family surnamed Zhao.After the Wanyan royal family was sent to the northern desert, no one knew their fate. Guide was too close to the enemy and lacked food.Wanyan Shouxu fled to the south and defected to Caizhou (Runan, Henan).The Mongol Empire sent people to Xiangyang (Xiangfan, Hubei) of the Song Empire to ask for aid.Therefore, the two countries signed a military alliance. The Mongolian Empire promised that the Song Empire could take back some areas south of the Huaihe River that were occupied by the Jin Empire, and the Song Empire promised to supply grain and fodder; Caizhou remained peaceful for six months. During these six months, officials of all sizes thought that Mongolia would let them go, and the world finally returned to peace, and they all got married and started families.Soon, business travelers gathered, the market was prosperous, Wanyan Shouxu was still in a haze, trying to select beautiful women and build a palace.However, towards the end of the year, the Mongol Corps arrived at the city.The 20,000 soldiers of the Song Army, led by general Meng Gong, also arrived at the city with 300,000 shi of food and fodder donated to the Mongolian Corps as stipulated in the covenant.Soldiers from the two countries cut down trees outside the city to make siege weapons and hit the ladders. The sound was heard for miles, and the city was terrified. In the first month of next year (January 234), Wanyan Shouxu knew that the situation was over during the siege, and after passing the throne to the royal general Wanyan Chenglin, he hanged himself to death and set fire to his body.As soon as the fire started, the city fell, and Wanyan Chenglin died in the street fighting.The Golden Empire has been established for 120 years, and it has now perished. Five "Fu Hua Pian" era Meng Gong brought some of Wanyan Shouxu's charred bones back to Lin'an (Hangzhou, Zhejiang), the capital of the Song Empire, and presented them. Zhao Guicheng ordered them to sacrifice to the royal ancestral temple.The bloody feud of more than a hundred years finally took revenge, and the Song Empire once again stood on the side of victory, and the whole country carnivaled.The officials competed to insult Zhang Tiangang, the captured vice chancellor of the Jin Empire (Shenzhizhengshi), which was the safest opportunity to show loyalty.Xue Qiong, the mayor of Lin'an (who knows Lin'an Prefecture), was particularly passionate. He asked Zhang Tiangang: "What face do you have to come here?" Besides, there is no other way. Although some people warned the Song government that the current situation is exactly the same as the situation after the collapse of the Liao Empire in the last century (twelfth): a new, but more powerful barbarian giant suddenly