Chapter 2 Section 2 Creation and Renewal of Firearms

Chinese alchemists in the Tang Dynasty invented gunpowder in the early 9th century AD.In the early Northern Song Dynasty, gunpowder was made into firearms by weapon developers and military commanders for use in warfare, creating a period in which firearms and cold weapons were used together in the history of human warfare.This period lasted for nine centuries from the Yuan and Ming Dynasties to the middle of the 19th century, during which it experienced three stages of development. Primary firearms were created by weapon developers and military commanders in the early Northern Song Dynasty by inheriting ancient fire attack techniques and tactics, and are the development of ancient fire attack techniques and tactics.However, the fire attack tools used in ancient fire attack operations all use wormwood, grease, turpentine and other fuels and fire starters, and bind them to birds, beasts, camouflaged straw figures, bows and arrows, and use them as carrying and launching tools. Send the fire source to the enemy's line, set fire to the enemy's food and grass, or attack the enemy's defense line to achieve the goal of victory.Because the igniters attached to these fire attack appliances rely on the oxygen in the air to burn, they are not only affected by the weather, but also dissipate the fire source or be blown out by the wind during operation, so the combustion efficiency is low.The incendiary firearms invented at the beginning of the Northern Song Dynasty—the fireball (written in the Song Dynasty) and the gunpowder arrow are fire attack tools with gunpowder as the combustion source. They do not need to rely on oxygen in the air, so they can burn in a closed vessel.When using it, you only need to burn the fire ball shell or the gunpowder bag attached to the gunpowder arrow with a red-hot burning cone first, and then throw and cast it at the enemy with the help of a trebuchet and a long-range crossbow.

Several generations of emperors in the early Northern Song Dynasty attached great importance to the manufacture of firearms.According to the "Song Huiyao Collection Draft Officials Thirty-seven", at the latest in the first year of Emperor Renzong of the Song Dynasty (AD 1023), Kaifeng, Tokyo had set up a Guangbei siege operation specializing in the manufacture of siege equipment.Below it are large carpentry, sawmill, small wood, leather, large furnace, small furnace, hemp, stone, brick, mud, well, red and white, barrel, tile, 21 works including bamboo work, fire oil work, nail joint work, gunpowder work, golden fire work, green kiln work, kiln work, etc.Each work has strict operating procedures.The establishment of the gunpowder factory shows that the gunpowder preparation in the Northern Song Dynasty has developed from the decentralized operation of individual handicrafts to the stage of large-scale workshop operation and mass production, which has made a leap in the production of gunpowder weapons.In order to promote the development of firearms manufacturing, the imperial court implemented a reward policy to reward the inventions of firearms developers.According to historical records such as "Song History Bing Eleven", only from the third year of Kaibao in the Northern Song Dynasty to the fifth year of Xianping (AD 970-1002), Feng Jisheng, the commander of the Ministry of War, Tang Fu, the commander of the Shenwei Water Army, and Jizhou The regiment training envoy Shi Pu and others presented fireballs, gunpowder arrows, fire thorns and other firearms to the court.Every time a dedication is made, the imperial court will organize civil and military officials to watch the experiment.After the test is successful, the developer will be rewarded heavily, and the weapon workshop will be ordered to manufacture a large number of weapons, and distributed to the capital, key towns, and border areas for use.Since fireballs and gunpowder arrows are the primary firearms created in the Northern Song Dynasty, they need to use long-range weapons such as crossbows and catapults to exert their combat functions such as burning, emitting smoke, and dispersing poison. Squads in the team use.

During the Southern Song Dynasty, wars were fought between the Song Army, the Jin Army and the Mongolian Army. All parties involved in the war strived to develop new types of firearms, improve their equipment, and defeat their opponents, thus promoting the development of firearms, so iron artillery and muskets came into play. And born. The iron cannon is an explosive fireball with an iron shell made of cast iron. It was developed from a paper shell fireball and was originally used by the Jin army.After the fall of the Northern Song Dynasty, the Jin army used the firearms manufacturing equipment and craftsmen of the Northern Song Dynasty to create iron artillery and attack the Southern Song Dynasty.

