Chapter 28 Chapter 21 The Eighth Century
At the beginning of this century, the Southern Zhou Dynasty of Wu (upper Ming and lower Kong) came to an end, and the Tang Dynasty was restored.But the court fell into chaos again, and bloody tragedies occurred in which the emperor and empress were killed.After several changes, the throne was won by Li Longji, one of the princes, and the situation stabilized.
However, Li Longji has been in power for too long, almost accounting for half of this century.In his youth he brought society to a high degree of prosperity, but his ingenuity faded as he grew older.After the 1950s, China's second golden age ended in his hands.
After 130 years of being super powerful, China has gone downhill again.
A series of palace coups
Wu (Shangming Xiakong)'s Southern Zhou Dynasty was inherently doomed to be unable to pass the bottleneck, that is, Wu (Shangming Xiakong) was incapable of solving the problem of her heir.If the throne was passed on to the son, the throne would have been taken from the son, but if it was returned to the original owner, the Southern Zhou Dynasty would definitely be wiped out.If it is passed on to the nephew, of course the Southern Zhou Dynasty can be preserved, but emotionally, the son is always blood relatives, and Wu (Shang Ming Xia Kong) is just an ambitious man. She is satisfied when she becomes the emperor. She has no high-level political ideals. To establish a hereditary empire with Wu surnames.There is also a reason that she also expects to provoke a strong reaction when passing it on to her nephew.The complicated reasons for the differences make Wu (Shang Ming Xia Kong) unable to make up her mind, she knows that people are waiting for her death in order to return to normal.Her only solution is to order the disciples surnamed Li and disciples surnamed Wu to go to the temple to make an oath not to kill each other.She also knew that this method was nothing more than nonsense, but she was exhausted.Just when she was in extreme difficulty, a coup took place.
In 705, Prime Minister Zhang Jianzhi welcomed Li Xian back, and sent troops to drive Wu (upper Ming and lower Kong) back to Shangyang Palace where the empress dowager should live.Wu (Shangming Xiakong) was eighty-two years old and couldn't bear the last blow in his life. After returning to Shangyang Palace in embarrassment, he died.The Southern Zhou Dynasty naturally followed. It appeared in history for only 16 years, and its greatest contribution to human culture is the "Luo Zhi Jing".
After the Tang Dynasty was interrupted for 14 years, it was restored here.However, Li Xian was just as stupid as his father Li Zhi. Not long after the restoration, his wife Empress Wei followed the story of her mother-in-law Wu (upper Ming and lower Kong) in previous years, and appeared at the same time as Li Xian in the Golden Palace to listen to politics.In addition, he had an affair with Wu Sansi, one of Wu's nephews, and put the Wu family under the protection of the new government. A group of loyal ministers such as Zhang Jianzhi, who helped Li Xian restore the country, were instead arrested. The magic weapon of "framing for treason" was sacrificed, but it fell into the hands of cruel officials, and all of them were executed.The ZTE atmosphere that most people expected has completely failed.In addition to the Qi family surnamed Wu (which was the royal family not long ago), the people in power also had the Qi family surnamed Wei.Especially Li Xian's favorite youngest daughter, Princess Anle. She and her mother, Empress Wei, publicly solicited power and accepted bribes. In the name of the emperor, the woman notified the Zhongshu Province to issue a personnel order. This kind of official was called a "slanted official" at the time-the emperor's decree issued by the Zhongshu Province was sealed obliquely, saying that there was no need to submit it to the lower province for review.Princess Anle often wrote the imperial edict, covering the content with her hand, and asked her father to sign it.Li Xian loved his daughter so much that he didn't even see what was written, so he just signed it.However, things can't end here. Empress Wei hopes that her husband will die soon so that she can follow in the footsteps of her mother-in-law Wu (upper Ming and lower Kong) and become an empress.Princess Anle asked her father to make her the crown princess. Li Xian knew that the ministers would not accept this decision, so he refused to agree.So the daughter also hopes that her father will die soon, and that when her mother becomes the empress, she can become the legal heir.
The desire for power dehumanized the mother and daughter. In 710, they put poison into Li Xian’s pie. This honest, good husband and father died at the hands of his beloved wife and daughter. He served as emperor for a total of six years .After his death, Empress Wei had no biological son, so Li Chongmao, a 16-year-old son born to Li Xian and concubine Ji, was appointed as the successor, and she presided over the state affairs as empress dowager.They take politics too simply. It took Wu (upper Ming and lower Kong) more than 20 years to arrange her power, but she still didn't dare to contemplate murder. Empress Wei, after only six short years, did not fully commit suicide. Cut off your energy before you get the situation under control.The great storm situation faced by the Empress Dowager Hu of the Northern Wei Empire in the sixth century reappeared.The mother and daughter were only happy for nineteen days. Li Xian's nephew, Prince Li Longji, led the imperial guards and rushed into the palace. Empress Wei was killed. The 27-year-old beautiful young woman, Princess Anle, was dressing up in front of the mirror. , the human head and the mirror fell to the ground at the same time.
Li Longji's father, Li Dan, was Li Xian's younger brother. At the end of the seventh century, he served seven years as the puppet emperor under his mother Wu (Shangmingxiakong).When Li Longji launched the coup, he didn't know.By the time it was known, the coup had succeeded.So Li Chongmao was expelled from the throne and Li Dan succeeded him.Two years later (July 12), Li Dan passed the throne to Li Longji.
Li Dan is an indifferent person who doesn't care much about power and status.But his younger sister, Princess Taiping, the only daughter of Wu (Shangming Xiakong), has completely inherited the strong character of her old mother and is full of political ambitions.When Li Dan was in power, she controlled the government through her elder brother. At that time, there were seven prime ministers, five of whom were followers of Princess Taiping.After Li Longji came to power, she found that this young nephew was not pleasing to the eye, and planned to have another nephew.Li Longji was aware of this conspiracy. In 1713, he acted preemptively. Martial law was imposed in the capital Chang'an, and a large-scale arrest and purge was launched. The aunt had to commit suicide.
A series of palace coups lasted for nine years before the situation was settled.
two oceans sea traffic
China's second golden age continues in the shadow of torture and a string of palace coups.
We must understand that torture by torture officials is not an accident, but a regularity.The phenomenon Lu Wenshu pointed out in the first century BC has always existed and has not improved.The means of Lai Junchen and his like cannot jump out of this traditional category.Under the political system of the Confucian school, "courtesy should not be punished by ordinary people, and punishment should not be punished by high officials." Penalties are only designed for ordinary people and cannot be used against scholar-bureaucrats.So no matter how Lu Wenshu appealed for the common people, the scholar-officials did not pay attention, because they were confident that they were not in danger of being tortured by government officials.Wu (shangmingxiakong) used it to deal with scholar-bureaucrats extensively at once, and the scholar-bureaucrats were shocked and wailed, and rushed to tell everyone.Therefore, torture by cruel officials has a greater impact on scholar-bureaucrats, but less impact on civilians, and the social structure remains the same.As for the palace coup, it was limited to the palace.The common people have neither the strength nor the interest to intervene in who is the emperor, and the development and operation of the society remain the same.So the golden age was not interrupted, and it flourished even more after Li Longji established a stable government.