became a close neighbor, and there must never be any No negligence.But the officials in power thought it was a disapproval, just like the officials in power in the twelfth century (12th century) thought Ma Zhi's warning was a disapproval, and they couldn't listen to it at all.Therefore, not long after, Prime Minister Zheng Qingzhi and General Zhao Fan decided to take advantage of the unprepared opportunity of the Mongol Empire to recover the three capitals: Kaifeng in Tokyo, Luoyang in Xijing, and Yingtian in Nanjing (Shangqiu in Henan).That is to regain the entire area south of the Yellow River. There is a reasonable emotional explanation for the Song Empire helping Mongolia to destroy the Jin Empire.But to repeat the mistakes of history and quickly rebel against Mongolia, this is the second time that like a blind pig, he suddenly put his head into the bloody mouth of the giant monster, looking for food, but he couldn't find a reasonable explanation up.Therefore, we have to think that history does not teach lessons to some people at least. Caizhou (Runan, Henan) fell in the first month of 1234, and the Mongolian Corps withdrew to Guanzhong (central part of Shaanxi Province).In June, the Northern Expedition Corps of the Song Empire attacked in three ways.All went well, and the generals Zhao Kui and Quan Zi recovered Kaifeng and Guide without encountering resistance (that is, Yingtian, the Golden Empire was renamed Guide).In July, another general, Xu Minzi, also recaptured Luoyang without encountering resistance.However, in August, before the Song Empire had time to celebrate, the Mongol Corps had launched a counterattack.The result can be speculated that, except for the fall of Sanjing again, the Song army did not lose (including being killed or starved to death) more than 100,000 soldiers. Before that, Mongolia had no intention of being an enemy of the Song Empire. The rivers and rice fields in the south of the Yangtze River were both magical and strange to them.Now he is angered by the unprovoked attack of the Song Empire, and also seduced by the corruption and incompetence of the Song Army.So by the way, the Song Empire was also included in its hunting list.Fortunately, however, the Song Empire is at the bottom of the list, and Mongolia is preparing to launch a conquest against the Western world. It only adopts the same method as the Jin Empire against the Song Empire, leaving a small number of troops to fight endlessly along the border. The attack made the empire exhausted. In the second year after the rebellion of the Song Empire (1236), the Mongolian Corps, led by Temujin’s grandson Batu, made the second Western Expedition, which lasted seven years. In 1242, due to the great Khanwo Kuotai died and