Chapter 5 Chapter Five Papermaking Technology in Ming and Qing Dynasties

Zhu Yuanzhang established the Ming Dynasty (1368-1644 AD) in 1368.The Ming Dynasty lasted 277 years and was overthrown by the peasant army led by Li Zicheng in 1644.But soon the Manchu aristocratic group won the national power with the support of the Han landlords and established the Qing Dynasty (AD 1644-1911), which was the last feudal dynasty in Chinese history.The Ming and Qing Dynasties lasted 544 years, which was the last stage in the history of traditional papermaking technology. This stage can be called the stage of integration.The social economy and scientific culture of the Ming Dynasty were more developed than those of the Song Dynasty. From the perspective of the entire history of science and technology, the Ming Dynasty was also a conclusive stage of development.The same is true in the field of the history of papermaking technology.In this stage, papermaking raw materials, technology, equipment, and processing are all historical achievements. The output, quality, use, and origin of paper are also at a higher stage of development than any previous period.At the same time, an illustrated monograph dedicated to papermaking technology appeared, which was unprecedented in the previous generation.With the close communication between China and foreign countries, China's finely crafted paper, paper products and processing technology continue to spread abroad.At the end of the Qing Dynasty, China introduced mechanical papermaking technology from the West, thus opening a new page in the history of papermaking technology.During the Ming and Qing Dynasties, China's traditional papermaking technology reached the highest peak in history, but it also entered a trough with the decline of the feudal rule of the Qing Dynasty.This is the end of our investigation of the history of papermaking technology in China.After the Qing Dynasty entered the modern and modern stage of development, it should be studied separately.

During the Ming and Qing Dynasties, most of the papermaking distilleries were distributed in Jiangxi, Fujian, Zhejiang, Anhui and other provinces in the south, followed by Guangdong and Sichuan; in the north, Shaanxi, Shanxi, Hebei and other provinces were the main ones.Raw materials include bamboo, hemp, leather and straw, etc. Among them, the output of bamboo paper occupies the first place. The southern provinces are rich in bamboo materials, so bamboo paper is also produced in the near mountainous areas.Vellum paper is mostly used for calligraphy and painting or printed books, and the output ratio of hemp paper gradually decreases.In the Ming and Qing Dynasties, the "Xuan paper" produced in southern Anhui was the best of the time. Its raw material is mainly Qingtan bark, which is a deciduous tree native to China of the genus Qingtan in the family Ulmaceae. The bast bark of its branches is used to make paper.The ancients often mistook it for Chu, and the modern people often mistook it for Sang.Among the bamboo papers, "Lianshi" and "Maobian" in Jiangxi and Fujian are the most common, and are mostly used for printing various books.Hemp paper is mainly produced in the northern provinces, with a small output; leather paper is found in all parts of the north and south, and its output ranks second; rice straw paper is used to make secondary paper, packaging paper, fire paper (superstition paper) or as cardboard.Regarding the general situation of papermaking in the Ming Dynasty, there are many references in the works of the Ming people. For example, Tu Long said in "Paper Notes" Volume 2 of "Kaopan Yushi" that during the Yongle period of the Ming Dynasty (1403-1424 A.D.) near Nanchang, Jiangxi Xishan set up a bureau to make paper. "The thickest, largest and best ones are called Lianqi and Guanyin papers. There are Zouben papers from Qianshan, Jiangxi, and list papers from Changshan in Zhejiang and Yingshan in Luzhou, Zhili (now Anhui). There are small letter papers from Linchuan, Jiangxi, and large letter papers from Shangyu, Zhejiang. Today’s Da Nei (inner palace) uses fine-grained gold-sprinkled five-color powder paper and five-color curtain paper. Some white paper is as thick as a board, and both sides are calendered. It is as pure and white as jade. There are printed gold and five-color flower paper, and there is magnetic blue paper like satin, which is tough and precious. Recently Wuzhong Wuwen sprinkling gold paper is the best. Songjiangtan paper is made without powder, and it is made of Jingzhou (now Hubei) paper. It is smooth and smooth like Song Dynasty paper. Xin’an is also good for imitating Song Tibetan scripture paper. If there are old mounted paintings, roll tissue paper (vellum paper) is very good for painting, and it is suitable for collection.”