The first is the maritime traffic between the two oceans, entering a new era.
In the Western Ocean, it refers to Southeast Asia and the coast of the Indian Ocean.It first started in 166, the second century. An envoy of the Roman Empire went to Nichinan (Donghe, Vietnam) and claimed that he was sent by the Roman Emperor Anton (Antony) to send gifts such as ivory and rhino horns to the Chinese Emperor. .This may be a businessman's gimmick to carry out trade, but he is the first recorded Westerner who traveled to China by sea.The second is that in 226, the third century, the merchant Qin Lun of the Roman Empire took a boat to Jiaozhi County (Hanoi, Vietnam), and the county chief (prefect) of Jiaozhi County sent him to Jianye (Nanjing, Jiangsu Province) ), had an audience with Sun Quan, king of Soochow at that time.There is no record of when the Chinese traveled to the West by sea.But there are no records, and it’s not that there are no deeds. In the vast sea, some people have ventured to find a route.However, the regular voyage was delayed until the eighth of this century before it officially opened.The largest ports along China's coast, such as Jiaozhou (Hanoi, Vietnam), Guangzhou (Guangzhou, Guangdong), Quanzhou (Quanzhou, Fujian), and Mingzhou (Ningbo, Zhejiang), are all products of large-scale navigation with the West.Among the ports, Guangzhou is the distribution center.Merchant ships going to the West (Southeast Asia, India) first gathered in Guangzhou from other small ports in China for the last replenishment of drinking water and food, and then set off. Merchant ships from the West to China also first arrived in Guangzhou, and then went north to other ports.
Ocean-going ships and offshore ships have different structures, and the crews need special skills.At that time, the merchant fleet of the Arab Empire relied on the two to master maritime commercial hegemony.The port of Guangzhou is crowded with Arab ships, and Chinese merchant ships can only take second place.In addition, there are South China Sea merchant ships (Malayan Peninsula countries), Persian merchant ships (Arab Empire territories), Kunlun merchant ships (African east coast countries), Shizi Kingdom merchant ships (Ceylon Island), Brahman merchant ships (Indian subcontinent countries) .In order to deal with the berthing and supply of these merchant ships, as well as commodity trade and personnel management, the Chinese government set up an agency in Guangzhou, named "Shi Ship Division", and the head was called "Shi Ship Division Envoy". —Jiedushi) concurrently.
At the time of regular shipping, there were the following six lines:
One Guangzhou - Persia (Iran)
Two Guangzhou - Mesopotamia (Iraq)
Three Guangzhou - Aden (Arab Empire mainland)
Four Guangzhou - Shizi Country
Five Guangzhou - South China Sea (Malayan Peninsula)
Sixth Guangzhou——(Gate) Po (Java)
The maritime communication between China and the East Asia refers to the Korean Peninsula, Japan, and Ryukyu.
1. The route to the Korean peninsula is the earliest and the shortest sea route from China.It was developed before there were written records.China and the countries on the Korean Peninsula are only separated by the Yellow Sea. Departing from any port on the Liaodong Peninsula or Shandong Peninsula in China, you can reach North Korea without any difficulty. In fact, it is not much different from sailing in the inland sea.
2. The traffic between China and Japan on the Japanese route lags far behind the Korean Peninsula.In the eighties of the 3rd century BC, in 219 BC, Emperor Yingzheng sent his envoy Xu Fu to lead 3,000 boys and girls to Japan (Penglai) to seek the elixir.One of the consequences of the fact that the first large expedition to Japan did not return was that the Sino-Japanese route could not be established immediately.In 1957, the Wa Kingdom, one of the countries on the Japanese archipelago, sent envoys to pay tribute to China. The Chinese Emperor Liu Xiu specially made its head the king and awarded him a "Han Wa Slave Lord". jade seal.Since then, businessmen have come and gone more and more.In the eighth century of this century, there were already two waterways: one departed from Chengshanjiao (Shandong Rongcheng) on the Shandong Peninsula, along the southern tip of the Korean Peninsula, and arrived at Hizen in the northern part of Kyushu Island, Japan.One departs from Mingzhou (Ningbo, Zhejiang) and arrives at Nagasaki in the south of Kyushu Island, Japan.
3. Ryukyu Waterway Ryukyu (Ryukyu Islands) is a kingdom older than Japan, originally named "Yixie Jiuguo".In the third century, China called it "Yizhou" from afar, while Japan called it "Benzhou".In 230, Sun Quan, Emperor of the Eastern Wu Empire during the Three Kingdoms period in China, sent General Wei Wen to conquer Zhizhou (Japan) across the sea.After Wei Wen arrived in Yizhou (Ryukyu), he dared not enter again, he plundered thousands of Ryukyu and begged for help, and returned.From Mingzhou (Ningbo, Zhejiang) to Japan, if the wind is flowing, it will take three days and three nights.From Fuzhou (Fuzhou, Fujian) to Liuqiu, if the wind is flowing, it can be reached in five days and five nights, sometimes in three days and three nights.But from these two ports, it takes at least a month to walk to the capital Chang'an by land.
——One thing to note is that Taiwan Island is about forty times larger than Ryukyu, and it is closer to the mainland. However, China did not excavate it until the fourteenth century. It is only known that there is such a piece of land on which there are living creatures. That's all. ②On the way to Ryukyu, sometimes you can see the peaks of Taiwan, so Taiwan is called "Little Liuqiu" and sometimes "Vishaya Kingdom", but a route has never been found.The reason we thought of is: the Taiwan Strait only has north-south currents, but no east-west currents.There are only north-south monsoons, not east-west monsoons.In the age of sailing, it was difficult to sail across.Even if the ship is damaged and out of control, it will only drift north to Ryukyu and south to Vietnam, not easily to Taiwan.
① The country of the Japanese slaves is called the country of the Japanese. "Book of the Later Han Dynasty" Dongjiao Biography as the Wa Kingdom, "Old Tang Book" and Dongyi Biography as the Wo Nu Country.
②During the Three Kingdoms period, Wei Wen, a general of the Eastern Wu Dynasty, had been to Taiwan.
The Rise of Three Industrial and Commercial Cities
In the past two hundred years, there have been three superpowers on the earth: the Eastern Roman Empire located in Southern Europe; the Arab Empire located in Southwest Asia; and the Chinese Empire located in East Asia.Due to the geographical distance between China and Rome, it is not easy to contact, but with the Arab Empire and the countries east of Arabia, there are frequent land and sea traffic.Commercial prosperity will inevitably lead to the rise of emerging cities. In addition to Jiaozhou, Guangzhou, Fuzhou, and Mingzhou on the coast, there are also Hongzhou (Nanchang, Jiangxi) and Yangzhou (Yangzhou, Jiangsu) in the inland.In the west, there are Shazhou (Dunhuang, Gansu), Liangzhou (Wuwei, Gansu), and Yizhou (Chengdu, Sichuan).A city within a city is naturally the capital, Chang'an, and the accompanying capital, Luoyang.
