Chapter 15 Chapter Five Changes in the Status of Overseas Chinese in America
The status of indentured Chinese laborers in Latin America is similar to that of slaves. Not to mention the hardships of labor and life, their lives are also controlled by their masters.Cuban indentured Chinese laborers work for more than 12 hours a day, and some even as long as 18-20 hours. No. 7 and No. 8 clearly recorded the real life of Cuban Chinese laborers: "The food and clothing of the piggies is very meager. The clothes are short and brown, and the food is thick millet and plantains. , but because of the overseer’s despotic power, he dare not be lazy, Gai even lost his joy, followed by flogging, or even put to death.” Most of the indentured Chinese laborers arrived in Cuba young and strong, “but only 25% of them survived eight years of slavery. %".It can be seen the extent of harsh exploitation and cruel oppression of contract Chinese laborers by Latin American plantation owners.At that time, the Qing government was corrupt, the national power was weak, and the government was unable to protect itself, so it was simply unable to care about the life and death of these "overseas orphans".
As mentioned above, the external reason for Chinese workers to go abroad is to meet the urgent needs of economic development such as mining, road construction, and canal digging in the host country. a means.Because of this, there is bound to be a potential danger of exclusion of Chinese: that is, once the mine resources are exhausted and the railways and canals have been opened, Chinese workers will face the possibility of a large number of unemployment and sharp conflicts with white workers in the country of residence.In this way, the phenomenon of Chinese exclusion will follow, and it will become more and more serious.
Generally speaking, the attitudes of the host countries towards Chinese workers and overseas Chinese can be roughly divided into three stages:
The first stage was from the 1940s to the 1970s.During this stage, the host country generally welcomed the Chinese laborers. Although there were speeches and phenomena against the Chinese laborers in some areas at that time, it was only an individual problem.In the early days, Chinese laborers, especially during the period of mining gold mines and building railways, were generally welcomed by various countries where overseas Chinese lived.As Robert Winn puts it in his book Responses to the Chinese in the Pacific Northwest and British Columbia: "The (railway) project appeared to be so badly needed that various groups and districts rushed to build a railway in this area. As long as Those who have built railways are welcomed even by the devil. The shortage of white labor is so obvious that even the most fanatical anti-China elements have no complaints about hiring Chinese to do this kind of work.” Sometimes they are also given special honors by the government of the country of residence.For example, in 1850, Chinese laborers in San Francisco were invited to the solemn funeral of President Taylor. In 1852, Chinese workers in San Francisco were also invited to participate in the celebration of Washington's birthday.As a Philadelphian (living in San Francisco) described: "Today's celebration was attended by foreigners from all over the world. After the French, Spaniards, and Hebrews passed by, about two hundred Chinese shouted ' The banner of "Chinese Youth in San Francisco" appeared in front of the audience. At the front of the line were Chinese officials (according to businessmen) and bands, and behind them were representatives of the city's most industrious and law-abiding residents." The Philadelphian reflected the early The mentality of the Chinese workers being welcomed by American government officials and the masses also fully reveals the fine qualities of the early Chinese workers who were "hardworking and law-abiding".However, while praising Chinese laborers, Chinese exclusion also occurred in certain areas of the United States from time to time.As early as 1849, a group of white people drove 60 Chinese laborers from the British company out of the camp in Duluny County, a gold mining area in northern California, which caused an incident of anti-Chinese.Since then, San Francisco's Chinatown has been regularly attacked and besieged.Anti-Chinese atrocities also occurred successively in Tacoma, Washington, and Seattle, where local Chinese were besieged and shot.According to statistics, 32 overseas Chinese were killed in 1855.By 1862, 88 overseas Chinese had been killed, all of whom were said to have been killed by white people, and 11 of them were killed by officials who had taken an oath to collect gold mining license taxes according to law.However, only two of the murderers were found guilty by the court and hanged.Generally speaking, these white criminals have been shielded by the American judiciary. Many of them killed overseas Chinese, or they failed to resolve the matter, or they were given light sentences for serious crimes, which is very unfair.Therefore, the killing of overseas Chinese is not uncommon in the United States.According to a report in the Shasta County "Republic" in 1856, hundreds of overseas Chinese had been killed in the past five years.Massacres of overseas Chinese can be seen almost every day!