Wen Zhenheng of the Ming Dynasty also said in volume 7 of "Changwuzhi" on the papers from various places in the Ming Dynasty: "Guochao Lianqi, Guanyin, Zouben, and list papers are all excellent, but the fine-grained five-color powder paper used in Da Nei is as thick as a board. And the calendering is like white jade. There are printed gold and five-color paper, and there is blue paper like satin, all of which are valuable. Near Wuzhong, the sprinkled gold paper and Songjiangtan paper are not durable, and Jingxian County (now Anhui) Liansi [paper] is the best. "Fang Yizhi (AD 1611-1671) "Physical Knowledge" Volume 8 is also known as: "Yongle made Lianqi paper in Jiangxi, the playbook (paper) was produced from Qianshan, and the list paper was produced from Changshan and Lu (zhou) in Zhejiang. Yingshan. The jasmine paper was made in the fifth year of Xuande (1430 A.D.), printed with sprinkled gold paper, five-color powder paper, and magnetic green wax paper. In addition, (imitation) Xue Tao paper is made of alum yellow mica powder... Songjiangtan paper or Imitation of Song Tibetan scripture paper, stained with wax calender in Jingzhou. Three or four pieces of white paper in the Chen Qing Dynasty in Xuande (year) can be uncovered. The sound is harmonious and thick. The mulberry skin is the color of teeth, and the alum shines for writing. Today it is Cotton (vellum paper) is promoted in Xingguo and Jingxian County. Fushanzuo, Tongcheng City, also copied mulberry skin knot incense paper, Shaojian made bamboo paper, Shunchang paper, Cambodian paper, Guangxin (now Shangrao) is the best, and Zouben paper is also good. It can be seen from this that all kinds of high-quality natural color paper and processed paper made in Jiangxi, Zhejiang, Jiangsu, Anhui and other provinces in the Ming Dynasty were not only used for commodity circulation, but also used as tributes for the imperial court and public use of various ministries.Wang Zongmu (AD 1523-1591) listed 28 kinds of paper copied in Jiangxi in his "Jiangxi Dazhi", which can be summed up as thick and heavy paper, thin Kaihua paper, rough edge paper, continuous paper, middle paper, and Zouben paper. , oil paper, rattan paper, jade board paper, Kanhe paper and various colored papers, the raw materials are bamboo, 楮, etc.

As for the amount and price of the above-mentioned paper used by the Neifu, we can learn more about it from Shen Bang's "Miscellaneous Records of Wanshu".In the eighteenth year of Wanli (AD 1590), the author served as the magistrate of Wanping County, Shuntian Prefecture, the capital, and wrote this book based on the archives, recording the situation of paper used by the Ming court.Juan 15 contained 2,500 sheets of middle paper, priced at 37.5 taels of silver, 4,000 sheets of large report papers, priced at 16 taels of silver, and 11,600 sheets of even seven papers, priced at 9.28 taels of silver.It is also stated that in 1592, every 100 pieces of large report paper was worth 3.5 cents, every 100 pieces of even seven pieces of paper was worth 6.5 cents of silver, every 100 pieces of rough-edged paper was worth six cents, and every 100 pieces of paper with red bowl was worth one cent.It also contained 19 years of Wanli (AD 1591) township trial papers, including 690 pieces of Yulan papers, 11,360 sheets of table papers, 11,650 sheets of Zhongcheng papers, 37,300 sheets of Ganglian papers, 80 sheets of white list papers, and 60 sheets of red and yellow list papers. Zhang et al.Compared with the current prices of other items at that time, 50 catties of sesame oil cost 1 tael of silver, 10 pieces of linen cost 1.8 taels of silver, two bottles of shochu wine cost 1 tael of silver, and iron nails cost 1 tael of silver per 5 catties. 2,000 pieces of paper are equivalent to a bolt of linen, 50 pieces Raw edge paper is equivalent to 15 catties of iron nails or six bottles of shochu, and 50 sheets of large report paper can buy a catty of sesame oil.Generally speaking, the price of Ming Dynasty paper is not high, so it is widely used among the people.In the early Qing Dynasty, the paper industry was once destroyed due to the war, but it began to recover during the Kangxi and Qianlong periods, and the production of traditional brand-name paper and processed paper resumed.This situation continued until the Daoguang period (AD 1821-1850), and there has been basically no new progress since then.