Taking Guangzhou as an example, we can understand the shape of the city at that time.In Guangzhou, there are only Western expatriates (mostly Arabs), estimated to be more than 200,000 in total. They live together and form a single community with criss-cross streets and completely Arab-style buildings.It has its own administrative management and uses its own laws. Only when there is a dispute with the Chinese, the Chinese government uses Chinese laws to adjudicate.This seems to be consular jurisdiction under an unequal treaty, but the difference is that this privilege is granted by the Chinese government on its own initiative.After Westerners arrived in Guangzhou, they often continued to go further inland in order to make more profits.So it is divided into two roads, one goes north by land and passes through Dayuling to Hongzhou.The other is by sea to other coastal ports, or from the Yangtze River to Yangzhou.Yangzhou is the place where Yang Guang was hanged. It is estimated that there are at least tens of thousands of Western expatriates. Merchant ships, hotels, residences, and prostitutes who are famous for their beauty make Yangzhou an envied paradise and the subject of praise by poets.Zhang Youshi: "Beside the well in the ten-mile-long market, look at the gods on the Yueming Bridge. Life is only for Yangzhou to die, and Zen Zhishan is good for the tomb." In the wine shop, the Chu waist is slender and the palm is light. Once in ten years, the dream of Yangzhou has won the reputation of the brothel." Xu Ning's poem: "Three parts of the world are moonlit nights, and two parts are rogues. Yangzhou." It shows that Yangzhou is a commercial port.
But the most prosperous city in China is not in the southeast, but in the northwest.In the era of the great division, the Hexi Corridor was trampled by soldiers and horses, and it was desolate.Since the end of the last century (sixth), after the unification of the whole country, due to the recovery of communication with the Western Regions (Xinjiang and eastern Central Asia) and countries further west, water conservancy construction has followed suit, and it has become a vast golden corridor, where rice, wheat and crops, There are thousands of miles of greenery and enough people for each household, so that the proverb says: "Ancient Liangzhou is the best in the world." Commercial cities from Dunhuang to Chang'an are arranged in a series, like a dazzling jewel belt.Especially in Dunhuang, it is also a cultural exchange center between China and the West. Buddhist scriptures are written in various languages, such as Chinese, Tibetan, Sanskrit, Khotanese, Kucha, Sogdian, and Turkic. And literary works are popular in the market and are supplied to business travelers from various countries to buy.
Chengdu in the southwest region is also a place where wealth is concentrated. At that time, there was a proverb: "Yangzhou is the first, and Yizhou is the second."Yizhou (Chengdu, Sichuan) was purely for inland trade, facing the emerging Nanzhao Kingdom in the south, merchants could pass through Nanzhao and reach India, but the road was difficult and dangerous, and could not constitute a trade artery.Therefore, the prosperity of Chengdu obviously does not depend on foreign trade. Yizhou is surrounded by a large and rich basin, and its own conditions are sufficient for its development.
The capital, Chang'an, concentrates the essence of the whole country.In addition to being the national political and cultural center, it is also the national commercial center.Like the capital of any country, most of the citizens of Chang'an are consumers and the population is dense.There are more than 40 foreign nationals from the East and the West, including blacks (Kunlun slaves) from Africa.Many of them lived permanently in Chang'an, opened shops and restaurants, and used Western women as entertainers (orchids) to compete with Chinese male bartenders.They often intermarry with Chinese people, and even their surnames are Chinese.Most of them speak Chinese and have high literary attainments. Some of them also take the imperial examination and become official officials of the Chinese government.For example, Li Yansheng, who was a Jinshi and first degree, is an Arab.
China was worshiped by all countries at that time far more than the other two superpowers, because the Eastern Roman Empire and the Arab Empire were exclusive of religions, and only China was tolerant of all kinds of religions.Islam first came to China with the footprints of the Arabs. In addition, Nestorianism (a branch of Christianity), Jackoism (Persian Zoroastrianism), and Manichaeism (Persian Yin-Yang religion) were introduced to China successively. Churches and temples are everywhere. , especially in Chang'an.China's highly developed culture makes most people from various countries who come to China proud to be Chinese.After they came to China—most of the Westerners were doing business, and most of the Easterners were studying—they didn't want to go back and did everything possible to stay.The envoys sent by various countries to China often refused to return to their home countries, and settled in Chang'an. Some envoys had been in China for forty years, married wives, had children, started families, and established businesses. Everything from language to writing was Chinese. Legally still a foreign envoy.In the 1980s and 1980s, there were more than 4,000 such envoys who only came and never went.When they came, China was rich, and the tribute envoys from various countries entered the country. The Chinese government was responsible for their food and lodging. There were more than 4,000 envoys (and the number will continue to increase) and they entertained them for more than 40 years, making the second golden age After the end of the Chinese government bear the burden.In 782, Prime Minister Li Bi ordered them to choose, or keep their nationality, then they have to return to China as soon as possible; or give up their identity and become Chinese nationals.As a result, all of them were naturalized as Chinese nationals.
Social Structure of the Four Tang Dynasties
The social structure of China has remained unchanged for hundreds of years.Even with the religious and commercial impacts from the Eastern and Western Oceans, it is not particularly different from before.However, some parts are obscure, and some parts stand out.We make its longitudinal section into the table on the next page:
The nobility, known as the gentry in the term at the time, were the ruling class of the country.The composition of the ruling class consists of three parts:
The first part is the most honorable nobles, that is, the royal family, Qi family, Fengsan, and Fenghou.The royal family and the Qi family are the natural ruling class, while the kings and marquises rely on their titles to participate in the political power.
The second part is the noble family, that is, the scholar-bureaucrats of the family.During the Southern and Northern Dynasties, the grandiose situation of controlling the government and hereditary official positions still had strong remnants in the Tang Dynasty.Those "county surnames" promulgated by the Northern Wei Empire have still become a special class, ranking above the common people, and continuing to be an official as their only occupation.In this family aristocratic group, the five surnames Cui, Lu, Li, Zheng, and Wang also continued to maintain their distinguished status in the fifth century, and they are called "five surnames" in the world.Their status, in the minds of ordinary people, sometimes even exceeds that of the royal family.An example can be used to illustrate. In the ninth century of the next century, when Zheng Hao, a middle-level official, was discussing marriage with Lu, the emperor listened to the recommendation of the prime minister Bai Minzhong and ordered him to marry Princess Wanshou.This is the honor that ordinary people can't dream of, but Zheng Hao hated Bai Minzhong to the bone because of breaking off the marriage of the Lu surname, so that Bai Minzhong almost died at his hands in the future.Of course, the five surnames tried their best to use their own social status, so their daughters became a tool for fraudulent money.To choose a son-in-law, in addition to the same family background, he also needs to ask for a huge dowry, sometimes as high as one million yuan-that is, one thousand coins (guan).When the Tang Dynasty was founded, the prime minister’s annual salary was only 360 yuan. When converted, a daughter’s dowry was equal to a prime minister’s three-year salary. to be astonishing.