ended.A total of Eastern Europe was conquered, including Burial (Samara City in the middle reaches of the Volga River), Oros (Russia), Poland, and Hungary.The Mongolian Khan enfeoffed this vast land to Batu.Batu built the city of Sarai (now Astrakhan) in the lower reaches of the Volga River as the capital of the feudal country, called the Qincha Khanate. —Because of the defeat of the combined armies of the Germanic kingdoms, the Kingdom of Poland, and the Kingdom of Hungary, Europe is shaken.The invaders of this Asian yellow race are called "Yellow Peril".This is in contrast to the fact that six hundred years later in the 19th century, Asians called the white Europeans who invaded eastward the "white disaster". Ten years after the end of the second Mongolian Western Expedition (1252), under the leadership of Hulagu, another grandson of Temujin, he set off from the capital of the empire, Helin (Mongolian Harhelin), for the third time. Western Expedition.It lasted eight years and ended in 1259 with the death of Great Khan Mengge (the two Western Expeditions both ended in this way, we can’t imagine what the world would be like if the lifespan of these two Great Khans was extended for a few years ).This time they conquered Persia (Iran) and Heiyi Dashi (Iraq). The army once occupied Syria and eastern Turkey. The Mongolian Khan entrusted this vast land to Hulagu.On the south bank of the Caspian Sea, he built Tbilisi City (Tabriz City in Northwest Iran) as the capital of the feudal state, called the Ilkhanate. During the two Western Expeditions, Haidu, the grandson of the second Great Khan Okuotai, was dissatisfied with his cousin Mengge as the sixth Great Khan, so he built Ye Mili City on the original fief of his grandfather. (Xinjiang Emin), known as the Wokuotai Khanate, confronted the Great Khan.The four world-famous Khanates belonging to the Mongol Empire were completed successively. The Song Empire didn't know anything about the Mongol Empire's conquest in the western world. It only knew that the pressure on the border was getting heavier.When the third Western Expedition entered the second year (1253), Mongolia also dealt a fierce blow to the Song Empire in the east. The capital Dali City (Dali, Yunnan).Next year (1254), Emperor Duan Xingzhi of Dali was captured.This ancient kingdom established in the eighth century - the Kingdom of Nanzhao, passed through eleven dynasties and lasted for five hundred and sixteen years, until it perished here.The Mongolian Expeditionary Corps continued to attack the Annan Kingdom (northern Vietnam), and in 1258, King Chen Rizhao surrendered.So the Mongol Empire sent a three-pronged attack on the western part of the Song Empire: the west was led by the Great Khan Mengge, and the