The uses of paper in the Ming and Qing dynasties were as diverse as those in the Song and Yuan dynasties, but the consumption continued unabated. It was mainly used for calligraphy and painting, documents, printing, packaging and religion.Paper money was issued in larger quantities during this period.In the seventh year of Hongwu (1374 A.D.), the Banknote Lifting Department was set up. The following year, the "Daming Treasure Banknote" was issued and ordered to be circulated among the people. Mulberry paper was used to pay salaries to officials in banknotes.The wallpapers that were popular during the Ming and Qing Dynasties are worth mentioning here.Wallpaper is the artistic processing paper used for pasting walls. It is generally dyed into different colors, painted with pictures, or printed with colorful patterns for interior decoration, and sometimes powder paper is used.The aforementioned "Miscellaneous Records of Wanshu" volume 1314 contains the 16th year of Wanli (1588 A.D.) Luan paper used for pasting windows and walls costs 4.8 coins for 8 knives (800 sheets), which is equivalent to the price of 10 bottles of shochu. It's too expensive, so the people enjoy it.Li Yu (1611-1679 A.D.) also recorded a unique wallpaper making method in "Xian Qing Ou Ji".First use a layer of caramel-colored paper to paste the wall as the bottom, and then use bean-green mica paper to tear it into small pieces of different shapes and paste it on the caramel-colored paper, leaving a bottom seam, then "the whole house is full of water cracks and cracks, just like Geyao Beautiful utensils. The big ones can also be used to write poems and paint, and place them among the scattered small pieces."Various wallpapers from the 17th to 18th centuries can be seen in the Forbidden City of the Ming and Qing Dynasties, most of which are powder paper, printed with colorful flower and bird patterns, which are beautiful and generous.Some also overprint silver-white mica powder patterns.In the Qing Dynasty, there were more calendered five-color wallpapers.The introduction of Ming and Qing wallpapers to Europe had a great impact.American scholar Hunter said that as early as 1550, Spanish and Dutch merchants imported wallpaper from China. In 1638, Frankfurt, Germany imitated the gold and silver paper with Chinese flower and bird patterns to replace the expensive sheepskin paintings hanging on the wall. In 1688, the French imitated a large number of Chinese wallpapers and decorated them indoors.

In the Qing Dynasty, paper inkstone and paper Xiao were also developed.Qiu Shuyuan (AD 1874-1941) "Shuyuan Miscellaneous Talk" Volume 1 said that Guizhou used paper as an inkstone, and it was used for a long time. Cai Yeshan in Yuhang, Zhejiang Province got paper cups for wine, which did not leak.Volume 1 of Deng Zhicheng's (1887-1960 A.D.) "Bitter Notes" also mentioned that there was a person surnamed Cheng in Beisi Lane, Haining, Zhejiang Province, who made paper inkstones with stone sand and lacquer, and the color was the same as that of Duanxi Longwei stone inkstones. It will last for a long time (broken), art Lin cherishes it".It is pointed out here that the paper inkstone is not just made of paper, but made by bonding paper with fine stone sand and lacquer.But the paper cups for wine are made of thick paper, coated with lacquer and painted with beautiful patterns. "Bone Dong Suo Ji" also mentions that there is a roll of paper in front of Kaiyuan Temple in Fujian, which is used as a flute. Zhou Lianggong (AD 1612-1672) obtained it. The music it makes is even more beautiful than the bamboo flute.It is really ingenious to make a wind instrument with strict requirements out of paper.Lang Ying (AD 1487-1566) also mentioned paper kites in volume 22 of "Seven Revised Class Drafts": "The wind of spring rises from the bottom, and paper kites rise from it." Paper kites were widely popular in the Qing Dynasty.Kites have a long history. The early kites were made of bamboo strips, pasted with silk, and then replaced with paper.It should be said that paper kites existed before the Ming and Qing Dynasties, but they were more common at this time, and this kind of folk game was later spread abroad.Paper masks and facial makeup were also quite popular during the Ming and Qing Dynasties, mostly used in festivals or religious ceremonies.In short, paper products have widely penetrated into daily life.