The third part is the bureaucratic aristocrats, that is, the humble scholar-bureaucrats.Point out the humble serving officials.The so-called "poor family" refers to the common people in the common class. They usually pass the imperial examinations, such as Jinshi Jidi, Mingjing Jidi, enter the government, and hold official positions.Once he holds an official position, he is eligible to get rid of his class and squeeze into the ruler's gentry.At first they could not avoid being despised and rejected by the nobles because of their low birth, but through power and intermarriage—such as marrying daughters of five surnames, they had the opportunity to enter the noble class of the family.
Civilian, consists of two parts:
The first part is the common people, that is, free people.The most honorable class among the free people is Lizuo, which is a special status between nobles and commoners, but essentially commoners.In comparison with the ranks of the modern army, officials can be called non-commissioned officers, they are higher than soldiers, but they can never be promoted to officers.They can only engage in work such as copying documents and managing archives.When officials commit corruption and violence, because most of the officials are locals and have a better understanding of the local situation, they often become the biggest direct disaster to the people.If they want to be promoted to the position of officials—the gentry, there is only one way, and that is to take the imperial examination.Just below the officials are peasants, a class that accounts for more than 90% of the Chinese population, but has the least relationship with the government, and is in an exploited position in the East-West trade.Only businessmen are the favored sons of heaven. They have better enjoyment than farmers, and once combined with officials, they also have political influence.
The second part is the untouchables, that is, slaves, without personal freedom.Miscellaneous households are serfs directly under the government, under the jurisdiction of the local government, and are assigned to join the army during wartime.Sound people, with the same status as miscellaneous households, are under the jurisdiction of Taichang Temple and have worked as musicians for generations.The official household is the criminal's home, under the jurisdiction of the Secretary; the agricultural temple, the men are serfs, and the women are mostly sent to the laundry bureau.Gonghu, under the jurisdiction of Shaofu Temple, has been a craftsman for generations.Music households, including prostitutes, theater actors and other entertainment practitioners, are under the jurisdiction of Taichang Temple.The trilogy is serfs privately owned by nobles, and the descendants of serfs will always be serfs.Hakka, the daughter of the Buqu family, is a slave girl belonging to the nobles.Prostitutes, prostitutes in Chang'an, the capital, were originally under the jurisdiction of Taichang Temple, and later set up a special teaching workshop.Slaves are the most inferior, most humble, and most groaning slaves, whose body and life are all in the hands of their masters.The status of a slave is equal to that of an animal, but the status of a slave is lower than that of an auspicious animal.
The untouchable class is the product of law and poverty, and the family members of criminals become untouchables when they are exiled into the government by the express order of the government.However, because most of the untouchables were poor, when the peasants could not survive, they often sold their children into slavery and prostitution, or voluntarily abandoned their freedom, and went to the literati who were also big landlords to act as a part
The ranks of nobles and commoners are strict, and there is only a seemingly narrow path of "imperial examination", which serves as a ladder for ordinary people to climb up to the status of nobility, while untouchables do not even have this narrow path.In order to safeguard their own vested interests, the aristocrats have unequal regulations on the repression and isolation of civilians in terms of political laws and customs.Taking marriage as an example, intermarriage between nobles and commoners is absolutely prohibited, especially with untouchables.We can cite a famous unjust prison as an illustration.Wu Xiang, the magistrate of Jiangdu (Yangzhou, Jiangsu), was imprisoned for embezzling state money and food, but this alone does not constitute a death sentence.But soon it was found out that his wife was actually the daughter of Yan Yue, who was from Buqu. This kind of crime of violating Y etiquette was unforgivable, so she beheaded her. After her death, the later judge found that Yan Yue was not only not from Buqu, but Once an official in Qingzhou (Qingzhou, Shandong Province), he belonged to the bureaucratic aristocratic class. The parents of Yan Yue’s wife were also scholar-bureaucrats. The original judgment was wrong. The emperor specially issued an edict for this, exorcising the death of Wu Xiang and punishing the original judge.
Five Literature Development
Chinese literature has always been advancing in the aspect of phonological works, from "Chu Ci" to "Han Fu", passed down in one vein.In the 4th and 5th centuries, Han Fu changed and became a colorful parallel prose.Until this century (eighth), another change occurred, with the rise of prose and short stories, and the rise of vernacular Chinese.
Parallel prose is a kind of pure aristocratic writing appreciation. The repeated "four and six" sentences are like beggars singing the lotus flower, which makes people have a glib feeling.Although some writers enjoyed it, they were abandoned shortly after it started.The master of anti-parallel prose is Han Yu, a master of ancient prose who is respected by later generations as "the decline of the eight generations of prose".Eight Dynasties refer to eight dynasties: Eastern Han, Cao Wei, Jin, Southern Song, Southern Qi, Southern Liang, Chen, and Sui.This is the era when parallel style prose prevailed in the third, fourth, fifth, and sixth centuries, and it is also the bleakest era of Chinese literature.Han Yu advocated restoring the style of ancient prose before the parallel prose—before the third century.This kind of ancient text.That is what we call prose.
The emergence of prose has done a great harm to parallel prose, and parallel prose has gradually shrunk to a small circle of scholar-bureaucrats, exclusively for imperial edicts or ministers' memorials.Most literati gradually adopted prose, and it was very successful.For example, Han Yu's short essay "Sacrifice to the Twelve Langs" expresses his grief over the loss of his nephew in a straightforward structure.Liu Zongyuan's "Eight Records of Yongzhou" uses the same brushwork to express his impression of the scenery, which is a work that cannot be expressed in parallel prose.
In addition to prose, it also produced short stories that had never been seen before.This breakthrough is related to the lack of seriousness in the examination system. The examinations in the Tang Dynasty were not as prudent as those of later generations. Government dignitaries, such as princesses and princes, often designated candidates and even rankings in advance.The fierce competition of candidates is not in the examination room, but in the gate of the powerful outside the examination room. They do not hesitate to use various methods to win the favor of the powerful.One of the methods is to send the articles you write to the dignitaries first.
Articles are different from literature.Articles are short essays that express thoughts, similar to the "composition" in the classroom of modern middle school students. The number of words ranges from a few hundred to one or two thousand words. They are piled up with scriptures and allusions, and carry forward the benevolence, righteousness and morality of the Confucian school.Such as imperial edicts, government proclamations, ministers' memorials, book prefaces, tomb inscriptions, examination remarks, and some arguments written by writers are all included.Therefore, no matter whether an article is written in parallel style or in prose, it is boring and boring, and no one wants to read it unless it is absolutely necessary.However, the articles of scholars who take the exam are concentrated in the gates of the powerful, piled up like a mountain, and the powerful people will not have the appetite to read them.In order to attract the attention of the dignitaries, scholars, when submitting their articles, attach one or more interesting stories, which are what we call short stories, hoping to catch the readers from the first sentence—— The rich and powerful people make him have to read it, and this is exactly the characteristic of the short story.
