Chapter 23 Section 2 Qing Dynasty Official System

The official system in the early Qing Dynasty basically inherited the old ones of the Ming Dynasty, and only made some changes to the prominent disadvantages of the official system in the Ming Dynasty.It was not until Yongzheng and Qianlong that it was gradually adjusted and stabilized.The central organization of the Qing Dynasty still had the cabinet, six ministries, the Metropolitan Procuratorate, and various temples. The cabinet of the Qing Dynasty was inherited from the Ming Dynasty.Before entering the customs, Huang Taiji once established a literary museum, which was the prototype of the cabinet.Later, the Wenguan was expanded into the three inner courtyards, namely the Academy of Internal National History, the Academy of Internal Secretaries, and the Academy of Neihong Literature, responsible for drafting documents, drafting edicts, compiling history books, and promulgating systems.After entering the customs, there were still three inner courts, which were called the cabinet in the fifteenth year of Shunzhi (AD 1658).Three years later, the Inner Three Courts were reformed, and the cabinet was restored in the ninth year of Kangxi (1670 A.D.).There is a bachelor's degree, a bachelor's degree co-organized, and a bachelor's degree, which are awarded separately from Juman and Han.The bachelor is still crowned with the name of Diange.In the early Qing Dynasty, there were four halls (Zhonghe Hall, Baohe Hall, Wenhua Hall, Wuying Hall) and two pavilions (Wenyuan Pavilion, Dongge).Although the cabinet of the Qing Dynasty ranked first among all officials, its power was inferior to that of the Ming Dynasty.Because the center of government affairs in the early Qing Dynasty was the meeting of kings and ministers who discussed politics.The meeting of kings and ministers to discuss politics was a form of discussion and decision on military and state affairs by Manchu relatives and noble ministers in the early Qing Dynasty, called "National Conference".Its origin can be traced back to the system in which the Baylors discussed state affairs together in the Nurhachi era.During the reign of Emperor Taiji, the scope of those participating in the political discussion was expanded, so it was called the meeting of the king and ministers.After the Qing Dynasty entered the customs, the meeting of kings and ministers still held a lot of power, and the cabinet was only responsible for general routine drafting.After the Holy Patriarch of the Qing Dynasty came to power, he set up a South Study Room in the palace, and selected Hanlin officials to be on duty.Those who enter the value can participate in confidentiality and draft decrees, so the power of the cabinet is divided into the South Study Room.In the seventh year of Yongzheng (1729 A.D.), Emperor Shizong of the Qing Dynasty set up a military supply room, which was soon renamed the Military Aircraft Department.The Military Aircraft Department was originally an institution that instructed military affairs in accordance with the emperor's will.Emperor Gaozong of the Qing Dynasty came to the throne and changed its name to the Prime Minister's Office, which was later restored to the old name.The location of the Military Aircraft Department is in the north of the Longzong Gate of the present Forbidden City.The Minister of Military Aircraft and Zhang Jing of Military Aircraft are both part-time.The full name of the Minister of Military Aircraft is "walking at the Military Aircraft Department", or "walking on the Military Aircraft Minister", and those who are new to the Military Aircraft Department or have low qualifications are called "learning to walk on the Military Aircraft Minister". After a period of time, the word "learning" is removed Character.Walking means doing things on a daily basis.The Minister of Military Aircraft was specially briefed by the emperor from the scholars of Manchu and Han University and the chiefs of various ministries, academies, and temples, or he was promoted by Zhang Jing of Military Aircraft.There is no subordinate relationship between ministers of military aircraft, and the senior one is the head of the squad.The general responsibility of the Military Aircraft Department is to "take charge of the military and state affairs, and praise the aircraft affairs" ("Drafts of Qing History · Officials").Since the establishment of the Military Aircraft Department, the emperor has given instructions to the central and local agencies or officials, and the Military Aircraft Department drafted the edicts. After the emperor reads them, they can be publicly announced and issued by the cabinet, which is called Mingfa; confidential or individual edicts It is sealed and mailed by the military plane, which is called Ting Ji.Not only did the cabinet have no right to intervene, but even the king and minister who discussed politics were useless, and the South Study Room only worshiped poetry, calligraphy and painting.The meeting of kings and ministers to discuss politics was abolished in the fifty-sixth year of Qianlong (AD 1791), and the Nanshufang continued until the twenty-fourth year of Guangxu (AD 1898). "Military ministers only use cronies", everything is done in accordance with the emperor's will, and Qin Chengchen [Chen Chen] judges, indicating that the monarchy has reached an unprecedented level of centralization.If it is explained that the chief minister of the cabinet in the middle of the dynasty still retained a little bit of power as a prime minister, then the cabinet and military affairs department of the Qing Dynasty completely eliminated the influence of the historical prime minister system.