Firearms are tube-shaped firearms made of bamboo and paper. Its creation and development is another important achievement in the development of firearms in the Southern Song Dynasty. The flying firearm used by the Jin army in the fifth year of Dingding (AD 1232), and the burst firearm created in Shouchunfu (now Shouxian County, Anhui Province) in the first year of Kaiqing (AD 1259).The creation of muskets brought about a leap in the way firearms are used. It no longer needs the aid of bows and crossbows and trebuchets to function alone.Long bamboo muskets can be used to spit fire and burn, and are the predecessor of firearms such as torches.Flying muskets can be equipped for individual combat, and a flying musket team composed of hundreds of soldiers has appeared.The burst fire gun uses a giant bamboo as a tube, which can launch a zike (keke) to kill enemy soldiers, which laid the foundation for the creation of the metal tubular shooting firearm in the Yuan Dynasty - the fire gun.

The firearm is the first generation of metal tube-shaped shooting firearm in my country. It was developed by the firearms developer in the Yuan Dynasty, and it was made according to the style and principle of the firearms in the Southern Song Dynasty, especially the burst firearms.The existing Zhankou gun made in the third year of Yuan Zhishun (1332 AD) and the hand gun made in the year of Yuan Zhizheng Xinmao (11th year of Yuan Zhizheng, 1351 AD) are respectively the large fire guns and guns created at that time. A representative product of the handgun.In addition, in Banlachengzi, Acheng County, Heilongjiang Province, outside the south entrance of Jinglongchi Lane in Dongguan, Xi'an, the former Heicheng Commune in Tuoketuo County, Inner Mongolia, and Tongxian County, Beijing, some other hand guns with similar manufacturing ages were also unearthed.Compared with firearms, firecrackers have the advantages of being able to withstand greater chamber pressure, loading more gunpowder, longer service life, and greater lethality.Therefore, shortly after the creation of the firecracker, it became a firearm used by the Yuan army and the peasant uprising army at the end of the Yuan Dynasty. Among them, Zhu Yuanzhang's troops used the most.

In the fifteenth year from Yuan to Zhengzheng (1355 A.D.), Zhu Yuanzhang stationed troops in Hezhou (now Hexian County, Anhui Province) and prepared to cross the river.Legend has it that at this time a firearms developer named Jiao Yu brought dozens of dragon guns he developed and dedicated them to Zhu Yuanzhang.Zhu Yuanzhang was overjoyed, and immediately ordered general Xu Da to organize a shooting test.I saw the projectile coming out of the chamber, like a fire dragon passing through the air, able to penetrate the metal armor.Zhu Yuanzhang appreciated it greatly and promised to give him a generous seal after his success.In August of the 23rd year of Yuan Zhizheng, Zhu Yuanzhang led his troops to a decisive battle with another peasant uprising army led by Chen Youliang at Poyang Lake.As a result, Zhu Yuanzhang's troops used the bowl-mouth guns installed on the warships to fire large projectiles, crushing the warships of Chen Youliang's navy, and won the victory.After the establishment of the Ming Dynasty, the Baoyuan Bureau of the Ministry of Industry, the Weapons Bureau of the Ministry of Industry, and the Bingzhan Bureau of the Neifu specialized in the manufacture of various firearms such as hand guns and bowl-mouth guns.After Zhu Yuanzhang's fourth son Zhu Di, the king of Yan, seized the throne, in order to carry out wars and strengthen national defense construction, he made great efforts to manufacture firecrackers, increased the quantity and variety, improved the structure, and made the firecrackers fully developed until the Jiajing period. , are the main equipment of the Ming army.