In the 1870s, with the continuous development of different regions in the Americas, the opening of the cross-country railway in the United States and Canada, and the continuous entry of immigrants from various countries, the labor force gradually appeared superficially.It is precisely for this reason that American countries, especially the United States, have appeared in Congress and in various newspapers with anti-China speeches. What Chinese immigrants have caused the wages of white workers to drop? Chinese workers do not pay attention to hygiene habits, which can easily cause epidemics to occur and spread, etc. Such anti-Chinese workers' remarks have seriously damaged the image of Chinese workers in the country where they live.It was under the influence of various public opinions against Chinese laborers that anti-Chinese movements in various places reached a climax, and there were massacres of unarmed overseas Chinese for no reason in the United States. In October 1871, on a street in Los Angeles where Mexicans and blacks lived together, a white man died suddenly, and the cause of death was unknown.But a group of gun-toting white thugs did not distinguish between right and wrong, chanting the slogan of "revenge for the dead", rushed into Chinatown and committed murder, killing 22 overseas Chinese and losing countless properties.
By the 1880s, the voices of anti-Chinese and anti-Chinese continued to rise, so that governments of various countries had to intervene.Many governments in the Americas unilaterally ordered the prohibition of entry of Chinese laborers, thus entering a period of comprehensive exclusion of Chinese.
On September 1, 1885, at the Stone Spring Coal Mine in Wyoming, because the Chinese workers did not want to participate in the strike movement launched by the white miners, a small-scale conflict occurred between the two sides.The next day, about 100 white mobs armed with rifles attacked Chinatown-Shiquan Village in two groups.They robbed property whenever they saw it, killed any Chinese they saw, and set fire to the entire Chinatown.Afterwards, the territorial government sent personnel to the scene to inspect and found that 16 Chinese were shot dead. Fifty or sixty Chinese corpses were dug up from the burned houses, and the number of unearthed ones was unknown.When the tragedy happened, six or seven hundred people escaped and survived.This is the biggest tragedy in the history of anti-China and anti-China in the United States.
Overseas Chinese in Canada also suffered the same fate. In 1886, there were more than 3,000 Chinese laborers in Vancouver, Canada, most of whom lived in simple wooden houses surrounding False Bay.This year, a fire broke out in Vancouver.The anti-China elements falsely claimed that the Chinese set the fire, so on January 8, 1887, the Chinese laborers were put on a motorboat and sent to Victoria forcibly. On February 24, the rioters surrounded and demolished the wooden houses where the Chinese lived in the Briquahaus construction site, and burned the clothes and all the furniture of the Chinese workers.That night, mobs attacked the Chinese residence in False Bay again, causing serious losses to Chinese lives and property.
The civil anti-China and anti-China movement gradually developed into inter-governmental decision-making. On November 17, 1880, the delegation of the U.S. government signed a new immigration treaty with the Qing government in Beijing. The treaty stipulated: "The Qing Dynasty and the U.S. jointly agreed that if Chinese laborers from the U.S. go to the U.S. or live in various places, they shall If the interests of the United States are hindered, or the safety of the United States or a place in the United States is hindered, the Qing Dynasty's quasi-greater United States can either arrange it, or set a limit on the number of people and the number of years, and it is not prohibited to go." This treaty states The signing marked the end of the so-called "free immigration" policy and the beginning of the government's overall exclusion of Chinese.
In May 1882, the U.S. Congress officially passed the first Chinese Exclusion Act under the pretext of the Treaty of Beijing, declaring that the U.S. government believed that Chinese immigrants endangered the good order in certain areas, and could stop skilled and unskilled Chinese workers from entering the United States within 10 years. Chinese who enter the United States through illegal channels will be deported from the date of government approval, and Chinese who are already in the United States have no right to apply for American citizenship.The bill unilaterally violates the Beijing Treaty's "not prohibiting travel" provisions.Not only that, but it further involved the rights and status of the Chinese laborers who had entered the country.