The establishment of the six departments is the same as that of the Ming Dynasty.But there are three changes.One is that the officials of the six ministries are reinstated, that is, if there is a Han member, there must be a full member.This is the case with Shang Shu and Shi Lang, and it is the same with Si Guan.Generally speaking, the palm seal of the officer is full, and the official is a Han member.There is also a pen post style, which means a clerk in Manchu, and it is dedicated to writing notes, and people from the Manchu, Mongolian, and Han banners are in charge (all temples are set up).Second, there are some adjustments to the affiliated institutions.For example, there are fourteen divisions under the Ministry of Households, and eighteen divisions under the Ministry of Punishment.The third is that the authority is less than that of the six ministries of the Ming Dynasty.For example, part of the personnel power of the Ministry of Officials was assigned to the Military Aircraft Department.The Ministry of War does not care about the military affairs of the Eight Banners, and only handles the specific affairs of the Green Battalion. Military mobilization and commanding expeditions belong to the emperor, and they come from the military plan.The Ministry of Industry is in charge of engineering construction, but important projects such as the Yellow River and seawalls are dispatched by the emperor's instructions, and the Ministry of Industry does not intervene.During the Qianlong period, in addition to the six parts, a music department was added.The music club manages the performances of the Great Sacrifice, the Great Court, and examines the rhythm of musical instruments.There is a minister of classical music.In charge of the Kagura Department, the Harmony Department, and the Shibang Department.

The Metropolitan Procuratorate is also similar to the Ming Dynasty.There are five differences.One is that both the left and right capital censors and the left and right deputy capital censors were reinstated.During the Qianlong period, the censor of Qiandu was abolished.Among them, the left post is the hall official, in charge of the affairs of the Metropolitan Procuratorate; the right capital censor is the concurrent title of the governor, and the right deputy capital censor is the concurrent title of governor, river channel governor, and water transportation governor.The second is to merge the six departments with the function of sealing and refuting in the Ming Dynasty into the Metropolitan Procuratorate.The six departments set up palm prints for Shizhong and Gishizhong, both of which are reinstatement.The main responsibility of the six divisions is to issue and copy, that is, each division sends a chapter to the cabinet to get the approval every day, and copies the relevant yamen according to the content.The position in the matter is higher than that of the censor, and it is the way for the censor to be promoted.In the Qing Dynasty, there was generally no division to deny and refute in matters, and they were called Qingwang officials.The third is that the Metropolitan Procuratorate is divided into fifteen provinces (increased to twenty in the late Qing Dynasty), and each province has a palm seal censor and a general censor.The Fifteenth Department is in charge of auditing criminal cases in various provinces, and at the same time divides labor to inspect the affairs of various yamen in Beijing.The biggest difference between the various ways in the Qing Dynasty and the Ming Dynasty is the abolition of the censor's tour system.During the Shunzhi period, due to temporary needs, there were patrol censors, Liangjiang censors, field censors and salt censors, none of which belonged to the fifteenth Taoism.In the future, although the censors in Beijing were occasionally sent to inspect various places, the scale was small and the time was short, so it was not a system.The fourth is to add five city procuratorates and five city soldiers and horses.In the Ming Dynasty, the capital had Xuncheng Yushi and five city soldiers and horses. In the Qing Dynasty, there was a procuratorate in each of the five cities in the middle, east, west, south, and north of the capital. The chief was called Xuncheng Yushi. The school of simplicity in history changes every year.The military and horse divisions of the five cities each have commanders, deputy commanders and other officers.The city procuratorate and military department are in charge of the security of the city.The fifth is to add the Censor Office of the Clan and the Censor Office of the House of Internal Affairs to supervise the affairs of the Clan House and the House of Internal Affairs respectively.The Metropolitan Procuratorate, the Ministry of Punishment and the Dali Temple are still called the Sanfa Division.Du Yushi and six ministers are collectively called Qiqing.The setting of Jiuqing is also the same as that of Ming Dynasty.

Among the central institutions, there were Lifanyuan and the House of Internal Affairs that were specially established by the Qing Dynasty. Li Fanyuan was the Qing Dynasty's institution to manage the affairs of ethnic minorities in Inner and Outer Mongolia, Qinghai Mongolia, Tibet, and Xinjiang.It was originally named Mongolian Yamen.In the third year of Chongde (1638 A.D.), it was renamed Lifan Academy and attached to the Ministry of Rites.In the eighteenth year of Shunzhi (AD 1661), it was determined to be equal to the six ministries, after the Ministry of Industry.It is assumed that the Shangshu and the left and right servants are all full.There is also an additional servant, who is selected from Mongolian Baylor and Beizi.There are six divisions under it, including Banner Registration, Wanghui, Dianju, Rouyuan, Laiyuan, and Criminal Justice Division, which are in charge of ministerial boundaries, titles, setting up officials, household registration, farming and animal husbandry, taxation, military punishment, transportation, alliances, tribute, and trade. and so on.In addition, Li Fanyuan is also in charge of some vassal states and other foreign affairs.The other part is in charge of the Ministry of Rites.Lifanyuan is responsible for the north and west land directions; the Ministry of Rites is responsible for the south and Donghai road directions.The most important thing for the Li Fan Yuan is to manage the Sino-Russian negotiations.