The mass production and equipment of firecrackers brought about the first major changes in many aspects of ancient Chinese military affairs.Let's start with the organization and equipment. In the past, the army's equipment was only improved in the range of cold weapons, and now it has begun to increase firearms.In the thirteenth year of Ming Hongwu (AD 1370), the Ming government stipulated that the proportion of weapons and equipment stationed in the guards in various places was: 10% of firecrackers, 20% of knives, 30% of bows and arrows, and 40% of guns. One ratio.Emperor Yongle of the Ming Dynasty founded the earliest firearms unit in the world - Shenjiying around the eighth year of Yongle (AD 1410).At the same time, Jinchi (now Baoshan, Yunnan), Chuxiong, Pindian (10 miles northeast of Xiangyun County, Yunnan), and Huailai (now Hebei), Xuanfu (now Xuanhua, Hebei), Datong, Shuo County (now in Shanxi) and other key border passes have also increased the number of firecrackers.In the eighth year of Hongwu (1375 A.D.), the Ming court added large guns to the coastal fortresses such as Laizhouwei to strengthen defense.In the seventeenth year of Yongle (1419 A.D.), Liu Jiang, the commander-in-chief of Liaodong Town, also used the guns added to the fortresses such as Wanghaiguo (guo Guo) to achieve the "Wanghaiguo Great Victory" in annihilating the invading Japanese pirates.If the creation of primary firearms in the Song Dynasty gave birth to the germination of the tactics of combining firearms and cold weapons, then the creation and development of firecrackers in the Yuan and Ming Dynasties led to the creation and development of the tactics of combining firearms and cold weapons.Xu Da, a general of Zhu Yuanzhang, created the tactics of using firecrackers to attack the city on a large scale. General Mu Ying created the tactics of multiple rows of firecrackers firing salvos at the enemy in field battles. When Emperor Yongle fought against the Mongolian soldiers in the north, Not only created the tactic of shooting Mongolian cavalry with firecrackers in salvo, but also proposed that the firecrackers should be in front and the cavalry behind. New principles of battle.In October of the fourteenth year of Zhengtong (AD 1449), Yu Qian, Minister of the Ministry of War of the Ming Dynasty, also used firecrackers to defend the city of Beijing and won the victory in the defense of Beijing.These creative achievements have effectively promoted the development of ancient military science.

After the gunpowder and firearms invented by my country were introduced to Europe through Arabia in the early 14th century, they were improved by Europeans and made into guns fired with matchlocks in the late 15th century. From the end of the 15th century to the beginning of the 16th century, the Portuguese brought this type of guns to some places along the coast of India, Japan and China.In the first year of Ming Jiajing (AD 1522), the Ming army counterattacked the Portuguese ships that defied China's sovereignty and made provocative excuses in Xicaowan, Xinhui, Guangdong, and captured three ships and their guns.Since the officials of the Ming court called Portugal the country of Frangji at that time, this kind of naval gun was called Frangji.The Frang machine is a kind of artillery that uses a sub-cannon (equivalent to the current cannonball) and puts it into the mother cannon (that is, the barrel) to ignite and fire. Its mother cannon is longer than the barrel of the firecracker, and it is equipped with a front sight and a rear sight. Equipped with five to nine sub-cannons, it is easy to load ammunition, has a fast rate of fire, a long range, high hitting accuracy, and great lethal power. It was quickly imitated by the military industry department of the Ming Dynasty and used in land and water warfare.

The matchlock gun was an individual gun seized by the Ming army in the 27th year of Jiajing (AD 1548) in the southeast coastal war against Japanese. The Ming army called it the bird gun because of its curved butt resembling a beak. Mouthguns and shotguns.Because the performance of bird guns is superior to that of hand guns, the military industry department of the Ming court soon produced a large number of them and equipped them for the Ming army. Compared with the hand guns and bowl mouth guns used by the Ming army, the biggest advantage of the matchlock guns lies in the change of ignition and firing methods.Firecrackers are held by soldiers to ignite fire twigs and fired at a very slow rate of fire.Matchlock guns use trigger clamps to ignite the gunpowder in the gunpowder chamber and shoot out the projectiles, which can be fired repeatedly without extinguishing, thus increasing the firing speed of the tubular shooting firearm.At the same time, the Military Weapons Bureau and Bingzhan Bureau of the Ming court restructured the guns such as hand guns, bowl mouth guns, zhankou guns, and general guns in the early Ming Dynasty, and created fast guns, multi-shot guns, and tiger squat guns. , developed rocket firearms propelled by the recoil force of gunpowder gas, improved the combustion efficiency of various inflammable firearms such as fireballs, spray tubes, fire birds and fire beasts, and invented various firearms on the basis of innovative explosive fireballs Explosive bombs, mines and sea mines.As a result, a new era in which foreign firearms and traditional firearms complement each other and develop side by side has emerged in the history of my country's weapons development.