south was attacked in Hezhou (Hechuan, Sichuan); General Wuliang Hatai led the expeditionary force to conquer the Kingdom of Annan, and went north to attack Tanzhou (Changsha, Hunan). Next year (1259), that is, the year when the third Western Expedition ended, Wulianghatai on the South Road arrived at the city of Tanzhou to attack the city like a broken bamboo.Kublai Khan on the North Road also crossed the Yangtze River and arrived at the city of Ezhou to attack the city.The Song government promoted Jia Sidao, the commander of the western military region (Xuanfu Envoy of Jingxi Lake, North and North Sichuan), to be prime minister and ordered him to rescue Ezhou.At that time, Jia Sidao was stationed in Huangzhou (Huangzhou, Hubei), which was 60 kilometers away by air. Facing a powerful enemy, he was at a loss.In the end, he had no choice but to send a secret envoy to Kublai Khan to beg for reconciliation, and he was willing to promise the following conditions: The Song Empire surrendered to Mongolia and became a vassal. Second, with the Yangtze River as the border between the two countries, the Song Empire ceded all the land in Jiangbei. The Three Song Empires paid 200,000 taels of silver coins and 200,000 bolts of silk to the Mongolian Empire every year. The proposal for reconciliation was put forward at the right time, because Mongolian Great Khan Mengge died under the city of Hezhou, and there was news that the family meeting might elect Kublai Khan's younger brother Ali Boke to succeed the Great Khan.This made Kublai Khan's heart burn, so he couldn't wait to accept Jia Sidao's conditions, and ordered the Wulianghatai Corps to abandon Tanzhou and return to the north together. Jia Sidao immediately rebelled against the alliance and ordered the interception and killing of the stragglers behind the Mongolian palace, and used their heads as evidence of brilliant results to report the victory to the capital Lin'an (Hangzhou, Zhejiang).The whole country of the Song Empire was excited. Emperor Zhao Guicheng praised Jia Sidao for his great feats in rebuilding the empire. When Jia Sidao returned to the capital triumphantly, Zhao Guicheng ordered all civil and military officials to go to the suburbs to give a grand welcome.The well-known writer Liao Yingzhong also wrote the masterpiece "Fu Hua Pian", praising Jia Sidao's great contribution to the nation. When the whole country celebrated the victory, Hao Jing, the envoy of the Mongolian Empire, came to the Song Empire to apply for employment, and negotiated the details of the peace treaty.Jia Sidao reacted quickly. He arrested Hao Jing and secretly imprisoned him in the Zhenzhou (Yizheng, Jiangsu) military camp.No one in the whole country knew about Jia Sidao's