The full name of the House of Internal Affairs is the Yamen of the House of Internal Affairs, which was established after the Qing Dynasty established its capital in Beijing.In the eleventh year of Shunzhi (AD 1654), it was renamed Thirteen Yamen.The so-called thirteen yamen is a copy of the eunuch system of the Ming Dynasty, and the twenty-four yamen were simplified into thirteen yamen.After the Holy Patriarch of the Qing Dynasty came to the throne, he decreed that the Thirteen Yamen should be abolished, and the House of Internal Affairs should still be established.The Ministry of Internal Affairs is in charge of the affairs of the imperial confinement, and all the emperor's basic necessities of life are undertaken by the government.The chief is the minister in charge, who is concurrently held by the Manchu princes and ministers, and has a doctor, a master, a pen post style, etc., to lead the seven divisions and three courtyards (courts).The Guangchu Division is in charge of treasury; the Duyu Division is in charge of the guarding of the inner government and the affairs of Tiantian; the Accounting Division is in charge of the cashiers of the inner government funds (tang if), the manor and the selection of eunuchs and maids; the Chief of Ceremonies is in charge of the inner court ceremonies Music and the assessment of eunuch grades; the Department of Construction and Repairs is in charge of the repair of palaces; the Department of Qingfeng is in charge of cattle and sheep husbandry; Horses are used by the imperial court; the Military Equipment Institute is in charge of manufacturing equipment; Fengchen Garden is in charge of Jingshan, Sanhai (Beihai, Zhonghai, Nanhai) and Tiantanzhai Palace.Old Summer Palace, Changchun Garden, Wanshou Mountain, Yuquan Mountain, Fragrant Hills, Rehe Palace, Tangquan (now East Tangshan, Changping, Beijing) Palace, Panshan (now Northwest of Jixian, Hebei) Palace, Huangxinzhuang (now Beijing Liangxiang North) Palace, due to the relationship with It is related to the emperor's residence [bibi], and it is also under the jurisdiction of the Ministry of Internal Affairs, but it is not under the jurisdiction of Fengchen Garden, and another official is appointed.In addition, the Ministry of Internal Affairs is also in charge of the three main halls (Taihe Hall, Zhonghe Hall, Baohe Hall), Ningshou Palace, Cining Palace, Shoukang Palace, Imperial Pharmacy, Wenyuan Pavilion (special collection of "Siku Quanshu") , Wuyingdian Book Repair Office, Imperial Book Office, Mental Cultivation Hall Building Office, Xian'an Palace Official School (in charge of teaching Shangsanqi official school students to learn Manchu and Chinese and translation), Jingshan Official School (in charge of Shangsanqi official school students to learn Manchu and Chinese books ), Changfang Guanxue (in charge of teaching eunuchs to learn Manchu, Mongolian, and Chinese characters), respect room, etc.The Respect Room, also known as the Palace Supervision Office, is an institution that manages eunuchs.The appointment, dismissal and promotion of eunuchs are all handled by the Department of Internal Affairs and the Office of Respect.The Ministry of Internal Affairs is the largest institution in the Qing Dynasty, and it has the most officials. There are more than 3,000 officials alone. The manor, Qingfeng Division's pasture and various palaces are all outside the capital.As for weaving silk and satin, it is as far away as Jiangsu and Zhejiang provinces.The significance of the establishment of the Ministry of Internal Affairs in the Qing Dynasty was to incorporate eunuchs into the system of the Ministry of Internal Affairs, thus eliminating the phenomenon of eunuchs' monopoly in Chinese history.

Other institutions in the central government, such as the Zongren Mansion, Tongzhengshisi, Zhongshu Branch, Taichang Temple, Taipu Temple, Guanglu Temple, Honglu Temple, Imperial Academy, Guozijian, Taiyuan Hospital, Qintianjian, Zhanshifu, etc. , all following the Ming Dynasty, setting up officials for reinstatement, with little change in duties.Since Yongzheng in the Qing Dynasty, the system of secret establishment of the crown prince was implemented, and the crown prince was not established in advance. Although the Zhan Shifu was established, it was an idle position, and it was only used as a way for the promotion of Hanlin officials.The additional units of the Hanlin Academy include the Shuchang Pavilion, the Living Zhuguan Pavilion and the National History Pavilion.The Shuchang Pavilion is a place for teaching Shujishi.The living note library is an institution that records and compiles the words and deeds of the emperor.The National History Museum is in charge of editing the history of this dynasty.The Imperial College of the Qing Dynasty was also in charge of the official schools of the Eight Banners, one for each banner (it was once changed to one for the Second Banner during the Kangxi period), and it was a school for the children of the Eight Banners.There is also mathematics, which specializes in teaching the children of the Eight Banners family to learn algorithms.In addition, there are Zongxue of the left and right wings, which teach the students of the clan; Baqi Jueluo School, which teaches the students of Baqi Jueluo, and the two schools belong to the clan's mansion.Mongolian Official School, Tangut School, and Tote (Tote) School are three schools for cultivating Mongolian, Tibetan, and Tote languages, which are also managed by the Lifan Academy.The Jiaofang Division was reorganized into the Harmony Department and merged into the Music Club.The Senglu Division and the Daolu Division are still under the Ministry of Rites.