The rapid development of foreign firearms and traditional firearms caused the second major change in the ancient Chinese military after the use of firearms.This change is firstly manifested in the change in the structure of the army's establishment and equipment. This change is also clearly manifested in the anti-Japanese war carried out by Qi Jiguang, a famous anti-Japanese general, in the southeast coast, and in the chariot camp and infantry camp that were trained during the military training in Jizhen. Enter the Riding Battalion and the Baggage Battalion.These battalions are mainly equipped with new-type Frang machine guns and shotguns, and are also equipped with various traditional firearms, so that the firearms equipped by these battalions account for about half of the weapons used by the entire battalion.Taking the car battalion as an example, there are 3,109 officers and soldiers in the whole battalion, of which 1,280 officers and soldiers use Frang machine guns and bird guns, plus rocketeers and other firearms, it has exceeded half of the total number of officers and soldiers.The entire battalion is equipped with 128 artillery vehicles, carrying 256 Frang machine guns, which shows that the vehicle battalion is actually a vehicle artillery battalion, and the Frang machine guns it is equipped with have reached a high ratio of one for every 12 soldiers.This is not only a pioneering work in China's military history, but also unmatched by European countries at that time.This kind of vehicle artillery battalion has combined the lethal power of artillery with the rapid maneuverability of tanks, greatly improving the combat effectiveness of the vehicle battalion.

By analogy, the infantry battalion is actually an arquebus battalion with more than half of the soldiers using birdcups and other firearms.The cavalry battalion is actually a cavalry artillery battalion. After its horses are equipped with tiger squatting guns, the firepower of the cavalry's rapid assault is enhanced.It is not only the earliest cavalry artillery in the history of Chinese cavalry, but also 50-70 years earlier than the cavalry artillery established by King Adolf Gustav of Sweden in 1630.This new equipment organization structure of the army is not only a pioneering work in China's military history, but also rare in the world at that time. Compatible with this kind of equipment organization is the update of the army's combat training methods.In the battalions organized and trained by Qi Jiguang, the officers and soldiers added new content for combat training using Frang machine guns and shotguns.Created a new combat formation "Mandarin Duck Formation" consisting of 11 soldiers using shotguns and cold weapons.The shooting principle of "three points and one line" of tubular shooting firearms has been applied.The emergence of coordinated combat methods of chariot battalions, infantry battalions, cavalry battalions, and supply battalions has enabled the content of military science to be comprehensively developed. During the Wanli period of the Ming Dynasty, an outstanding expert in the development of matchlock guns appeared, and he was Zhao Shizhen.Zhao Shizhen, whose name is Changji and whose name is Houhu, was born in Yueqing (now Zhejiang). He was born in the 32nd year of Jiajing in Ming Dynasty (AD 1553).His grandfather's name was Zhao Xinglu, an official to the deputy of Dali Temple. He was erudite, skilled in poetry and calligraphy, and participated in the compilation of "Minghuidian".Influenced by his grandfather since childhood, Zhao Shizhen is also good at calligraphy.In the sixth year of Wanli (1578 A.D.), Zhao Shizhen was awarded the master book of Honglu Temple because of his good calligraphy. He served for 18 years, and was later called into Zhiwenhua Hall. In the 24th year of Wanli (1596 A.D.), he was promoted to Zhong Shusheren, who served for more than 10 years, died around the thirty-ninth year of Wanli (AD 1611). Zhao Shizhen grew up on the seashore, and his hometown was often attacked by Japanese pirates and suffered a lot.He cared about the future of the country, paid attention to the study of military and firearm technology books, learned about the firearms used by Japanese pirates from the subordinates of Qi Jiguang and Hu Zongxian, and was in charge of firearms from Lumi Kingdom (also known as Lumi Kingdom, now in Turkey) who stayed in Beijing because of tribute. Duosima, an official of the Han Dynasty, saw the Lumi blunderbuss, and presented his imitation of the blunderbuss to the court in the twenty-sixth year of Wanli (1598 A.D.).After that, he went through hardships, raised money by himself, and successively made more than 10 kinds of matchlock guns, other firearms, and chariots.More importantly, he wrote treatises on the development of firearms in various styles, such as "The Spectrum of Divine Weapons", "Miscellaneous Comments on Divine Weapons", "The Spectrum of