begging for peace, let alone the Mongolian envoy. The Mongolian Empire fell into chaos for a time, and Kublai Khan led his army back north, walked to Kaiping (Zhenglan Banner, Inner Mongolia), and announced his successor as the Great Khan.The royal family meeting in Helin (Mongolia Harhelin) elected Ali Boke as the successor of the Great Khan.Kublai Khan's actions were clearly illegal, but the strength of his forces made him legitimate.Brother Ali was defeated.In 1264, Kublai Khan moved the capital from Helin to Yanjing (Beijing), which was soon renamed Dadu—the most spectacular city in the world at that time. The End of the Six Song Empire The Mongol Empire's attack on the Song Empire entered a new stage in 1269, when guerrilla warfare was abandoned and instead a fortification was launched, and Xiangyang (Xiangfan, Hubei) was besieged. After the death of Song Emperor Zhao Guicheng, his nephew Zhao Mengqi succeeded to the throne and regarded Jia Sidao as the only savior of the nation.This is not only true of the emperor, but also of Taoists. Jia Sidao, in view of the bad consequences of Han Yuzhou being an enemy of Taoists, adopted a soft policy towards Taoists. Leadership is impossible.Jia Sidao then eliminated the talented generals one by one, and indeed controlled the military power of the whole country.A secret police was also established to cut off the emperor's eyes and ears and suppress people's dissatisfaction and resistance.He strictly blocked the news of the siege of Xiangyang from the very beginning.A year later, Zhao Mengqi asked Jia Sidao in a trance: "It seems that I heard that Xiangyang has been besieged for a long time." Jia Sidao replied: "The Mongolian soldiers have been repelled by us long ago. How can there be such rumors?" Zhao Mengqi Said: "A maid said so." Jia Sidao soon found out the name of the maid, arrested her for other crimes, and died in prison.From then on, no one dared to worry about state affairs, but only praised Jia Sidao for his wisdom. It's not that Jia Sidao didn't go to help Xiangyang. In fact, he kept sending reinforcements, but the reinforcements he sent were swallowed by Mongolia in batches like sheep.In the end, he played his trump card and ordered his most trusted general, Fan Wenhu, to go there.The problem is that Fan Wenhu is only willing to use flattery to serve his allegiance, but he has no intention of giving his allegiance with his life. He camps outside the encirclement, occasionally intercepting Mongolian patrols, and spends most of his time having fun with beauties.Under such circumstances, Xiangyang was besieged for five years, and food and aid were exhausted.In 1273, the Mongol Corps transported huge cannons back and forth, and the city tower was smashed