The Qing Dynasty also set up two capitals, besides Beijing, there was also Shengjing (now Shenyang).The ministers within Shengjing are guarding, and the main institutions are the five departments of Shengjing Hu, Li, Bing, Punishment and Gong. The purpose is to "accompany the capital solemnly".The five ministries do not set up ministers, and have fewer staff than in Beijing, and most of them are full.There is also the Shengjing Household Office, which manages the Shengjing cemetery and sacrifices.The seat of Beijing is still called Shuntian Mansion, and the seat of Shengjing is called Fengtian Mansion. There is a governor, whose status is higher than that of ordinary mansions, and most of them work part-time.

The Qing Dynasty was divided into two categories: the headquarters and the border areas.The headquarters developed into eighteen provinces on the basis of the thirteen provinces in the Ming Dynasty.Each province has a chief secretary, an inspector, and an admiral.The chief secretary has a chief envoy, who is in charge of a province's wealth and civil affairs, and is also called Fantai, Fansi, and Fangbo.The procuratorate is set up by the procuratorate, who is in charge of the judiciary and supervision of a province.The power of the second division of cloth and press is smaller than that of the Ming Dynasty, because the actual power of the provinces in the Qing Dynasty is always greater than that of the governor.Xuezheng, one person in each province, is in charge of education in a province.The status of academic administration is lower than that of the governor, and it is ranked before the cloth and the press.Its office is called the college.There are government and county levels in the province.The magistrate and magistrate are in charge of the government orders of a prefecture and a county.The prefect's deputies include Tongzhi and Tongju, who are in charge of supervising food, Qing army, arresting robbers, and water conservancy.The county magistrate's deputies include the county magistrate and the chief bookkeeper, who are in charge of money and food, household registration, taxation, patrolling, river defense and other matters.Some places are called prefectures or halls, but prefectures and halls are not at the same level. "Sometimes Zhili is like a prefecture, or it is divided into counties" (Vol.The Zhili Office and the Chief Secretary of the Zhili Prefecture belong to the General Office, and the Sanzhou Office belongs to the Government, and some San Halls belong to the General or Dao.The chief of the hall is Tongzhi and Tongju.The governor of the state is the magistrate of the state, and there are two assistant officials of the state and the state judge.It is a county under the jurisdiction of Zhili Prefecture.The Tongzhi and Tongpan of Zhili prefectures and prefectures, and the prefectures and prefects of scattered prefectures are in charge of grain affairs, water conservancy, coastal defense, river defense, etc.Prefectures and counties also had special officials in charge of specific affairs such as Confucianism, taxation, and inspection, which were roughly the same as those in the Ming Dynasty.Between the province and the government, there is a Taoist yamen.Taoist priests are assistant officials of the second division of cloth and press, and they can be divided into guarding the way and patrolling the way.In the early Qing Dynasty, following the Ming system, the chief secretary was set up to participate in politics and councils, and was stationed in a certain place, called Shoudao;In the eighteenth year of Qianlong (AD 1753), the titles of participating in politics, counseling, deputy envoy, and Qianshi were abolished. Since then, Taoist priests have changed from temporary dispatches to de facto first-level officials.Daoists may govern the entire province, or three or four prefectures, and are often referred to as Fans and Standards, also known as Daotai.

Governors in the Qing Dynasty were also divided into two types: local and special.Unlike the Ming Dynasty, the local governor is a permanent local official.The local governors of the Ming Dynasty were mainly in charge of the military, while the local governors of the Qing Dynasty "administered the army and the people, comprehensively controlled the civil and military affairs, inspected and promoted officials, and repaired and sealed the border" ("Qing History Draft · Official Records III").During the Qianlong period, there were eight local governors of Zhili, Liangjiang, Huguang, Guangdong and Guangxi, Fujian and Zhejiang, Sichuan, Yunnan, Guizhou, and Shaanxi and Gansu.The governors of Zhili and Sichuan governed one province, the governors of Liangjiang governed the three provinces of Jiangsu, Anhui, and Jiangxi, and the rest governed two provinces.The special governor has names such as water transportation and river courses.The governor of water transport was established along the Ming system, opened the Cao Huai'an mansion, and managed the water affairs of the eight provinces of Shandong, Henan, Jiangsu, Anhui, Jiangxi, Zhejiang, Hubei, and Hunan.Under the Governor of Water Transport, there are eight people in charge of the water transport.Two people from Jiangsu, one from other provinces, and one from Jiangxi.Outside of the eight provinces, either there is no grain road, or the chief envoy is concurrently serving as the local governor, and is not the governor of water transportation.The governor of the river course, initially appointed one person, to take care of the embankment dredging projects of the Yellow River, Huaihe River, and Yongding River.Later, there were three people. Jiangnan was called Nanhe, which was also led by the Governor of Water Transport; Zhili was called Beihe, and was also led by the Governor of Zhili;Officials of the Qing Dynasty regarded the governor of Hedao as a fat vacancy.The powers of the governor are similar to those of the governor, but the status is lower than that of the governor.In the Qing Dynasty, except for Sichuan and Zhili, which did not have governors, each province had one governor.The governor is actually the highest provincial governor, and provinces without a governor stand alone.