Although papermaking technology was invented more than 2,000 years ago, it was not until the Ming and Qing Dynasties that systematic and clear records of papermaking technology appeared.Early technical records reflect the actual situation in the most developed areas of papermaking.We know that in the early Ming Dynasty (1368-1398 A.D.), government bureaus were set up in Nanchang Prefecture and Guangxin Prefecture, Jiangxi Province to make paper for the inner court.The chapter "Chu Shu" in "Jiangxi Dazhi" written and edited by Wang Zongmu reflects the actual technical situation of making Chu vellum paper at this time and place.Guangxin Prefecture is the largest manufacturing center in today's Shangrao area, Qianshan County and Yushan County. I visited the local area 30 years ago. From the ruins of the Ming and Qing Dynasties in the neighborhood of the ancient county town, I can still imagine the grand occasion of papermaking and transshipment sales at that time.According to "Jiangxi Dazhi", in the early Ming Dynasty, the raw materials used in the official paper mills were from Huguang, and the bamboo silk came from Fujian, but the Baijie skin was native to Yushan, and the bamboo curtains used for papermaking came from Anhui and Zhejiang, and were transported to the prefecture by traders.About manufacturing technology, the book also made a detailed description.The whole process includes 22 procedures, which are quite complicated. The leather needs to be steamed three times, naturally bleached twice and washed three times.The paper treated in this way must be pure white, even and fine high-grade mulberry paper, while ordinary leather paper has only been boiled twice and bleached twice.Since the paper made here is for the royal use, regardless of the cost, a complicated manufacturing process is used.When copying, six people are required to lift the big curtain, and the papermaking curtain used is made of extremely thin bamboo strips and yellow silk threads.

As for bamboo paper, Song Yingxing, a scientist in the Ming Dynasty, made detailed records in his chapter "Tiangong Kaiwu·Finishing", which reflects the technology in the south of the Yangtze River.The bamboo material is chopped and put into the pond for retting, then hammered to remove the rough shell, and then made into lime water slurry, after which the bamboo material is steamed and washed.After such treatment, it is boiled and washed again with plant ash water, and then pounded into a pulp.After adding carambola vine water and pulp and mixing thoroughly, it can be copied.The process goes through 18 processes, and the process of making bamboo paper and skin paper is similar, because the raw materials are raw fibers, while bamboo paper uses bamboo stem fibers as raw materials, and skin paper uses bast fibers. This is the difference.From the perspective of technical economics, the process described in "Jiangxi Dazhi" is wasteful, and it is not as concise as the process described in "Tiangong Kaiwu".The correct technical solution should be to use as simple procedures as possible, less energy and labor consumption, so as to minimize the loss of raw materials and achieve the best results.Different from government-run distilleries, private paper mills pay special attention to economic benefits in the papermaking process, and sometimes the quality of paper they make is actually higher. The technology contained in "Tiangong Kaiwu" is the technology used by folk paper workshops.

Like the Ming Dynasty, the Qing Dynasty also recorded a lot of papermaking technology, especially bamboo paper.Yan Ruyu from the Qing Dynasty described in detail the manufacture of bamboo paper in Dingyuan and Xixiang in southern Shaanxi in the "Shanhuo" volume of "Three Provinces Frontier Defenses".Firstly, the choice of the location of the paper mill must be in a place rich in forests, bluestones and near water. Fortunately, it is close to the bamboo forest.In southern Shaanxi, water bamboo is used as raw material to produce raw edge paper, yellow table paper, Erze paper (big paper) and so on.The bamboo paper making in southern Shaanxi during the Daoguang period of the Qing Dynasty described in the book is similar to the Jiangnan technology described in "Tiangong Kaiwu" during the Chongzhen period of the Ming Dynasty, and the latter is the most advanced.