Immediately after the promulgation of the Chinese Exclusion Act in the United States, the status of Chinese newly entering the United States was reviewed.Many were held in immigration processing stations.The immigration processing station on Angel Island in the San Francisco Bay used to detain hundreds of thousands of Chinese newcomers to the United States.The conditions here are harsh, the interrogation period is very long, and many Chinese are forced to commit suicide.One scholar was forced to commit suicide. Before committing suicide, he inscribed the following poignant elegy on the wall of the hut at the immigration processing station:
Subsequently, countries in Latin America followed the example of the U.S. government, prohibiting the entry of Chinese workers by promulgating laws or issuing orders from the president. In 1897, the President of Guatemala issued an order prohibiting China from continuing to immigrate to Guatemala. In 1907, he ordered that overseas Chinese residing in Guatemala were allowed to leave the country with passports at any time, and they were not allowed to re-enter after leaving the country; Anyone who assists them in entering the country shall be punished according to the law. In May 1902, the Cuban government ordered that "during the prohibition period, it is illegal for Chinese workers to come to Cuba from ports or places in other countries", prohibiting Chinese immigrants from entering the country. In 1903, the Panamanian government also banned the entry of Chinese immigrants.The Peruvian government even disregarded the provisions of the Sino-Peru treaty regarding the free entry of Chinese, and in 1909 ordered to restrict the entry of Chinese, and then ordered to prohibit the entry of Chinese.By 1923, the Chinese Exclusion Act was passed by the Federal Parliament of Canada, approved by the Governor-General, and came into effect on July 1.Canada's "Chinese Immigration Regulations" has a total of 43 articles, the main content of which is: China or people of Chinese descent are not allowed to enter Canada as immigrants in the future; Departures are limited to two years, and they are not allowed to return to Canada after the time limit; Chinese who return to Canada use Vancouver as the port of entry, and only one person is allowed to carry Chinese for every 250 tons.
Since American countries successively promulgated the Chinese Exclusion Act or ordered the prohibition of Chinese immigrants from entering the country, the number of Chinese immigrants entering the Americas dropped sharply. In the 1870s, more than 2.8 million immigrants entered the United States, of which European immigrants accounted for 80%, and Chinese immigrants accounted for only 4.4%. %, while the Chinese decreased to 1.4%. There were more than 3.6 million immigrants entering the United States in the 1990s, of which Europeans accounted for 96.5%, while Chinese accounted for only 0.4%.
In short, before the Second World War, the policies of American governments changed according to the demand for Chinese immigrants. In the early stage, they mainly adopted an attitude of welcome, and in the later stage, they mainly adopted an attitude of repelling and attacking. But generally speaking, America Chinese immigrants are always enslaved and oppressed. Even though Cuban overseas Chinese participated in the Cuban War of Independence, gained a relatively large degree of freedom after independence, and were respected by the local people and the government, they could not escape this oppression. .
It should be pointed out that during this period, the Qing government also began to change from an attitude of indifference to "overseas orphans" to a protective attitude.During this period, among the envoys of the Qing government to American countries, especially to the United States, there appeared some outstanding figures such as Chen Lanbin, Rong Hong, Zheng Zaoru, Zhang Yinhuan, Wu Tingfang and Huang Zunxian who fought to protect the interests of overseas Chinese in the Americas.They campaigned for the inferior life of overseas Chinese in the Americas, and made public the suffering situation of overseas Chinese; they protested to stop the American anti-Chinese movement and demanded a just solution.But all these efforts of theirs failed one by one because of the corruption of the Qing government and their lack of international status!
In 1939, German fascists attacked Poland, and World War II broke out.In the Second World War, the Eighth Route Army and the New Fourth Army led by the Communist Party of China and the army led by the patriotic generals of the Nationalist Government opened up the eastern battlefield against Japanese fascism and made important contributions to the magnificent cause of the world's anti-fascism. international status.