The Qing Dynasty set up generals, governors, ministers and other officials in the border area.In the northeast area outside the Guan, that is, to the north of Shanhaiguan, to the south of the Outer Xing'an Mountains and the Ergun River, to the east of Sakhalin Island, and to the west of Mongolia's Horqin Grassland, it is divided into three administrative districts: Shengjing, Jilin, and Heilongjiang. Set up Shengjing General, Jilin General, and Heilongjiang General.General Shengjing is also in charge of Fengtian Fu Yin.Generals Jilin and Heilongjiang have deputy capital commanders to assist the generals in managing military and civilian affairs.

Inner Mongolia set up Chahar Dutong, Rehe Dutong, General Suiyuan, and Guihua City Deputy Dutong, and was divided into 24 ministries including Horqin and 49 Banners.Zasak is set up in each banner as a hereditary official.There are alliances above each banner, which were temporary in nature at first, and later became fixed. There are six alliances such as Zhelimu.The alliance has a leader to manage the affairs of the alliance.General Uliasutai was established in Outer Mongolia.There are two counselors and ministers, one of whom is a Mongolian prince.In charge of the military administration of the four Khalkha tribes and Tannu Wulianghai.During the Qianlong period, Khobduo Counselor was added to be in charge of the eight military and political departments including Duerbert.Khalkha's four tribes and Duerbert and other tribes each have deputy generals, who will be served by Mongolian princes.Outer Mongolia also has alliances and banners, which are the same as Inner Mongolia.Qinghai Mongolia has a minister of affairs in Xining, which has jurisdiction over five departments including Heshuo and twenty-nine banners.The flag is set up with Zasak, and the alliance of each flag is presided over by the minister of affairs. General Yili was established as the highest official position in Xinjiang.There are also capitals in various places, such as the capital of Urumqi and the deputy capital; ministers of affairs, such as the ministers of Hami, Yarkand, Khotan, Aksu, Wushi, Kuqa, Kara Shar’s Minister of Affairs; Counselors, such as Talbahatai’s Counselor and Kashgar’s Counselor;In the 10th year of Guangxu (1884 A.D.), Xinjiang was converted into a province and a governor was set up. Only General Yili and Talbahatai (now Tacheng) Counselor and Minister were retained.Northern Xinjiang is called Tianshan Erut, which is divided into five divisions and thirteen banners, organized into five leagues.Each has an alliance leader and deputy alliance leader, who are selected by Zasak of the alliance.There are different levels of Burke in every city in southern Xinjiang. Burke is the title of Uyghurs for officials. The highest is Aqim Burke, followed by Ishham Burke.After the establishment of the province, the cities were changed into prefectures and counties, and only Achim Burke and Ishham Burke were retained, and the rest of the names Burke were abolished. There are ministers in charge in the Tibet area, initially there are two ministers, and later changed to one minister in charge and one assistant minister.The Minister of Tibet Affairs is referred to as the Minister of Tibet.The minister in Tibet, the Dalai Lama and the Panchen Erdeni jointly manage Tibet affairs.Dalai, transliterated in Mongolian, means sea; Lama, transliterated in Tibetan, means guru.Class, Sanskrit transliteration, meaning scholar; Zen, Tibetan transliteration, meaning big; Erdeni, Manchu transliteration, meaning treasure.The Dalai Lama was stationed in Potala, and the Panchen Lama was stationed in Tashilhunpo.During Shunzhi, the Dalai V came to Beijing. The Qing Dynasty built a Yellow Temple in the northern suburbs of Beijing for him to live in. The White Pagoda in Beihai Park is also built for Dalai V.Under the Dalai Lama and the Panchen Lama, there are Hutuktu and Shabulong, both of whom are called living Buddhas.It is said that the living Buddha can be reincarnated, called Bi Lehan.During the Qianlong period, it was stipulated that the drawing of lots from the golden urn should be supervised by the Minister in Tibet when the Living Buddha reincarnated.At that time, Tibetans were also known as Tangut, and the highest official in Tangut was Kabulun, who was in charge of Tibetan affairs.This is followed by Zaiyu [bengbeng], Shangzhuo Teba, Yeercangba, Langziju, Xieerbang, etc.Local officials are called battalion officials, and there are frontier battalion officials and large, medium and small battalion officials.Military officers have names such as Dai Yu, Ru Yu, Jia Yu, and Ding Yu.The ministers stationed in Tibet, together with the Dalai Lama and the Panchen Lama, selected the special officials of the Tang and Tang Dynasties before and after. The generals, governors, and ministers in the above-mentioned border areas were all selected by the emperor from the Manchu nobles to act according to the emperor's will, and their functions and powers were similar to those of the governor of the interior.In addition, the Qing Dynasty also set up local officials in the minority areas of Yunnan, Guizhou, Guangxi, Sichuan, Tibet, Gansu, and Qinghai provinces, and the local minority leaders served as local officials.Civilian positions include Tuzhifu, Tuzhizhou, Tuzhixian, etc., and belong to the Ministry of Officials; military positions include Propaganda Envoy, Appeasement Envoy, Recruiting Envoy, Ten Thousand Households, Thousand Households, Hundred Households, etc., and belong to the Ministry of War, all of which are hereditary officials.During the Yongzheng and Qianlong periods, "reform the land and return it to the local people", that is, set up local officials according to the inland management method.But not completely, and some local officials still maintain it. The army command of the Qing Dynasty was very special. There was neither the Privy Council of the Song and Yuan Dynasties, nor