to pieces with one cannon, and the sound was like a million thunderbolts.This is a terrible monster that has never been seen in the history of war, just like the blow of the atomic bomb in the twentieth century seven hundred years later.The guard Lu Wenhuan looked at the capital Lin'an (Hangzhou, Zhejiang) and wept bitterly, and surrendered in Kaesong. The next year (1274) when Xiangyang fell, the Mongolian Khan Kublai Khan ordered an all-out attack on the Song Empire, announcing the crimes of the Song Empire’s betrayal of the alliance and detaining the envoy Hao Jing.Under the leadership of General Boyan, the Mongolian Corps captured Ezhou (Wuhan, Hubei) and went eastward along the Yangtze River.就在此时，宋皇帝赵孟启逝世，他的四岁儿子赵显继位，由孩子的祖母谢太后主持政府。孤儿寡妇，面临着国亡家破的恐慌，唯一的倚靠是贾似道。全体官员和国立大学学生（太学生），一致要求贾似道亲征。大家认为，只有贾似道亲征，才能旋乾转坤。 贾似道只好亲征，进抵芜湖（安徽芜湖），横江布防。任命范文虎当海陆联军总司令（诸军总统），据守安庆（安徽安庆）。明年（一二七五），蒙古兵团迫近安庆，范文虎魂不附体，全军投降。贾似道如雷轰顶，他知道事态的严重，于是再用曾经使他转危为安的和解法宝，派遣密使晋见伯颜，愿接受任何条件。伯颜根本不相信贾似道，拒绝密使的要求，大军继续挺进。在芜湖江面，把宋军最后一道防线击溃。贾似道逃到扬州（江苏扬州），急下令把囚禁已达十六年之久的郝经释放，企图缓和蒙古的愤怒，但为时已经太晚了。 ——谢太后把贾似道免职，但没有杀他，只贬谪到循州（广东龙川）。走到漳州（福建漳州）时，住宿在木绵庵，押解他的差官郑虎臣把他拖到厕所，击碎肋骨而死。 谢太后直接派人向伯颜乞和，愿降为属国。怕颜这一次接受了，蒙古最初的目的并不一定要消灭宋帝国，只不过要求宋帝国像安南王国和高丽王国一样，作一个臣服的外藩。可是，当蒙古使节廉希贤一行前往临安（浙江杭州）谈判，走到独松关（浙江安吉南）时，却被一位爱国心强烈的守将杀掉。这已经使事态恶化，谢太后在惊恐中，急再第二次派特使，到已经陷落了的建康（江苏南京），向伯颜解释误会，保证严惩那个守将。伯颜于是第二次派出使节张羽，走到平江（江苏苏州），又被另一位爱国心强烈的守将杀掉。伯颜怒不可遏，他发现他面对的是一个不可理喻而又狡狯凶恶的野蛮部落，任何力量都不能阻止他的军队前进。 ——狂热一旦到了靠着流别人的血来表达自己忠贞的地步，这种狂热便成为两头尖的剑，固然伤害别人，也同样伤害自己。强烈的爱国心是可敬的，但只用别人的生命表达它，这个爱国心就不纯洁，有邪恶的成分在内。 蒙古兵团在毫无抵抗的情形下，进抵临安（浙江杭州）。宋政府已经瓦解，包括宰相在内的当权官员，以及日夜都在思念忠君爱国的道学家士大夫群，大都逃走，谢太后和不懂事的孩子皇帝赵显，只有投降。 然而，九岁的亲王赵囗（赵显的哥哥），随着他的母亲杨太后逃到福州（福建福州），即在福州继位，号召全国继续抗战。但大势已去，蒙古军队不停追击，地方官员不断叛变，母子们在一批仍然效忠的大臣陆秀夫、将领张世杰的保护下，辗转向南逃亡，由福州，而泉州（福建泉州），而潮州（广东潮州），而秀山（广东东莞虎门镇）。最后到了井澳（广东中山南方一百公里海上横琴山小岛），遇到飓风，龙舟翻覆，赵囗跌到大海里，受到惊吓。于再逃到囗州（广东湛江东南）时逝世。大臣们再拥立他的弟弟，八岁的赵昞，进驻崖山。 崖山，位于广东省新会市南约四十公里，是一个荒凉的海滩，面对着波浪滔天的南中国海。这时残余的军民和眷属，还有二十余万人，杨太后每天抱着幼儿，在用绳索相连的巨舟上主持政府。这样支持了一年，明年（一二七九），蒙古大将张弘范发动海陆攻击，宋军崩溃。陆秀夫把赵昞负在背上说：“我们君臣，不应受到外国人的侮辱。”投海而死。张世杰率领残舰突围，遇到杨太后，杨太后得知赵昞已死，她说：“赵家两块骨肉，都已死尽，我还指望什么？”也投海而死。张世杰前往广州（广东广州），准备继续奋斗。可是，他又遇到飓风，堕入大海。 宋帝国，这个士大夫的乐园，建立三百二十年，到此灭亡。 ——宋帝国最后一位殉国的大臣是宰相文天祥，他于一二七八年在海丰（广东海丰）兵败被掳，送到蒙古帝国首都大都（北京）囚禁，始终拒绝投降。四年后（一二八二），宋帝国已亡了三年，他拒绝投降如故。忽必烈才下令把他杀掉。文天祥从容不迫接受死刑的态度，受到中国人长久的敬仰。 七元政府的建立 宋帝国灭亡，使尘埃落定。 蒙古帝国横跨欧亚大陆，面积约三千万平方公里的版图，扩张完成。这是一个空前庞大的帝国，在当时以马匹为主要交通工具的时代，几乎无法作有效的统治。蒙古人采取地方分权制度，把疆域划分为下表所列的六个子国，平等的并列于最高元首——大汗之下。 吐蕃宗教国，是我们姑且加给它的名称。它本是一个王国，并以强大的武力于第七第八两世纪，使中国焦头烂额。九世纪之后，不知道什么缘故，它的政府瓦解，分散为无数部落。但中国文成公主和金城公主努力推广的佛教，已深入人心。经过一番传说不一的演变，吐蕃人民的信仰归向于佛教中的一个神秘支派——密宗，也称喇嘛教。又因僧侣都穿红色袈裟，所以也称红教。有名望而又有统御力的一位高僧，被尊为法王。喇嘛教就像罗马帝国崩溃后的天主教一样，法王就是教皇。蒙古大汗在征服了吐蕃之后，即接受了喇嘛教，并册封法王巴思八当蒙古帝国的国师。国师除了为国祈福外，仍兼任吐蕃地区政教合一的元首。巴思八是一位聪明睿智的高僧，他曾为蒙古制定文字。 本世纪（十三）一二七一年，蒙古帝国大汗忽必烈，把原来属于西夏帝国、金帝国、宋帝国、大理帝国，四国的土地和蒙古本土，合并组成一个元帝国——在中国历史中，我们称之为元王朝，由大汗兼任皇帝（蒙古人了解中国人习惯皇帝，不习惯可汗）。