Literary works produced under this background were initially dominated by gods and monsters.For example, "The Legend of the White Ape" tells the story of a woman who lived with a white ape and gave birth to a son who became a general in the Tang government when he grew up.However, a large number of productions have made it more and more widely used. For example, it tells the story of a down-and-out boy who met an old man who lent him a pillow. In his dream, he married the daughter of the Cui family (one of the five surnames) and became a Jinshi And the first, smooth sailing, the official to the prime minister, and then died of old age.Dameng woke up with his death, and found that the old man who lent him a pillow was warming the wine beside him, and it was not warm yet.It can be seen that Taoism has influenced the outlook on life of intellectuals.Another example is "Huo Xiaoyu's Biography", which raises social issues. The two articles are similar in content and describe the love stories of men and women. In the end, the heroines are all abandoned by the male protagonists.The reason for the abandonment was that the Tang Dynasty had a strict hierarchy, and poor scholar-bureaucrats were unwilling to marry commoners, so as not to ruin the chance of marrying aristocratic scholar-bureaucrats.
Both prose and short stories are written in classical Chinese, so they are only aristocratic literature and have nothing to do with the common people who account for more than 99% of the whole people.Civilian literature has always been blank, but the time has come. A kind of prose novel written in vernacular for the common people began to appear around the fifth century.Once it appears, it spreads rapidly.This kind of vernacular works were not called vernacular at that time but were called "Bianwen", which probably means changing from difficult to easy, from classical to colloquial.The target of vernacular is not the aristocrats, and the nobles also look down on vernacular, the target of vernacular is the broad masses of the people.
The vernacular language originated from the spread of Buddhism. Although a large number of Buddhist scriptures were translated into Chinese, they used classical Chinese, which was already profound, and with the addition of many new nouns and new grammar, the translated Buddhist scriptures became a kind of cleansing. Only a few specially trained people in the scholar-bureaucrat class can understand the heavenly scriptures.Under such circumstances, if people want to accept it, they must rely on the re-translation of classical Chinese—translation into vernacular, that is, Bianwen.Then, according to the vernacular scriptures, he preached to the people orally.Each of these verses, each or each (long form) is a compelling story.For example, "Vimalakirti Bianwen" narrates that the layman Vimalakirti fell ill, and Sakyamuni sent one of his disciples, Manjusri, to visit the sick. During the visit, Vimalakirti showed great powers.For example, "Bianwen of Damu Ganlian Rescuing His Mother in the Underworld" tells the story of Mulian going to hell and going through untold hardships to save his mother from the sea of suffering.When these vernacular scriptures were preached in temples or on the streets, the audience was terrified, crying bitterly with terror and remorse, indulged in the karmic retribution that had never happened before, and unknowingly converted to Buddhism.
The vernacular came into existence due to the spread of Buddhism. At first it was limited to the re-translation of Buddhist scriptures. Later, it gradually broke away from Buddhism, and Chinese people gradually created their own creations. When pure vernacular literature was completed, the content became richer.Society, love, and war all become themes.For example, "Biography of Lie Guo" narrates the story of Wu Zixu's revenge for his father. "Biography of Concubine Ming" tells the story of Wang Zhaojun marrying Hun Shanyu.Vernacular literature is popular literature, and the number of people who love it far exceeds the number of people who love aristocratic literature. Classical Chinese literature has never escaped the small world of bureaucrats, while vernacular literature is rooted in the folk.
Six Tang Poems
The poetry department in literature has had astonishing success in this century (eight).At the peak of China's second golden age, the golden age of poetry also emerged.After the golden age of politics ended, the golden age of poetry continued, maintaining its peak for more than two hundred years.
Any literary work in the world can be translated into other languages, only poetry cannot.Even if there is a peerless ability to translate poetry from other countries, it cannot translate Chinese poetry. Chinese poetry is the only literary work in the world that cannot be translated.Because the subject of Chinese poetry is hidden, if the subject must be added when translating, the meaning will be completely lost.The Chinese square characters are one of the main components of Chinese poetry, relying on the arrangement and combination of the square characters and their vague and ambiguous meanings, that is to say, a painting-like poetic flavor is produced.Abandoning square characters and translating into other languages is like a beautiful woman abandoning her appearance.Therefore, Chinese poetry cannot be translated into foreign languages, nor can it be translated into Chinese vernacular. Poetry is the highest art of Chinese language.
In the era of the twelfth century BC, there were only three words and four words (three-character sentence or four-character sentence).It was not until the era of the great division in the fourth century after the Era that it progressed to five words.In the sixth century, when the Sui Dynasty unified China, it advanced to seven characters and completed the form of poetry.In the seventh century of the last century, Empress Wu (Shang Ming Xia Kong) listed poetry as the main subject in the imperial examinations, and poetry became a compulsory course for intellectuals, and it became more popular like spring flowers blooming.
More than half of China's greatest poets were born in the Tang Dynasty.We use three poets as representatives to illustrate the achievements of the golden age of poetry.
Cen Shen was born in Nanyang (Nanyang, Henan). His heroism made his poetry swallow mountains and rivers. During the continuous foreign wars of the empire, he praised the soldiers who defended the country in the desert.China is a country with the poorest literature on war. Cen Shen's tragic feelings opened up a new world in the field of poetry, eclipsing some poets who care about personal feelings.So we call him "Shixiong".Take his poem "Going to Mazhou to Send Doctor Feng to the West" as an example;
Don't you see that walking along the Machuan River and the snowy seaside, the flat sand is wild and yellow into the sky.In Luntai, the wind roars at night in September, and a river of broken stones is as big as a bucket, and the stones are scattered all over the ground with the wind.The grassy yellow horses of the Xiongnu are fattening, and the smoke and dust are flying in the west of Jinshan, and the generals of the Han family leave their troops in the west.The general's golden armor never took off at night, and in the middle of the night, the army marched against each other, and the limelight was like a knife.The horse hair is steamed with snow and sweat, the five flowers and even money are spun into ice, and the grass in the curtain is moved and the inkstone is condensed.The captive cavalry should be frightened when they hear this, but the short-handed soldiers dare not pick it up.
(Zoumachuan is located in the west of Cheshi’s former kingdom (Turpan City, Xinjiang). Xuehai refers to the desert. Luntai (Xinjiang Luntai), the center of China’s reclamation area in the Western Regions during the Western Han Dynasty. Jinshan, that is, Altai Mountain. Wuhua, Even the money is a famous horse. Xuan, the hair on the horse.)