the Governor’s Mansion of the Five Armies of the Ming Dynasty.After the unification of the Qing Dynasty, the army was mainly composed of two parts: the Eight Banners and the Green Battalion. The Eight Banners were created for Nurhachi.Every 300 people set up a ox record, the amount is really the meaning of the master.There is one Jiala Ezhen in Wuniulu.Wujiala has a Gushan Ezhen, and there are left and right Meile Ezhens under the Gushan Ezhen.Gushan's forehead really led 7,500 soldiers, forming a banner.In the seventeenth year of Wanli in the Ming Dynasty (AD 1589), there were eight banners: Zhenghuang, Zhengbai, Zhenghong, Zhenglan, Xianghuang, Xiangbai, Xianghong and Xianglan. "Zheng" means whole, that is, the flag as a whole is pure and uniform. "Fringe" means fringing around the original solid color flag.Yellow, white and blue are bordered with red, and red is bordered with white.During the time of Huang Taiji, in addition to the Eight Banners of Manchuria, the Eight Banners of the Mongolian and Han armies were added, and the Ezhen of Meile, Jiala, and Niulu were changed to Zhangjing.During the Shunzhi period, Niu Luzhang Jing was named Zuo Ling in Chinese, Jia La Zhang Jing was named Shen Ling, Gu Shan Ezhen was named Du Tong, and Meile Zhang Jing was named Vice Du Tong.After the Qing Dynasty established the Central Plains, the Eight Banners were divided into two categories: forbidden travel and garrison.The Eight Banners Forbidden Brigade is the Eight Banners army stationed in the capital, divided into Langwei and Bingwei.Lang Wei's task is to guard the royal family, choose from the upper three banners to form a pro-army, led by ministers of honor and relatives, called the ministers of the guards.There are internal ministers, Sanzhi ministers, first-class guards, second-class guards, third-class guards, Lanling guards and other officials.During the reign of Emperor Kangxi, there was also a former imperial minister who was in charge of guards and officials in the Qingmen.So far, the duties of the guards have been divided between the minister who leads the guards and the minister before the imperial court.The task of the soldiers and guards is to defend the capital, which is composed of Eight Banners soldiers, divided into battalions of guards, soldiers, forwards, and infantry.In each battalion, elites were selected to form battalions of Tiger Gun, Firearm, Jianrui, and Shenji.The Xiaoqi Battalion is the main force of the soldiers and guards, and is directly under the jurisdiction of the capital.Under Dutong, there are deputy Dutong, Canling, Deputy Canling, Zuoling, Xiaoqi School and other officials.The other battalions have separate presidents or commanders.The garrison of the Eight Banners is stationed in key places across the country.Generals and capital commanders are set up in important places, deputy capital commanders are set up in less important places, and city guards and defense captains are set up in important places. The Green Camp is a reorganized or newly recruited Han army after the Qing Dynasty entered the customs. The flag is green, so it is called the Green Camp.There are Green Battalion troops in Beijing and all provinces. There are more troops in the Banners Banners in Beijing than in the Green Battalions, and there are more Green Battalions in the provinces than in the Eight Banners garrison troops.After the middle period, the green battalion became the main force of the Qing Dynasty.The green battalion in Beijing is called the patrolling battalion, which is under the command of the infantry battalion.There are several levels of green battalions in each province: standard, association, battalion, and flood.Those commanded by local governors are called superintendents, those commanded by the governors of water transportation and rivers are called caobiao and river bids, those commanded by generals are called military bids, and those commanded by governors are called fubiao.The independent organizations of each province are bid promotion and town bid, which are led by admirals and general soldiers respectively.Under the bid is the association, with a deputy general.The association is a battalion, and there are officers such as generals, guerrillas, capital divisions, and garrisons.Under the camp is the flood season, and there are officials such as Qian Zong and Ba Zong.Unlike the Ming Dynasty, officials such as admirals and general soldiers in the Qing Dynasty were not dispatched temporarily, but were actually military officials. The ranks of civil and military officials in the early Qing Dynasty were the same as those in the Ming Dynasty. In the 51st year of Qianlong (AD 1786), they were unified into nine ranks and eighteen ranks.Outside of the ninth rank, it is said that it has not entered the stream. In addition to grades, civil and military officials Yu Tan [Tan Tan] En also has ranks.There are eighteen ranks of civil servants, the first to tenth ranks are called a certain doctor, and the eleventh to eighteenth ranks are called a certain man.The rank of military officer was divided into three systems at the beginning.One is Gong, Hou, Bo, Feng Guanglu Dafu, and later changed to General Wei; one is Eight Banners, with nine ranks; the other is Green Camp, with twelve ranks.During the Qianlong period, it was unified into 18 ranks. The first to fourth ranks were called a certain general, the fifth to eighth ranks were called a certain captain, the ninth to fourteenth ranks were called a certain riding captain, and the fifteenth to eighteenth ranks were called a certain school lieutenant.The civil and military ministers also added officials, who were three males and three orphans, and the system was the same as that of the Ming Dynasty. The title of title in the Qing Dynasty was hereditary.During the Qianlong period, it was stipulated that the clan canonization was divided into fourteen grades: Prince Heshuo, Shizi, Prince Duoluo, eldest