On January 12, 1943, China and the United States signed a new treaty of equality, and the United States gave up all unequal rights in China.Pro-Chinese people in the United States began to criticize the various Chinese Exclusion Acts that treated the Chinese unequally, pointing out that China and the United States were allies in the War of Resistance Against Japan and fought side by side, so the Chinese Exclusion Act should be abolished.Senator McNewson put forward a proposal on June 29 to repeal the ban on Chinese entry and grant quotas, and submitted it to the House of Representatives for discussion on October 11.On the same day, President Roosevelt sent a message to Congress calling for the repeal of the Chinese Exclusion Act.The statement stated: "It is now before Congress to consider and approve this bill that will allow the Chinese to immigrate to our country and allow the Chinese residents here to become American citizens. I believe that this legislation is important to the cause of winning this war and establishing a solid peace. important." "China is our ally, and for many years she fought alone against aggression. Today we fight with her, which has always persisted in a heroic struggle under extremely adverse conditions." "I am convinced that Congress is completely Agree to take this long overdue measure to right our past injustices to our friends." After the passage of both houses of Congress, the bill was approved by President Roosevelt on December 17.The content of the bill is: When allocating immigrants from various countries, China accounts for 105 people each year, of which it is stipulated that 75% should come from Chinese born and living in China, and the remaining 25% should be allocated to Chinese from all over the world. Half of the people of Chinese descent are also included in the number of Chinese immigrants. Deduction; anyone who entered the country before July 1, 1924, can apply for naturalization in the United States; anyone who entered the country after July 1, 1924, is regarded as a temporary resident, and must go through certain procedures to obtain permanent residence , to apply for naturalization.Later, after various efforts by the Chinese, the US government agreed that within a certain period of time, "foreign wives of military personnel", "military wives of Chinese origin", "fiancées of veterans", "Chinese-American wives", etc. can enter the country through non-quota methods, etc. Wait.
After the enactment of the new law, the number of Chinese immigrants entering the United States has gradually increased:
Number of Chinese immigrants admitted to the United States according to quotas, 1944-1965
Note: Those marked with an asterisk include those admitted to the U.S. under suspension of removal or under the Immigration Act, as well as refugees who borrow quotas for future years.
Number of Chinese immigrants admitted to the United States as non-quota immigrants (1946.6.30—1965.6.30)
Note: Persons marked with * include Chinese born in China.
According to statistics, there were about 70,000 Chinese Americans in 1940, and the number had increased to 806,027 in 1980, and it has increased to over one million in recent years.
After the outbreak of World War II, China's relations with Latin American countries also improved rapidly. On the eve of the outbreak of the Pacific War in 1941, the Nationalist Government established diplomatic relations with Colombia, Venezuela, El Salvador, Costa Rica, and Honduras. In 1940, the Nationalist Government signed a treaty of friendship with the Dominican Republic, and in 1945 signed an additional clause in the Treaty of Friendship; Treaty of Friendship; 1943, China-Brazil (Spain) Friendship Treaty; 1944, China-Mexico Friendship Treaty; 1944, China-Costa Rica Friendship Treaty; 1946, China-Ecuador Friendship Treaty; 1947, China-Argentina Friendship Treaty Treaty, etc.
On May 1, 1947, the Canadian government announced the abolition of the prohibition of Chinese immigration and other Chinese exclusion orders promulgated in 1923. This was a major victory for Chinese Canadians in the past 25 years to obtain immigration rights.
From the outbreak of the Second World War to shortly after the war, because in the 10 years before the Pearl Harbor Incident, only the Chinese people had undertaken huge national sacrifices to fight the bloody Japanese invaders alone. , And played a great role in rescuing the British troops stationed in Burma and opening up the Burmese battlefield.Therefore, the national government at that time concluded friendship treaties and formal diplomatic relations with the governments of most countries in America.In the signed treaties, in countries where Chinese exist, almost all the immigration and treatment issues of Chinese are generally favorable. question.Since then, the status of those Chinese who are called "overseas orphans" in American countries has improved considerably.As far as the field of employment is concerned, in the past, the employment restricted areas that Chinese were not allowed to enter, such as some heavy industries in the United States, especially the military industry and shipbuilding, have gradually begun to employ Chinese.Shops and companies that generally did not employ Chinese in the past have gradually begun to employ Chinese women as shop assistants and staff.In the Americas, especially in the United States, a considerable number of overseas Chinese have changed from physical labor to mental work, that is, from blue-collar workers to white-collar workers, and many of them have become famous experts, engineers, brokers and senior managers. personnel.
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