Li Bai is a romantic poet with a tragic life experience. He was originally from Chengji (Qin'an, Gansu), but was born in Suiye City (Kyrgyztok Mark City) in the Western Regions. His mother may be a foreigner.He lived in Changming County, Mianzhou (Jiangyou, Sichuan) when he was young, and he is famous for his drinking.Li Bai is optimistic, and there are few realistic sentiments connected with life in his poems.He has a rich imagination, and he scorns and ridicules Confucius, the ancestor of Confucianism. Both of these are things that traditional intellectuals lack, so he regards the power and wealth that ordinary people value as clouds.He never held public office in his life, but devoted his life only to poetry.他操纵诗句像魔术师操纵手帕一样，翻腾变化，运用自如，中国人尊称他为“诗仙”。下面是他的一首《将进酒》：
Will enter the wine, you will never see Tang Li Bai If you don't see it, the water of the Yellow River will come up in the sky, and it will never return to the sea.君不见高堂明镜悲白发，朝如青丝暮成雪。To be happy in life is to be happy, don't let the golden cup be empty to the moon.天生我才必有用，千金散尽还复来。Cooking sheep and slaughtering cattle is a pleasure, and you will have to drink three hundred cups at a time.岑夫子，丹邱生。将进酒，杯莫停。A song with Junge, please listen to me.钟鼓馔玉不足贵，但愿长醉不愿醒。The ancient sages are lonely, but the drinkers leave their names.When Chen Wang was in the old days, he had a feast of feasts and feasts.主人何为言少钱，这须沽取对君酌。五花马，千金裘。Hu'er will exchange for fine wine, and sell the eternal sorrow with you.
（金樽，即酒杯。岑夫子，诗雄岑参。丹邱生，李白好友之一元丹邱。陈王，曹植，三国时代曹魏帝曹丕的弟弟，名诗人。平乐，宿教庙院平乐观。）
另一位与李白齐名，但身世更可悲的伟大诗人杜甫，巩县（河南巩县）人，但他曾祖父时代原籍襄阳（湖北襄樊）。他比李白小十一岁，在监督院（门下省）做过微不足道的低级官员（左拾遗）。中年后遇到安史兵变和更大的贫穷，致使他的爱子饿死。他的诗对于权贵人物穷凶极恶的奢侈浪费，以及平民所受的剥削迫害，有沉痛的反应，大多数诗句都为此呼号呐喊。杜甫的诗不单靠他的天才，而靠他的千锤百炼，一字一心都苦苦地追求工整，一丝不苟。所以他被尊称为“诗圣”。举他《石壕吏》一诗为例，这首诗写在第二个黄金时代结束之后，中国正陷于混战：
In Mutou Shihao Village, officials arrested people at night.The old man walked over the wall, and the old woman went out to watch.吏呼一何怒，妇啼一何苦。听妇前致词：“三男邺城戍。一男附书至，二男新战死。存者且偷生，死者长已矣。室中更无人，唯有乳下孙。有孙母未去，出入无完裙。老妪力虽衰，请从吏夜归。急应河阳役，犹得备晨炊。”夜久语声绝，如闻泣幽咽。The day is on the way to the future, and I will say goodbye to the old man alone.
（邺城，即邺郡，今河南安阳市，九节度使在此围攻安庆绪而大败。河阳，河南孟县。）
唐王朝的诗，被称“唐诗”。一直留传到二十世纪仍可查考的，诗人有二千三百余人，诗有四万八千九百余首。上自帝王将相，下到践民阶级的妓女奴婢，都有很成熟的作品，可称为中国文学史上最光辉的时代。从此之后，直到二十世纪初期，一千三百年之久，诗和知识分子不可分。凡是知识分子，差不多都是诗人，他们或多或少都有他们的诗篇或诗集，只不过很少能超过唐王朝诗人的贡献。所以对中国诗人而言，如果说他的诗像“唐诗”，他会大大欢喜。如果说他的诗像“宋诗”、“明诗”，他恐怕要嗒然若丧。
七五十年代对外挫折
现在，我们回到政治领域。
上世纪（七），唐政府在边疆曾设五个总督（都护）。本世纪（八）更在五个总督之外，增设十个战区，战区司令官称“节度使”或“都护”。十个战区名称，列于下表：
总督只负责军事，而战区司令官（节度使、都护）除了军事外，还掌握行政权和财政权，战区所辖各州，州长（刺史）以下官员，节度使都有任免之权，税收田赋也不向中央政府缴纳，留下来作为军费。目的在于集中力量，发挥高度战力。时人称之为“藩镇”，意思是国家的屏藩和重镇。当十节度使设立之初，共拥有步骑兵四十八万六千九百人，中国重兵百分之九十都在边疆。
但在如此注意边疆之际，边疆却不断遭到挫折；