son, Dorobeile, Gushanbeizi, Zhen Guogong, Fu Guogong, Bafen Zhen Guogong, Bubafen Enter the eight points Fuguo Gong, Zhenguo General, Fuguo General, Fengguo General, and Fengen General.The eldest son, the eldest son, the prince, and the county king are actually only twelve.In the Qing Dynasty, there was a difference between entering eighths and not entering eighths. "The name of eight points is the name of pre-government" (Volume 1 of "Ting Yu Cong Tan").There are nine ranks of meritorious officials: Duke, Marquis, Bo, Zi, Nan, Captain Qingche, Captain Qi, Captain Yun, and Captain Endu. In the Qing Dynasty, the salaries of the imperial clan and hundreds of officials were divided into two types: silver and rice, which were called regular salaries based on the clan titles and official ranks.The military attache abroad does not support rice, but another salary.In addition to regular salaries, there are entitlements, honesty, allowances, public funds, etc., which are also the legal income of officials. After 1840, China entered a semi-colonial and semi-feudal society.In order to save the crumbling feudal rule, the Qing Dynasty had to make some adjustments to the regime, which was called "reform of official system" at that time.The reform of the official system in the late Qing Dynasty can be roughly divided into three periods: The first period was after the Second Opium War, when foreign-related institutions were mainly adjusted.In the 10th year of Xianfeng (1860 A.D.), the Prime Minister's Office of State Affairs was established, referred to as the Prime Minister's Office.The Prime Minister's Yamen set up a system of officials imitating military aircraft, with ministers and Zhang Jing.Except for the prince and the county king who are called "management ministers" or "management affairs of the General Administration", ministers are generally called ministers walking on the road, ministers studying on the road, and ministers handling affairs.Zhang Jing assists ministers in their work, and is divided into general Zhang Jing, deputy Zhang Jing, Zhang Jing, and extra Zhang Jing.It consists of the United Kingdom, France, Russia, the United States, and Coastal Defense, which are responsible for the negotiation affairs of various countries.It also governs three (Tianjin, Niuzhuang, Dengzhou) ministers of trade and five (Shanghai, Ningbo, Fuzhou, Xiamen, Guangzhou) ministers of trade.During the Tongzhi period, due to the expansion of commercial affairs, the three ministers of trade were changed to the ministers of Beiyang trade, and the ministers of five trades were changed to ministers of Nanyang trade.The Beiyang Minister and the Nanyang Minister were stationed in Tianjin and Shanghai respectively, and were concurrently held by the governors of Zhili and Liangjiang. They were more powerful than ordinary governors and were very powerful positions. Institutions closely related to the Zongli Yamen include Tongwenguan and the General Taxation Department.The establishment of the Tongwen Museum and the Zongli Yamen were approved at the same time, and it was officially opened in the first year of Tongzhi (AD 1862).There are four halls of English, French, Russian, and German. During the Guangxu period, an Oriental (Japanese) hall was added to teach languages ​​of various countries.In addition, there are mathematics halls, chemistry halls, Gezhi halls, and medical halls dedicated to teaching natural science.There is a management minister in the Tongwen Library, and there are promotions and assistants.The general teaching and teaching are all held by foreigners.In the twenty-fourth year of Guangxu (AD 1898), the Beijing Normal University Hall was opened, and the science department was merged into the University Hall, and only the language and writing departments remained.The General Tax Department was set up in the eleventh year of Xianfeng (AD 1861), in charge of customs taxation in the Qing Dynasty.The department was first established in Shanghai and later moved to Beijing.There are chief and deputy chief taxation departments, under which there are taxation departments and deputy taxation departments, which are divided into five departments, and each department has a chief and deputy director, assistants, etc.The local customs also set up taxation department, deputy taxation department, section chief, assistant and so on.Since the establishment of the General Revenue Department, its main power has been controlled by the British. The second period is the time of the Reform Movement of 1898.At that time, Kang Youwei and other reformers demanded the implementation of a constitutional monarchy.The so-called constitutional monarchy is to imitate the separation of legislative, judicial, and administrative powers in Western bourgeois countries. The monarch does not perform government affairs specifically and is bound by the constitution.Under the impetus of the reformers, Emperor Guangxu issued an edict to abolish Zhanshifu, Tongzhengshisi, Guanglu Temple, Taipu Temple, Honglu Temple, Dali Temple and other institutions that had nothing to do.At the local level, the governor or governor of the provinces where the governor and governor were jointly established was revoked.But soon the reformers were suppressed by the diehards represented by Empress Dowager Cixi, and the reform of the official system ended in failure. The third period is the eve of the fall of the Qing Dynasty.At this time, the Qing Dynasty had no choice but to announce the regular implementation of the constitutional monarchy they had opposed, and sent Zai Ze and other five ministers to various countries in the East and West to study politics. Restoration and self-improvement.There are four major changes: First, set up a supervisory office and a responsible cabinet.The Supervision and Administration Office began in the twenty-seventh year of Guangxu (AD 1901), and it was the general organization for reforming politics.In the 32nd year of Guangxu (AD 1906), it was renamed the Administrative Office of the Conference. In the following year, it was merged with the Cabinet and called the Administrative Office of the Cabinet Conference.In the third year of Xuantong (AD 1911), the Government Affairs Office was abolished and a responsible cabinet was formally established.The responsible cabinet is presided over by the prime minister and associate ministers, and is called the minister of state together with ten ministers including foreign affairs.The meeting place is called the political affairs hall.The Accountable Cabinet claims to be accountable to Parliament as the supreme governing body of the constitutional monarchy. Second, adjust other central institutions.In the twenty-seventh year of Guangxu (AD 1901), the Zongli Yamen was changed to the Ministry of Foreign Affairs.In the following year, Zhan Shifu and Tongzhengshi were revoked.In the 30th year of Guangxu (AD 1904), the Ministry of Commerce, the Ministry of Patrol, and the Ministry of Education were added, making a total of ten departments from the original six.In the thirty-second year of Guangxu (AD 1906), the ten ministries were determined as foreign affairs, officials, academics, civil affairs (incorporated by the Patrol Department), Duzhi (reorganized by the Ministry of Households), agriculture, industry and commerce (incorporated by the Ministry of Commerce), and army (incorporated by the Ministry of Commerce). The Ministry of War was reorganized and Taipu Temple was incorporated), Law (reorganized by the Ministry of Punishment), Rituals (Taichang Temple, Guanglu Temple, and Honglu Temple were incorporated), Postal Communications, and Lifan.At the same time, Dali Temple was changed to Dali Yuan.The Dali Yuan is the institution responsible for adjudicating litigation cases.There are four criminal divisions and two civil divisions under it, with judges and prosecutors respectively, declaring judicial independence.By the time the responsible cabinet was established, the central government had ten ministries of foreign affairs, civil affairs, military affairs, academic affairs, army, navy, justice, agriculture, industry and commerce, postal communications, and Lifan.The ministers are ministers and vice ministers, and there are officials such as left and right ministers, counselors, and counselors. Third, adjust local institutions.At the end of the Qing Dynasty, the local government system did not change much, except for the addition of the three departments of Tixue, Tifa, and Negotiation, as well as two departments of patrolling and persuading the industry.In the thirty-second year of Guangxu (AD 1906), Xuezheng was changed to Tixueshisi, and Jilin, Heilongjiang, Jiangsu, and Xinjiang provinces without Xuezheng were also added.The Tixue Envoy is in charge of education in a province.Then it was changed from the procuratorate to the Tifa envoy, who was in charge of judicial administration.There are also trial halls at all levels, which are dedicated to trial matters.The negotiating envoys were first set up in Jilin and Fengtian provinces in the 33rd year of Guangxu (1907 A.D.).Later, Zhili, Jiangsu, Zhejiang, Fujian, Hubei, Guangdong, and Yunnan provinces also set up examples.The department is responsible for handling public representations.Patrol police and Quanye Dao were set up successively after the 32nd year of Guangxu.Patrol Police Road is in charge of patrol police, fire protection, household registration, camp repair, and health affairs in the whole province.Quan Yedao's duty is to be in charge of agriculture, industry, commerce and various transportation affairs in the province.At that time, the adjustment progress of each province was different, and the adjustment and establishment were extremely chaotic. Fourth, the establishment of so-called public opinion institutions.In the 33rd year of Guangxu, Zizhengyuan was established.The Zizhengyuan is a public opinion institution at the central level.There are president, vice president, secretary general, first, second and third secretaries.There are 300 councilors, 125 of whom are appointed by the emperor and the rest come from the provinces.The public opinion organizations in each province are consultation bureaus, which were proclaimed in the first year of Xuantong (AD 1909).At that time, the total number of provincial councilors was 1677.There are clear regulations on the qualifications of councilors, that is, those who have achieved achievements in education and other public welfare undertakings in the province for more than three years; those who have received secondary education in this province or abroad; No fault; Only those who have more than 5,000 yuan of business capital or real estate in the local area can serve as members of parliament. The reform of the official system in the Qing Dynasty did not fundamentally solve the problem of feudal autocratic monarchy.From the perspective of the responsible cabinet, five of the 13 ministers of state belonged to the royal family, so people called it the "royal cabinet" at the time.Judging from the so-called public opinion institutions, the parliamentarians appointed by the emperor still have the upper hand. In fact, it is a trick of the autocratic imperial power to manipulate public opinion and fool public opinion.However, the general crisis of feudal rule cannot be reversed by anyone or any group. On October 10, 1911, the Wuchang Uprising was declared a success. On January 1, 1912, the Republic of China was established in Nanjing, and Sun Yat-sen became the provisional president of the Republic of China. On February 12, Emperor Xuantong, the last feudal monarch of the Qing Dynasty, issued an edict to abdicate.So far, the feudal autocratic monarchy that existed in Chinese history for more than 2,000 years was overthrown.The ancient Chinese official system also became a relic of history with the fall of the last feudal dynasty.History has entered a new stage.