Divine Weapons or Questions", and "Discussion on Anti-Captive Car Guns".Later, people put these treatises together and collectively called them "Shenqipu". The earliest "Shen Qi Pu" was published in Wanli, and later there were many other editions. In 1974, the Japanese Classical Research Association published the five-volume "Shenqipu" in the sixth volume of "Wu Keben Ming and Qing Materials Collection", which collected Zhao Shizhen's major works in a relatively concentrated and comprehensive manner.The Wanli publication "Shen Qi Pu" consists of five volumes, about 60,000 characters, and more than 200 drawings, which concentratedly reflect Zhao Shizhen's achievements in the development and use of various firearms, especially in the development and use of various matchlock guns.Among them are the single-barreled arquebus guns such as the Lumi gun, the Western gun, the electric gun, the Yingyang gun, the winged tiger gun, the three-length gun, the shovel gun, the shovel gun, the Xuanyuan gun, the nine-headed bird gun, and the double-barrel gun, as well as the Thunderbolt. Guns, shock stack guns and other multi-barreled matchlock guns.At the same time, the book also draws various shooting postures of Lumi, Western and Thunder guns, which is convenient for soldiers to carry out shooting training.In order to control the launch direction of the rocket, Zhao Shizhen also created a "rocket slide" shaped like a short gun, with a chute engraved on it to place the rocket. This chute acts as a guide rail to ensure that the rocket can fly in the predetermined direction after being shot .In addition, there are graphics of the development of the firearms combat vehicle and how to use it. "Shen Qi Pu" not only records all kinds of firearms created by Zhao Shizhen, but also reflects Zhao Shizhen's thoughts on the development of firearms manufacturing.He played to the court many times, requesting the manufacture of firearms, and raised the development of firearms manufacturing to a strategic level.He pointed out that Japan, a country in the middle of the sea, has already sprouted disasters. After encroaching on North Korea, it will inevitably "peek into our interior as much as North Korea does." Only by manufacturing can we "defeat the fierce front" and "Zhang Guowei"; therefore, the manufacture of firearms is not a matter of one day, but a plan that will benefit the country forever.He advocated that the development of firearms "must be innovated according to the times" and win by surprise.He asked the firearms manufacturing department to select skilled craftsmen to manufacture exquisite guns without any mistakes.He strongly opposed the use of firearms for making waves, and accused the mediocre people of the market for their ugly behavior of making crude and making huge profits from it. "Shen Qi Pu" also reflects Zhao Shizhen's thoughts on using firearms.He believes that firearms should be used according to the time, and appropriate fighters should be selected, and the due combat effect should not be lost due to wave-to-wave use.When using firearms, you must change according to the enemy, and carry out a quick assault to catch the enemy off guard; When within three miles, first shoot at the enemy one by one with the Frang machine gun, Lumi blunderbuss, and Thunder blunderbuss to frustrate their fierce front; when the enemy retreats, the soldiers with individual firearms and cold weapons must wipe out the enemy in close combat.Zhao Shizhen advocated that the use of firearms should be combined with chariots, so that "chariots rely on artifacts to show their prestige, artifacts rely on chariots to be more accurate, or march forward with drums, or wait for the enemy in strict formation, or seek benefits for a long distance, or sleep in the wilderness, with strong walls There is nothing unsuitable for governing strength and qi" ("Shen Qi Spectrum Miscellaneous Comments on Shen Qi").If the combination of chariots and guns is used properly, the enemy will not be able to rely on its fierceness, and it will be difficult for the enemy cavalry to gallop freely, the bow and arrow will lose their strength, and the sharp sword armor will not be able to play its role.If the maker of the chariot also understands how to use it, he will be able to use it with ease; coupled with the fact that the general is good at commanding and the soldiers are skilled, then it will be able to give full play to its role in self-defense and attack to defeat the enemy.Zhao Shizhen also suggested building a chariot battalion, so that chariots can be used as barriers when defending, and chariots can be used to attack when attacking. The chariot can give full play to its combat role in the wilderness and dangerous places, day and night.It is unique for a firearms expert like Zhao Shizhen, who has no post on the battlefield and no responsibility for the armed forces, to be so proficient in the tactics of using