The famous Xuan paper making in Ming and Qing Dynasties must also be mentioned here.Its main raw material is the green sandalwood bark of Ulmaceae, so Xuan paper is a kind of skin paper, and its manufacturing technology should be exactly the same as that of mulberry skin paper and mulberry skin paper.Xuan paper is mainly produced in Jing County, Anhui Province, and most of the people who work in this industry are Cao and Zhai.Because Jing County used to belong to Xuanzhou Prefecture, Jing County paper is called Xuan paper.According to the "Cao Family Genealogy" of the Qing Dynasty, during the Song and Yuan Dynasties, Cao Dasan moved from Xuancheng to Xiaoling, Xixiang, Jing County.Xuan paper has attracted the attention of literati in the Ming Dynasty. For example, Shen Defu, a scholar of the Ming Dynasty, said in Feifu Yulue: "In addition, the Jingxian paper sticks to the wall, and it can also be used when reading the year." In fact, "Jingxian paper" is better than Xuan paper. The name change matches.Fang Yizhi, a man in the late Ming Dynasty, also said in "Little Knowledge of Physics" that the parchment at that time "promoted Xingguo and Jing County".Although the main raw material of Xuan paper is green sandalwood bark, due to continuous felling, the supply of raw materials is insufficient, so it is often added with mulberry bark or straw.During the Ming and Qing Dynasties, high-quality rice paper was used for official documents and calligraphy and painting paper for the inner court and the government, and rice paper was sometimes used for the long list paper used in the imperial examination.Xuan paper is characterized by its whiteness, flexibility, smooth surface, and good ink absorption, so it has gradually become a famous paper.The reason why rice paper is so good is that it is made with exquisite workmanship.The raw material does not necessarily have to use green sandalwood bark. From the perspective of papermaking, all woody plants containing bast fibers can be used to make paper.However, mixing straw into green sandalwood bark is not as good as adding mulberry bark. Straw fibers are short and the paper is easy to age.