首先是云南地区。纪元前二世纪时，西汉王朝曾在滇国（云南晋宁）设立益州郡。纪元后三世纪时，蜀汉帝国宰相诸葛亮曾在那里七擒蛮族的酋长孟获。但大分裂时代后期，终于脱离中国。诸部落互相并吞，到了上世纪（七），只剩下六个部落，六个酋长都称自己是王。当地语言，“王”的发音为“诏”，所以中国就称之为“六诏”。本世纪（八）三十年代，六诏中最南的一个“诏”皮罗阁，统一了其他五个“诏”，建立南诏王国，定都太和城（云南大理），向中国朝贡，请求册封。中国于七三八年册封他为云南王。
南诏王国的建国，正逢中国第二个黄金时代末期，酒肉宰相杨国忠任用大酷吏鲜于仲通当剑南战区（四川成都）司令官（节度使），鲜于仲通任用小酷吏张虔陀当云南郡（云南姚安）郡长（太守）。云南郡距太和城直线只有一百公里，是南诏王国到唐王朝的必经要道。使节入境之后，依南诏的礼节，夫妇要共同拜会地方首长，于是，张虔陀就留下使节的妻子陪宿。又一再索取南诏王国无法供应的巨额贿赂，稍不如意，就派人到太和城辱骂，又不断向中央政府诬告南诏王国种种罪状，要求惩处。南诏王国第二任国王阁罗凤忍无可忍，于七五○年，奇袭云南郡，把张虔陀杀掉。明年（七五一），鲜于仲通动员八万大军进攻，阁罗凤表示谢罪，并表示愿意退出所占领的土地。他警告说：“如果唐逼我太甚，我就投降吐蕃王国。那时整个云南地区，恐怕都非唐所有。”鲜于仲通这种昏暴人物是不会为国家着想的，他继续进兵，结果被南诏兵团诱到洱海旁，全部歼灭，士卒死亡六万余人，一万余人被俘。阁罗凤乘胜占领现在的云南省全境。他在太和城下立了一个石碑，叙述事件经过及原因。他说：“我的后裔终有一天仍会归附中国，到那时可把这个碑指给中国使节看，让中国知道，我们今天这样作，不是我们的本心。”杨国忠接着发动了一连串攻击，每次都在万山丛中被击败，前后共死二十余万人。历史上有一个现象，腐败的政府很难产生杰出的统帅。当时所派遣的将领，全是用不尊严手段达到尊严地位的饭桶，根本没有取胜的可能。只为了张虔陀和鲜于仲通两个酷吏，使唐王朝所能征调的最精锐的部队，死亡殆尽。
眼云南地区挫折的同时，在遥远的中亚荒漠草原上，唐帝国也受到同样打击。七五○年，安西战区（新疆库车）司令官高仙芝（他是朝鲜人）攻陷石国（乌孜别克塔什干布），俘虏了它的国王和王子。但王子在途中逃走，宣称高仙芝如何伪订和约，如何乘石国不备发动奇袭，以及如何屠杀老弱和劫掠财物。中亚诸国被这位能言善道的王子所激怒，他们知道自己的力量不足以和中国为敌，就向西方的阿拉伯帝国（黑衣大食）求援。阿拉伯帝国认为灭亡中国的机会已到，立即派出一个强大的兵团东征，并下令军中说，最先进入中国的将领，即被任命为驻中国总督。高仙芝得到消息，于七五一年，率三万余人的洋华混合兵团，向西迎战。在但罗斯（哈萨克江布尔市），跟阿拉伯军团二十万人相遇，血战五日，不分胜负。可是高仙芝所属的葛罗禄部落派遣军叛变，与阿拉伯内外夹攻，唐帝国洋华混合兵团崩溃。高仙芝狼狈逃回死伤二万余人。
这是一次重要的战役，阿拉怕帝国虽然胜利，但胜利的过度艰苦，从此打消征服中国的念头。而唐王朝也从此止步，无力再向西开拓领土。
八安史兵变
对外挫折，宣告国内黄金时代已到尾声。
唐王朝第九任皇帝李隆基本来是一个英明人物，但他却在位四十五年，任何英明人物掌握无限权力如此之久，都会堕落。他六十岁时，把他一个儿子的妻子，二十六岁的杨玉环召唤进宫陪他上床，封为贵妃（小老婆群第一级）。杨玉环是中国历史上美女之一，有无数的文学作品，包括诗、戏剧和现代电影、电视，都以她为主题。杨玉环以体态丰满闻名于世，性情忠厚，对政治没有兴趣，也没有任何供人指责的事迹。但她的堂兄杨国忠却恰恰相反，杨国忠的智慧和能力都不能够胜任宰相，但他的裙带关系使他能够胜任动他这个宰相仅兼职就达四十余个，除了弄权和索贿外，不知道对国家的责任是什么。一个广大的贪污网，在他手下迅速建立、而且，他不久就跟范阳战区（北京）司令官（节度使）安禄山发生冲突。
安禄山是一个粗犷而干练的将领，几次到长安进谒皇帝，政府的腐败和宰相以下官员们的颟顸无能，给他留下深刻印象。杨国忠向他索取巨贿，他一口拒绝，而且对杨国忠也不维持应有的礼貌。杨国忠不能忍受这种轻蔑，遂决心打击他。于是，诬以谋反的法宝出笼，向李隆基一再告密，李隆基一再不相信。但在那种形势之下，没有人敢保证李隆基下一次仍不相信。五十年代七五五年，杨国忠采取“逼他反”的手段，派遣警备部队包围安禄山在长安的住宅，逮捕他的宾客，全部处死，他希望安禄山有激烈地反应。安禄山果然震恐而且愤怒，他知道向皇帝申诉没有用，所有的奏章都不能越过宰相这一关，他唯一的一条路就是叛变，他决定叛变。率领洋华混合兵团十七万人南下，宣称讨伐杨国忠。杨国忠得到消息，大为兴奋，因为事情终于证明他料事如神，可以顺理成章地把安禄山缉拿归案。不过安禄山的洋华混合兵团却一路势如破竹，深入六百公里，渡过黄河，攻陷洛阳。明年（七五六），再向西进击，攻陷潼关。李隆基从长安仓促逃出，逃到了距长安只六十公里的马嵬坡（陕西兴平西），愤怒的禁卫军包围行宫，把杨国忠杀掉，屠灭他的全家，包括他的儿女和杨玉环两位拥有极大权力的美丽姐妹。为了防备复仇，禁卫军要求李隆基处置杨玉环，李隆基只好把她绞死。但李隆基仍然贪婪不肯放弃宝座，他的儿子李亨不能忍受，径行奔向西北五百公里外的灵武郡（宁夏永宁西南），宣布即位，遥尊逃到成都（四川成都）的李隆基为太上皇。
李亨并不能集结多少兵力，二十万精兵都死在云南。只有向北方沙漠，刚于四十年代建国的回纥汗国第二任可汗英武可汗乞援，付出的报酬是：收复长安时，所有美女和财产，任凭回纥奸淫烧杀和掳掠回国。英武可汗满意这个条件，所以很高兴地出兵相助。恰在这时候，在长安刚登上皇帝宝座的安禄山因眼病而双目全盲，心情烦躁，动辄杀戮。最后，当他要杀掉他的长子安庆绪时，安庆绪反而杀了他。七五七年，回纥兵团收复长安，在李亨的儿子李豫一再要求下，回纥答应等收复洛阳时再践约。李豫的理由是，如果在长安即行烧杀掳掠，洛阳人民必定恐慌，势将为安庆绪死守。后来，洛阳被收复时，那些日夜盼望政府军的人民，却发现政府军如此狰狞。
安禄山兵变由于他的大将史思明在范阳（北京）投降而结束，历时三年零五个月。可是李亨并没有真正的大度量容纳这个过去的叛将，秘密计划把史思明杀掉。阴谋不幸泄露，史思明再度叛变，循着安禄山南下旧路线，渡过黄河，再行攻陷洛阳。然而他也重蹈安禄山的覆辙，当他凶暴地想杀掉他的长子史朝义时，史朝义也反过来杀掉他。这时，唐王朝皇位已由李豫接任，他用他父亲李亨同样的条件，再向回纥汗国乞援。七六二年，回纥军团收复洛阳，洛阳遭到第二次恶运，距上次恶运仅只五年。洛阳的妇女儿童在恐惧中涌向圣善寺和白马寺躲避，希望佛祖的神灵保护。结果回纥纵火焚烧，一万余人全被烧死，大火数月不熄。繁华盖世的东都，再罹浩劫，从此一百年间，一片荒凉。唐政府的军队也效法回纥，兵锋所至，对自己的同胞，比回纥兵团还要凶暴。黄河流域数百公里，残存的人民，用纸张糊作衣服，苟延求生。