中央政府完全仿效金帝国的组织，所以也属于中国古老的传统。只有一点不同，即传统上占重要位置的尚书省和门下省，从金帝国时就不再设立，元政府亦然。不过元政府要同时充当蒙占帝国政府，所以组织复杂繁琐，十分庞大。各官署的首长，有时竟达十数人之多。但它的中枢机构，只有三个，我们用下列表格说明： 元帝国只是蒙古帝国大汗的直辖殖民地，在这个直辖殖民地上，划分为十一个行政地区，它们的名称列于下表。所在的位置和辖区，跟二十世纪现代的行政地区相近。 “行中书省”本是官署名称，即中书省的支部或分部，也就是现代的省政府。每一个行中书省，都有一定的管辖区域。但久而久之，行省的意义，除了偶尔指官署外，大多数都指所辖的地区。 ——下世纪（十四）明王朝时，作为官署的“省”（省政府）取消，改称“布政司”，但作为地区的“省”仍在，一直沿用到二十世纪。 大分裂时代和辽、金帝国时代，汉人也曾被异民族统治过，但整个汉民族全部沦落到异民族之下，现在却是第一次。元政府把帝国人民，分为四等：第一等当然是蒙古人，他们是天之骄子，充任各级政府的首长。第二等是中亚人（色国人），因为他们大多数信奉伊斯兰教的缘故，所以也称回回；当亡国奴较早（像花刺子模王国），也较能得到主子信任。第三等人是“汉人”，即金帝国所属（淮河以北）的中国人。第四等人是“南人”，即宋帝国所属（淮河以南）的中国人。在中国的国土上，中国人却最低贱。 元政府更依职业的性质，把帝国人民，分为十级：一、官（政府官员）。二、吏（吏佐，不能擢升为官员的政府雇员）。三、僧（佛教僧侣）。四、道（道教道士）。五、医（医生）。六、工（高级技术人员）。七、匠（低级技术人员）。八、娼（娼妓）。九、儒（儒家·道学家）。十、丐（乞丐）。一向在中国传统社会最受尊敬的儒家道学家知识分子士大夫，在蒙古人看来，是彻头彻尾的寄生虫，比儒家所最鄙视的娼妓都不如，仅只稍稍胜过乞丐。因为在蒙古故土的沙漠地区，每一个人，包括妇女儿童，都要从事劳动，在他们知识领域内，实在想不通世界上还有专门读书，和专门做官的这种行业。 八蒙古最后五次征伐 侵略扩张是没有终点的，永远不会自动停止。 蒙古帝国并不因已获有广大领土而满足，灭掉宋帝国后，大汗忽必烈又列出一张狩猎名单，名单上是一些还没有完全降服的邻邦。干是，就在本世纪（十三）最后二十年中，他共发动了五次征伐：一、征日本。二、征缅甸。三、征占城。四、征安南。五、征爪哇。不过忽必烈并没有动员蒙古帝国全部力量，而仅由于国之一的元帝国担任主角。 蒙古帝国于一二五九年完全征服高丽王国后，听说在更东方的大海上，还有一个日本帝国，便于一二六六年，派遣使节前往招降。日本当时是龟山天皇在位，根本不知道世界上有蒙古帝国这回事。对这种来历不明的使节，自然不予理会。这种冷淡态度，引起两次无妄的灾难： 第一次，一二七四年，元兵团一点五万人，在蒙古大将忻都、高丽大将洪茶丘率领下，乘战舰九百艘，从朝鲜半岛合浦港出发，攻陷对马岛，在日本肥前沿海登陆。日本集结十二万人抵抗，死伤惨重，但坚守不退。后来元兵团的箭用尽，无法补充，只好撤回。 七年后的一二八一年，即宋帝国亡后第二年，大汗忽必烈在高丽王国首都开京（朝鲜开城）设征东司令部（征东行省），由蒙古大将阿刺罕担任总司令（行省右丞相）、汉人大将范文虎担任副总司令（行省右丞），分南北两路，在对马岛上会师。会师之后，阿刺罕逝世。大汗忽必烈命副宰相（中书省右丞）阿塔海前往接替。可是范文虎企图由他来完成这件英雄事业，没有等阿塔海到达，即行进军，在日本平壶岛（长崎北）登陆。计战士十万人，战舰四千四百艘，漫天遍海，旌旗蔽日。日本第一次面对着这么强大的敌人，全国震怖，自知不能抵抗，唯有奔走呼号，祈祷上苍拯救。这时候是阴历七月，正逢西南太平洋上台风季节（内陆人民不可能了解台风所带来的可怕破坏力，即令二十世纪，二十万吨以上的船舰，得到台风消息，都要躲避）。当日本慌张失措，朝不保夕之际，台风适时而至。八月一日，突然间海上风浪大作，暴雨倾盆，四千四百艘战舰在怒风骇浪中，四处飘散，像鸭蛋壳一样，互相被撞击粉碎，或被波涛吞噬，几乎全部沉没。战士尸体，漂满海面。军储粮秣以及弓箭武器，都在舰上，也全部丧失。这次台风历时四天，八月五日，好不容易风雨停住，范文虎发现他已无法收拾这个残局，就把已经登陆驻扎在五龙山下的约十余万人的部属，全部遗弃。自己和一批高级将领，乘上残余的几艘战舰，悄悄逃走。十余万人的登陆五龙山部队，当发觉被他们的统帅遗弃时，好像被遗弃的孤儿，相对大哭。但他们立即组织起来，推举一位张百户（营长阶级）当司令官，伐木作舟，准备逃回。但时间已不许可，八月七日，日本反攻，登陆五龙山部队奋战两昼夜，箭已射尽，粮也食尽，结果是六七万人被杀，未死的二三万人，于八月九日被日军驱到八角岛，凡蒙古人、高丽人、中国北方人（汉人），全部处斩。只留下中国南方人（南人），日本称为“唐人”的，免死，充作奴隶。登陆五龙山十余万部队，只有三个幸运儿逃掉，分别偷乘破烂的渔舟，漂回中国。然而，最悲惨的是，这件全军覆没的悲剧，竟没有引起责任问题。范文虎向忽必烈报告说：“我们到了日本，正准备攻击太宰府时，不料暴风把船摧毁。我们仍然照原计划行事，可是某将领某将领（这些人都被遗弃在五龙山下，死无对证），不听指挥，率军先退，大军只好跟随。全体战士于回到合浦港后解散，已备回本乡。”忽必烈相信他的话，逃回的三个人虽拆穿了他的谎言，死难者的家属虽向政府申诉，但这声音是太微弱了，忽必烈根本听不到，蒙古帝国高阶层已开始腐烂。 ——这一阵台风拯救了日本，日本感谢它，称它为“神风”。二十世纪第二次世界大战末期，日本组织自杀飞机，即称“神风特攻队”，希望神风第二次降临。结果虽然失望，但可看出这次台风在历史上的重要地位。检查蒙古帝国东征失败的原因，我们认为可归纳为三项：一、将领们统大军渡海作战，却没有一个人对海洋气候了解。二、任用人类渣滓范文虎当统帅。三、在出发时，忽必烈拒绝配备马匹和回回炮，否则登陆五龙山部队可能在巨炮掩护下，支持到撤退使用的新舰造成。 东征失败后第二年（一二八三），蒙古帝国的使节被缅甸王国驱逐，遂向缅甸攻击，继续作战六年，到一二八九年，缅甸始告屈服，降为臣属。而在进攻缅甸王国的前一年（一二八二），占城王国（越南南部地区）囚禁蒙古帝国的使节，元兵团在蒙古大将唆都率领下，乘战舰一千艘，由广州出发攻击。占城王国坚壁清野，退人丛林山谷。元兵团攻陷它的首都，但归路和粮道却被切断，狼狈撤退，几乎全被歼灭。 明年（一二八四），蒙古帝国向安南王国（越南北部地区）借路，计划纵穿安南，从陆道进攻占城。