During the Ming and Qing Dynasties, the processing of paper was the culmination of past dynasties. At this time, the production of various famous papers in history resumed, and some new varieties were introduced at the same time.The most famous processed paper in the Ming Dynasty is Xuande Gongjian, which was made in the Xuande period (AD 1426-1435). There are many varieties, and it is as famous as Xuande furnace and Xuande porcelain.Since then, it has continued to be produced, mostly for the use of the inner government, and later spread from the inner government, so it is respected by the world. "Feifu Yulue" says that since Xuande paper was introduced from the inner palace, it has been cherished like Xuanhe Longfeng paper and Jinsu Tibetan scripture paper in Song Dynasty.Minister Cha Shenxing of the Qing Dynasty said in a poem chanting Xuande paper: "The small seal clearly marked the year of Xuande, and the price of the Southern Tang Dynasty and Western Shu competed for transmission. The Nong family loves Chen Qing's money and does not take golden flower five-color paper." Self-note: "Xuande tribute paper has' In the fifth year of Xuande (AD 1430), there were jasmine paper seals, and there were five-color pink paper, five-color gold flower paper, five-color curtain paper, and magnetic blue paper, and the Chen Qing style was the first." It can be seen that in the early Qing Dynasty, the Xuande Gong Paper and Chengxintang paper in the Five Dynasties and Southern Tang Dynasty are called rare and famous papers, while Xuande paper is also divided into natural color paper, five-color pink paper, five-color golden flower paper, five-color curtain paper, and ciqing paper.We guessed that the Xuande paper should have been copied by the Jiangxi bureau, not the Xuande paper in Jing County, Anhui.According to Shen Chu's (AD 1735-?) "Notes on the Western Qing Dynasty", the "sheep brain paper" made of Xuande porcelain blue paper is also a famous product.It is stored with sheep brain and top smoke ink [Yin Yin], and after a long time, it is painted on the paper surface, and it is calendered into paper. It is as black as lacquer and as bright as a mirror. It has been used since the Xuande year. termite.I have seen this paper before, it is written with lacquered gold, the paper is as thick and hard as leather board, it is exactly as Shen Chu described.Xuande porcelain blue paper is dyed with indigo dye, the color is similar to blue and white porcelain, hence the name. In the Ming Dynasty, Tang Xuetao paper and Song Jinsu paper were imitated, produced in Huizhou Prefecture.There are also those who add mica powder on Xue Taojian, which has a dazzling luster.The Sajin Jian and Songjiang Tan Jian in the Suzhou area were also famous for a time.There were the most varieties of processed paper in the Qing Dynasty, and there were not a few of them handed down from generation to generation.During the Qianlong period (AD 1736-1795), imitation Chengxintang paper, Song Jinsu paper, Xue Tao paper, and Yuanming Rendian paper all have physical remains.Chengxintang imitation paper is also made in Anhui, the bucket style, thicker paper, mostly colored powder paper, painted with lacquered landscapes, flowers and birds, with a small seal on the paper saying "Qianlong imitation Chengxintang paper".Xue Tao Jian is a small rectangular pink paper with a small seal of "Xue Tao Jian".Imitation of Mingren Temple paper (53 cm x 121.4 cm) is yellow wax paper, painted with lacquered Ruyi patterns, the paper is thick and hard, and gold flakes are pasted on the paper surface, and there is also a small seal saying "Imitation of Ming Ren Temple paper in the year of Qianlong" .The plum-blossom jade paper, created during the Kangxi period (1662-1722 A.D.), continued to be produced during the Qianlong period. The stencil was powdered in the bucket method, and then the ice plum pattern was painted with gilt or silver mud, and the "Plum Blossom Jade Paper" seal was engraved.We have also seen five-color wax paper with golden clouds and dragons painted in Qianlong, painted with pastels, then wax calendered, and painted with lacquered clouds and dragons (about 50 cm x 95 cm).In addition to the pattern of clouds and dragons, this kind of paper is also painted with flowers and birds, landscapes, folded flowers, Bogu pictures, etc.The materials used are all leather.These papers were used to write Yichun posts and poems in the palace for interior decoration.The refined painters were all court painters, whose painting styles were influenced by Jiang Tingxi (1668-1732 AD), Zou Yigui (1686-1774 AD) and Zhang Zongcang (1686-?) and others.The cost of the above-mentioned colored gold sprinkled or lacquered wax paper is very high, and the expensive ones cost six taels of silver per piece, which can be compared with brocade.During the Ming and Qing dynasties, natural or five-color calendered paper was made of high-quality tough leather paper. The patterns include landscapes, flowers and birds, figures, fish and insects, dragons and phoenixes, cloud and water patterns, and text, etc., sometimes by painters.At the same time, it also produces traditional rib paper, hair paper, mica paper and various color engraving and printing wallpapers.All processed papers that appeared in history are available at this time. Another technological wealth provided to us during the Ming and Qing Dynasties is the technical records on various processed papers.Before that, people only recorded the name of a certain processed paper, and rarely introduced its specific processing technology.However, Tu Long’s “Kaopan Yu Shi” and Feng Mengzhen’s (AD 1548-1605) “Kai Xue Tang Man Lu” focused on various paper processing techniques, including dyeing and making Song paper, and making gold and silver. There is no glue method for stamping paper, hammered white paper and dyed paper for painting.It is of reference value for us to restore traditional processed paper today. In short, the Ming and Qing Dynasties absorbed the experience of past dynasties in the manufacture and processing of paper and reached the highest level, but still remained at the stage of manual production.At the same time, the paper industry in the West developed rapidly after the Industrial Revolution, catching up from behind. In 1750, the Dutch invented a new type of mechanical beater. In 1798, France invented the fourdrinier paper machine. In the 19th century, chemical wood pulp paper was introduced. Papermaking transitioned from manual production to large-scale machine production.Since then, China's papermaking technology has gradually fallen behind.It was only at the end of the Qing Dynasty that mechanical papermaking technology was introduced from the West, and factories were built and put into production in Shanghai and other places. From the end of the 19th century to the beginning of the 20th century, there was a period of coexistence of handmade paper and machine-made paper in China, but handmade paper was still the main product, and printing machines also used two types of paper for printing.Later, the production of machine-made paper increased greatly, eventually replacing handmade paper as the main paper.Looking back at the history of papermaking technology in China for more than 2,100 years, we can see that during the 2,000 years from the 2nd century BC to the 18th century, China has completed a series of numerous inventions, large and small, in the field of papermaking technology, and has been in the leading position in the world for a long time.What China provides to the world is a complete technical system of papermaking and processing. Almost all the various technologies and equipment forms of modern papermaking can find their initial development models in China.Studies have shown that, as far as the papermaking technology system is concerned, many major inventions and innovations were mostly completed in China. Of course, other countries have also made many contributions. Especially after the 18th century, the technological potential of Europeans in machine-made paper was fully utilized.