史朝义于七六三年自杀，第二次兵变也告结束，历时三年零十个月。连同安禄山兵变，共历时九年。
九藩镇割据
安史兵变虽然平息，但一百三十年的中国第二个黄金时代，却一去不返。接着出现的是中央政府威信衰落和藩镇（战区）割据的新局面。
割据的形成，由于安史手下若干当节度使（战区司令官）的大将，在投降中央政府时，仍握有强大的武装部队和重要据点。大乱之后，皇帝和宰相心惊肉跳，不敢予以调动，命他们继续担任原职如故，只求表面顺眼，维持统一的外貌。这些节度使当然了解这种政治形势，遂乘机取得合法的割据。不但军事、财赋、行政，全部垄断，甚至节度使（司令官）的职位，也父子相承，成为无名有实的独立王国。尤以下列位于黄河以北的四个战区，拥有重兵，最为强悍。中央政府在忍无可忍时，也曾数度起兵讨伐，但四个战区独立不变，世人称为“河朔四镇”：
四镇之中，卢龙（前称范阳）与平卢属于原来的十个节度使，成德与魏博则是后来增设。战区本只设在沿边，以防御外患。安史兵变后，首都长安城外，全国逐渐都被划作战区，成为对内抗衡和安置军阀的工具。到本世纪（八）末，已陆续增加到五十个之多，到了下世纪（九），变更纷坛，几乎处处都是战区，处处都有节度使。
河朔四镇职位的世袭，使其他战区垂涎三尺，自然不断发生争取世袭的爆炸性事件。很多节度使的子弟，在父亲或兄长逝世后，就发动将领们拥戴自己继位。唐政府当然厌恶这种局面。八十年代时，新即位的第十二任皇帝李适，决心重振中央权威。七八一年，恰巧成德战区（河北正定）节度使李宝臣，与平卢战区（山东东平）节度使李正己逝世，李适拒绝任命他们的儿子继位。于是河朔四镇联合行动，宣告脱离中央，各自称王，正式成立四个独立王国。而淮宁战区（河南汝南）节度使李希烈也乘机独立，并于七八四年索性登极当上皇帝。李适动员全国各战区兵力，先行攻击李希烈。想不到当径原战区（甘肃经川）的出征部队，经过长安时，本希望得到赏赐，李适却舍不得出钱，那些带着眷属预备领到赏赐回家养生的士兵，由绝望而愤怒，遂爆发兵变。李适急下令赶运二十车金钱财宝，可是恩典来的太迟。叛军攻入长安，拥立大臣朱氵此当皇帝。李适仓惶逃到梁州（陕西汉中）。
这时半壁河山，都已靡烂。幸而七八四年，忠于中央政府的军队，收复长安，朱氵此被他的部下所杀。七八六年，李希烈也被他的部下所杀。而河朔四镇在获得中央政府准许世袭的保证下，取消王号。中国在外貌上仍是大一统的局面。可是，从此之后，唐王朝中央政府再也不敢触怒任何藩镇——包括河朔四镇以外的其他藩镇。像宣武战区（河南开封）节度使刘玄佐于七九二年病死，将领们拥立他的儿子刘士宁继位，中央政府连一句话都不敢多问，立即任命。
十西域的再丧失
安史兵变除了直接引起藩镇割据，更引起严重外患，使西域（新疆及中亚东部）再度丧失。
中国外患，一向来自北方。只有第七第八两个世纪，外患来自西南。南诏王国已使中国受到内伤，吐蕃王国更砍断中国的肢体，唐政府还没有遭受过这么大的覆败。
上世纪（七），中国把文成公主嫁给吐蕃国王弃宗弄赞。本世纪（八）七一○年，又把金城公主嫁给它的国王弃隶缩赞（弃宗弄赞的孙儿）。金城公主的嫁妆之一是“河西九曲”（即青海省东南黄河大转弯成S形的地方），这一带土地肥沃。吐蕃王国面积虽大，但位于世界屋顶，全属丛山，可耕地很少，得到九曲地区像得到一个巨大宝库，国势大为增强，终于超过中国所能控制的程度。
安禄山兵变后，中央把西部边界属于陇右战区（鄯州·青海乐都）和河西战区（凉州·甘肃武威）的军队，调往中原参战，边界等于没有防务。吐蕃王国抓住这个机会，于七六三年，沿着一千余公里的边境，发动全面总攻。一连攻陷囗州（四川西昌）、维州（四川理县）、松州（四川松潘）、泾州（甘肃泾川）。
吐蕃的攻势十分猛烈，攻陷泾州的主力部队，继续东进，中国军队节节败退，首都长安遂告陷落，皇帝李豫向东出奔陕州（河南三门峡）。吐蕃兵团就在长安立了一位来不及逃走的亲王之子李承宏当皇帝，然后大掠而去。李豫虽然又回到长安，把李承宏驱下宝座，但吐蕃兵力仍留在经州，河西走廊跟中国本土之间交通，被拦腰切断，西域（新疆及中亚东部）更像断了线的风筝。
——河西走廊和西域，最后终于全部沦入吐蕃王国和回纥汗国之手，尤其是西域一百七十余万平方公里的领土，从本世纪（八）脱离中国，达一千年之久。
西疆防卫力量，经这次摧残，再无力振作。中国本上正陷于藩镇的混战，也没有力量西顾。吐蕃兵团经常长驱直入，在关中地区（陕西省中部）攻城略地，烧杀掳掠，游骑不时地直抵首都长安城下。过去繁华富庶地带，现在一片荒凉。长安以西各州县，城门日夜关闭，地方官员和将领唯一的工作是，每逢吐蕃兵团大掠而去时，就向皇帝上奏章“庆贺贼退”。李豫的继承人李适除了全力谋求和解外，别无他策。问题是，吐蕃王国认为和解即是断绝财路，所以并不愿意结束这种致富的强盗行为。最后，吐蕃在阴谋下表示愿意接受。七八七年，中国宰相浑(王咸)、吐蕃宰相尚结赞，在任州平凉川（甘肃平凉西北）举行高阶层会议，缔结和解条约。当浑(王咸)刚要进入会场时，吐蕃伏兵四起，浑(王咸)是大将出身，他夺得一匹没有上口勒的马，狂奔逃脱，其他中国官员全部被俘，受到残酷的虐待。尚结赞失望地对那些被俘的中国官员说：“我为浑(王咸)准备了一副金手铐，想不到只捉到你们这些不重要人物。”于是乘势进攻陇州（陕西陇县），把全城居民集中，老弱的屠杀，不杀的全部挖眼断手，抛弃道旁，只剩下青年男女数万人，驱往西行。走到安化峡（甘肃平凉西），宣布说：“你们可向东辞别你们的祖国家园！”民众大哭，投入山谷自杀的有数千人，其余的全都被卖为奴。
内忧外患，使本世纪（八）六十至八十年代，三十年间，日子黯淡。平凉川事件的明年（七八八），李适采用宰相李泌以夷制夷的建议，把女儿咸安公主嫁给回纥汗国的天亲可汗。天亲可汗感到莫大荣耀，上奏章给李适，表示愿为岳父赴汤蹈火。三年后（七九一），吐蕃兵团攻击灵州（宁夏灵武），回纥迎击，吐蕃遭到空前大败，天亲可汗把俘虏送到长安献捷。七九三年，南诏王国第三任国王异牟寻，在他的中国籍宰相郑回设计下，重新归附中国。明年（七九四），吐蕃王国向它征兵一万人，图雪灵州的耻辱。异牟寻表示国小力弱，只能派出三千人。吐蕃使节一再坚持，才勉强派出五千人。但数万人的南诏精锐兵团，却遥遥地跟在五干人之后，进入戒备森严的吐蕃国境的神川（云南丽江），纵兵攻击，吐蕃又大败，被俘十余万人（一个可观的数字）。南诏砍断横亘在金沙江上的古老铁索吊桥（在云南中甸南），断绝两国交