安南王国拒绝，它不敢冒这个险。忽必烈命他的儿子脱欢亲王当总司令，攻击安南王国。安南是热带地方，森林连旦，密不见天日，又有地区性的瘴气恶雾，以及北方战士从没有见过的毒蛇猛兽和致使的蚊虫蚂蝗。元兵团首先发生瘟疫，又加上安南军不断伏击，以致死伤狼藉，大败而还。 三年后（一二八七），脱欢亲王对安南王国作第二次攻击，这一次攻陷安南首都螺城（越南河内）。但安南军切断元兵团的粮道，节节反攻。元兵团只好放弃螺城，且战且退，沿途毒蛇毒箭，雨一般落下，战士将领，死亡殆尽，脱欢亲王只剩下一条性命逃归。不过安南国王陈日(火亘)是一个有远见的政治家，他知道绝不能长期触怒这个庞大的邻邦，仍然派遣使节到大都（北京），献出用黄金铸成的自己的跪像，代替自己谢罪。占城王国也明智地请求和解，它也不愿作为北方巨怪的长期敌人。 蒙古帝国最后一次扩张，是远征爪哇王国（印尼爪哇岛）。爪哇王国不过一个小岛，比日本还要小而且还要远。但蒙古使节也到了那里招降；爪哇国王在他脸上刺字后赶走，以表示对蒙古的轻蔑。一二九二年，元兵团二万人，战舰五百艘，在蒙古大将亦黑迷失、汉人大将史粥率领下，从泉州（福建泉州）出发，越洋攻击，次年登陆爪哇岛。恰巧遇上爪哇国王被他的邻邦葛郎国王所杀。爪哇国王的女婿土罕必(门者)耶是一个有谋略的领袖人物，他投降元兵团，引导大军击灭葛郎王国。然后，他再对元兵团发动奇袭，元兵团大败，勉强撤回泉州，此役共三千余人葬身在那个荒岛。 征爪哇失败之后，蒙古帝国那种像着了魔似的扩张狂，终于停止。热带土地是他们所不了解的，变化莫测的海洋他们也无法克服。从一二○六年铁木真建立帝国，就一天都不停地对外侵略，到一二九三年爪哇兵败，为时八十八年。蒙古人的扩张力量竟持续如此之久，使人叹为观止，没有一个国家和民族能够如此。 九中国的都市 蒙古帝国对外不断战争，并没有严重地影响社会经济自然成长。又因整个欧亚地区处于大汗一人统治之下，交通和贸易，都有重大的发展。都市蓬勃，更超过八世纪唐王朝时代。海运空前的兴盛，杭州、广州、泉州、温州（浙江温州）、庆元（浙江宁波），都设有贸易船舶管理处（市舶司），管理中外船舶货运和产品销售。各子国之间的贸易，则依靠车马。自东方的山东半岛，到西方的乌克兰平原，都有广阔和四通八达的公路驿站，以及旅馆。又有公路巡逻队（巡防弓手），以保护商旅安全。在这种情形下，都市的繁荣，每日都在增加。我们可借本世纪（十三）在欧洲出版的一本书，对本世纪（十三）的中国都市，作一鸟瞰。 这本书的作者是欧洲威尼斯王国的商人马可波罗，他于本世纪（十三）一二七五年，随他父亲来到中国，十七年后的九十年代一二九二年，离中国西返，而于一二九五年回到故乡。回乡后第三年（一二九八），威尼斯王国跟热那亚王国开战（这两个王国的首都，现在同是意大利共和国的城市），马可波罗担任一艘战舰的舰长，战败被俘，囚禁在热那亚监狱。就在监狱中，他口述他在中国的见闻给他的同牢朋友，由朋友把它写下来，即我们将行引用，闻名世界的《马可波罗游记》。 马可波罗如果不是这本书，他已与草木同朽。这本游记跟柳永的“三秋桂子，十里荷花”的词句一样，以后“白祸”的兴趣，欧洲探险家相信向西方一直航行，一定可以到达遍地黄金的大汗的国土，受这本书的诱惑很大。我们摘录一段他对杭州的描写，以了解当时中国商业都市的规模。杭州是宋帝国政府南迁后的首都，两个世纪以来，一直保持一百万以上的人口（即令在二十世纪初叶，这也是一个惊人的庞大数目）。马可波罗的生动报道，使我们回到十三世纪，置身于那些熙熙攘攘的人群之中。 杭州的街道和运河，都相当广阔，船舶和马车载着生活日用品，不停地来往街道上和运河上。估计杭州所有的桥，有一万二千座之多。连接运河两岸主要街道所架的桥，都有高级的建筑技术，使桥身高拱，以便竖有很高桅杆的船只可以从下面顺利通过。高拱的桥身并不妨碍马车通行，因为桥面在很远的地方，就开始垫高。它的坡度逐渐上升，一直升到拱桥的顶点。 杭州城内有十个巨大的广场和市场，街道两旁的商店，不计其数。每一个广场的长度都在一公里左右，广场对面则是主要街道，宽四十步，从城的这一端直通到城的那一端。运河跟一条主要街道平行，河岸上有庞大的用巨石建筑的货栈，存放着从印度或其他地方来的商人们所带的货物。这些外国商人，可以很方便地到就近的市场上交易。一星期中有三天是交易日子，每一个市场在这三天交易的日子里，总有四万人到五万人参加。 杭州街道全铺着石板或方砖，主要道路的两侧，各有十步宽的距离，用石板或方砖铺成，但中间却铺着小鹅卵石。阴沟纵横，使雨水得以流入运河。街道上始终非常清洁干燥，在这些小鹅卵石的道路上，车如流水马如龙一样地，不停奔驰。马车是长方形的，上面有篷盖，更有丝织的窗帘和丝织的坐垫，可以容纳六个人。 从二十六公里外的内海所捕获的鱼虾，每天被送到杭州。当你看到那庞大的鱼虾数量，你会想到怎么能卖完。可是，不到几小时光景，就被抢购一空，因为杭州的居民实在太多。 通往市场的街道都很繁华，有些市场还设有相当多的冷水浴室，有男女侍者分别担任招待。杭州人不管是男是女，终年都用冷水沐浴。他们从小就养成了这个习惯，认为冷水对身体有益。当然，也有热水浴室，不过专供外国人使用，因为外国人不能忍受那冰一样的冷水。杭州市民每天都要沐浴，沐浴的时间，大都在晚饭之前。 另外还有艺妓区，艺妓之多，使我吃惊。她们衣服华丽，粉香扑鼻。艺妓馆设备豪华，并有许多女仆侍候她们。另外一个区域，则住着医生和卜卦算命的星象家。 杭州主要街道的两旁，矗立着高楼大厦。男人跟女人一样，皮肤很细，外貌很潇洒。不过女人尤其漂亮，眉目清秀，弱不胜衣。她们的服装都很讲究，除了衣服是绸缎做的外，还佩带着珠宝，这些珠宝价值连城。 我们要注意两点，一是欧洲人一直到本世纪（十三），还不知道沐浴（至少也不普遍），所以马可波罗对中国人天天沐浴，特别强调。二是绸缎，这是欧洲人非常羡慕的贵重奢侈品，而中国人竟很多人使用，所以使马可波罗惊奇不止。 十元曲 蒙古帝国对中国传统知识分子的摒弃，固然使知识分子难堪，却也有一个很大的收获，即知识分子可以不必再继续板着道学面孔。儒家学派一旦失去政权的支持，对知识分子也就立即失去控制力量。知识分子再没有柳永“奉旨填词”的顾虑和史达祖脸上刺字的危险。因之在性灵上获得释放，呈现元曲时代。 元曲是戏剧文学部分，也是“词”的一种蜕变进步。中国戏剧一直是民间的艺术，知识分子被蒙古驱出统治阶层之后，才向这方面发展，开始写作片段的唱词或整出的剧本，统称为“曲”，因为它在蒙古帝国子国之一的元帝国时期的成就最为辉煌灿烂，所以称为“元曲”。 曲分为两种：一种称“散曲”，即没有对白的纯唱词，也就是现代所谓的流行歌曲；