firearms. From the end of the 16th century to the beginning of the 17th century, the Jurchen tribe in Jianzhou, which lived in the northeast of my country, rose rapidly. Its outstanding leader, Nurhaci, quickly unified the Jurchen ministries by combining military offensive and political disintegration. AD 1616) established the post-Jin regime, Jianyuan Mandate of Heaven, called himself Khan of the Kingdom of Jin, took Hetuala as the capital, farmed fields and accumulated grain, actively prepared for war, and waited for an opportunity to attack the Ming Dynasty.In the forty-sixth year of Ming Wanli (AD 1618), Nurhaci used the Ming court to kill his father, ancestors and aid his opponent Ye Hebu and other "seven major hatreds" as an excuse to attack the Ming Dynasty. He led more than 60,000 troops and defeated the 110,000 Ming army led by Yang Gao, the economic strategist of Liaodong, in Sarhu (now east of Fushun, Liaoning).Afterwards, the Hou Jin army broke through the defense line of the Ming army outside the pass with a fierce offensive.By the first year of Apocalypse (1621 A.D.), the Hou Jin army had occupied more than 70 cities outside the customs of the Ming Dynasty, and their troops were approaching Shanhaiguan.With Nurhachi advancing step by step and the situation outside the pass becoming increasingly severe, many senior civil, military and patriotic officials of the imperial court tried their best to resist the obstruction of the eunuch party, and offered their ideas and suggestions to do their best to resist the attack of the Houjin army.Among them, scientists and firearm development experts represented by Xu Guangqi, Li Zhizao, Sun Yuanhua, Zhang Tao, and Jiao Xu made important contributions to the introduction, development and use of Western cannons (called Hongyi Cannon in Ming Dynasty and Hongyi Cannon in Qing Dynasty). It became a group of military technicians who experienced a turning point in the firearms technology at the end of the Ming Dynasty. Xu Guangqi was born in the 41st year of Jiajing in the Ming Dynasty (AD 1562). He was born in Shanghai with the style name Zixian and the name Xuanhu.He successively served as Shao Zhan Shi of Zhan Shifu, Minister of Rites and Bachelor of Dongge University. He was an outstanding scientist and military technician in the late Ming Dynasty.When he was young, he had great ambitions, studied science, paid attention to military affairs, and cared about the rise and fall of the country and the safety of the people.After he met the Italian missionary Matteo Ricci (1552-1610 AD) in Nanjing in the 28th year of Wanli in the Ming Dynasty (1600 AD), he tirelessly studied European science and technology, delved into the theory of firearms manufacture and use, and made this Books on this topic are introduced to Chinese readers.In the process of studying and researching, on the one hand, he made friends with a group of missionaries who could spread Western firearms technology; Made positive contributions, mainly including Li Zhizao, the Shaoqing of Guanglu Temple, Sun Yuanhua, the head of the Ministry of War, and Zhang Tao, who was added to the defense.They have all become the backbone of the introduction, imitation and use of Western artillery. After the defeat of the Ming army at Sarhu, Xu Guangqi asked the imperial court to set up dangerous defenses, build enemy towers, and build large guns in June of the forty-seventh year of Ming Wanli (AD 1619) to resist the attack of the later Jin army.Soon, he contacted Li Zhizao and others to try to purchase Western cannons from the Portuguese authorities in Macau by means of private donations.The imperial court adopted his suggestion and supported his purchase of guns.After many efforts, 30 Western cannons were purchased successively. Except for one that was blown up during the test firing, 18 remained in the capital, 11 were transported to Shanhaiguan, and then transferred to Ningyuan (now Xingcheng, Liaoning), which strengthened Ningyuan’s military strength. Defensive ability. In February of the third year of Chongzhen in the Ming Dynasty (1630 A.D.), Xu Guangqi was ordered to supervise the manufacture of Western cannons.Guided by the idea of ​​striving for superiority in imitation, he tried to find and select people who understand military affairs and scheming to be in charge of the military bureau, and let people who are proficient in mathematics and science carry out research and development.He "eliminates accumulated disadvantages, establishes established rules, adapts old methods, and develops new ideas", so that the artillery made is "precise, firm, sharp and violent", and those who fail to pass the inspection will never be accepted.In order to carry forward the firepower advantage of the new type of artillery, he attached great importance to the construction of the new type of enemy tower, considered the construction of the gun and the tower as a whole, and put forward the famous principle of "protecting the gun with the tower, protecting the city with the gun, and protecting the people with the city". .He also personally designed and participated in the construction of some enemy platforms.These enemy towers are built according to the city. They are based on large stones and are as high as the city. They are divided into three layers.The diameter of the platform can reach several feet, and the walls are equipped with artillery perforations.This kind of enemy platform can shoot the enemy from three sides, and can shoot up and down, which reduces the dead angle and expands the shooting range.At the same time, fire support can also be carried out between adjacent enemy platforms, forming a dense fire defense system for a large city. Xu Guangqi also put forward unique insights on the use of firearms.He suggested that the imperial court should select elite soldiers, equip them with excellent firearms, and then appoint good generals to lead them and conduct strict training, so that all archers are brave and skilled, so that they can hit a hundred shots in long-range shots, and can outnumber ten in close combat.In view of the combat characteristics of the post-Jin army who were good at riding and shooting and being good at galloping, he proposed the tactics of strengthening the walls and clearing the fields and defending the city. The enemy cannot get close to the city wall, and after the enemy is tired and lazy, he counterattacks and knocks the enemy back.In order to regain Liaodong, he also put forward the idea of ​​using chariots to control cavalry, advocating the establishment of chariot battalions equipped with numerous artillery to block and counterattack the attacks of enemy cavalry. Xu Guangqi worked hard to introduce European artillery technology for more than 10 years, until he was 70 years old, he was still worried about the defense of the city.Although due to the political corruption of the Ming court, the decline of the country, and the weakening of the army, his propositions were not all adopted, and his goals were not fully achieved, but his efforts had a positive impact on the artillery manufacturing in the late Ming and early Qing Dynasties.As an outstanding scientist, Xu Guangqi applied his research results to the military practice of the country; as an outstanding military strategist, Xu Guangqi based his military theory on the basis of science.This is what makes Xu Guangqi different from other scientists and military strategists.In the sixth year of Chongzhen in Ming Dynasty (1633 A.D.), Xu Guangqi passed away. Li Zhizao was a famous scientist and military technician in the late Ming Dynasty.Born in the 45th year of Jiajing in the Ming Dynasty (AD 1566), with the style name Zhenzhi and also the word Wocun, he was born in Renhe (now Hangzhou, Zhejiang Province), and was a Jinshi in the 26th year of Ming Wanli (AD 1598).He once served as the Shaoqing of Guanglu Temple, the Langzhong of Dushuiqing Lisi Langzhong of the Ministry of Industry, and the Shaoqing of Nanjing Taipu Temple.Together with Xu Guangqi, he learned European firearm technology through Matteo Ricci, which promoted the development of firearms in the late Ming Dynasty.In the "To win, we must use the western guns to beg for firearms quickly" published in the first year of Ming Dynasty (AD 1621), he comprehensively expounded all his ideas on the development of firearms in the late Ming Dynasty, and strongly cooperated with Xu Guangqi's introduction and imitation. And the memorials for the use of Western cannons accelerated the imperial court's approval of these memorials and the process of introducing and imitating Western cannons.He has a relatively comprehensive understanding of the shape, structure and function of Western cannons.He believes that in order to imitate these cannons, one must not just imitate the appearance, but must pay attention to the quality, and insist that the materials must be tempered in a proper way, and the casting must not be missed by a tiny bit, and the gunners must be strictly trained before use. , so that they can understand calculations and master the use of skills, and then send wise and brave generals to command, so as to achieve the effect of winning the battle, conquering the attack, and securing the defense.For this reason, he suggested that the imperial court should give preferential treatment to cannon-casting craftsmen and cannon shooters, and would rather reduce incompetent generals and useless soldiers than neglect these people.Because the effective use of a high-quality artillery can be used by thousands of elite soldiers.Throughout his life, he has done a lot of research on natural sciences such as astronomy, calendar, and mathematics. He has six works such as "Xin Fa Suan Shu", "Tian Xue Chu Han", "Tong Wen Suan Zhi" and "Rong Yuan Comparison Yi".The results of the latter two works were used by Sun Yuanhua in "Xifa Shenji". In the third year of Ming Chongzhen (1630 AD), Li Zhizao died. Sun Yuanhua was an expert in the development of Western cannons in the late Ming Dynasty.The name is Chuyang, the name is Huodong, and he was born in Jiading (now Shanghai).Year of birth is unknown. "History of Ming Dynasty Xu Congzhi Biography" attaches his biography, saying that he is good at Western artillery and is Xu Guangqi's disciple.Because he wrote a letter stating the two strategies of preparing Beijing and defending the border, he was able to participate in the military under the command of Sun Chengzong, the economic strategy of Liaodong.In September of the second year of Mingqi (AD 1622), he served as the Secretary of the Ministry of War and assisted Sun Chengzong in building city defenses in Shanhaiguan.In the third year of Apocalypse, he followed Yuan Chonghuan, the former soldier of Ning, and stood firm in Ningyuan City. He was responsible for the transportation and management of 11 Western cannons in Shanhaiguan. The "Ningyuan Great Victory" in 1626 (AD 1626) neutralized the military exploits.From the early years of Chongzhen in the Ming Dynasty, he served as a member of the Ministry of War as a foreigner, and soon moved to Langzhong.In the third year of Chongzhen (1630 A.D.), he was recommended by Xu Guangqi as the governor of Denglai. According to Xu Guangqi's intention, he hired Portuguese gunners in Denglai to manufacture Western cannons and train gunners who used them.He wrote the technology of developing Western cannons learned from Matteo Ricci and Xu Guangqi in "Western Magic Machine".In the fifth year of Chongzhen (1632 A.D.), his generals Kong Youde and Geng Zhongming rebelled against the Ming Dynasty and surrendered to the Qing Dynasty, and captured Denglai. After he was arrested, he attempted suicide and was released by the rebels.In September of the following year, he was executed by the Ming court.He is the author of "Jingwu Quanshu" and "Xifa Shenji". "Xi Fa Shen Ji" is Sun Yuanhua's representative work, which was written five years ago in Chongzhen.The original manuscript was lost in the flames of war, but fortunately his cousin Wang Shijiu left a copy.In April of the first year of Kangxi in the Qing Dynasty (AD 1662), Jin Minyu, a native of Liu [liu Liu] City (ie Jiading), published this copy in Guxiangcaotang.The book is divided into two volumes, about 30,000 words, with 19 drawings.The book records more than 30 gunpowder formulas and their raw material extraction and gunpowder preparation methods, and compares the advantages and disadvantages of various gunpowder formulas in detail.Based on "The Elements of Geometry" co-translated by Xu Guangqi and Matteo Ricci, "Tongwen Suanzhi" and "Rongyuan Comparing Meaning" written by Li Zhizao, scientific quantitative methods were adopted, and the caliber and size of the artillery were used as the base. The ratio multiples, design the various parts of the artillery and gun carriage.It is proposed that the weight of the bomb, the amount of charge and the caliber of the gun are proportional to each other. "Xifa Shenji" reflects Sun Yuanhua's thoughts on artillery design.He believes that the development of firearms must be rational, "deduce the beauty of physics", and conform to the characteristics of things before they can be made into suitable finished products. Sun Yuanhua pointed out after a series of experiments on the relationship between the firing range and shooting angle of the artillery that if the shooting of the artillery starts from the flat shooting position, that is, the zero-degree direct fire, the shooting range gradually increases with the increase of the gun barrel elevation angle, and after exceeding 45 degrees, the shooting range gradually increases. get closer.After research, he believed that after the cannonball is ejected from the barrel, it has the tendency to fly straight forward and fall under the gravity of the earth. The two synthesized a curved trajectory. The flying speed is zero, and the lethality disappears.Although his discussion is not as thorough as Galileo's discussion of parabolas, it is not far behind.At the same time, he also made a preliminary discussion on the reasons for the strong vibration after the firing of large artillery in the section "Illustration of Guntai".He believes that when firing a cannon, because "the gun gas (that is, gunpowder gas) exits, the air is excited and the movement of the gas is the fastest, so the valleys are full of echoes (that is, echoes), and those that are close and cracked can expel walls and shake them." stone".This is a simple explanation of the shock wave phenomenon generated after the large shell is fired.Sun Yuanhua's discussion and elaboration of the above two phenomena are two outstanding contributions to firearms technology. Zhang Tao was a general in the late Ming Dynasty and a famous firearms developer.Qiantang (now Hangzhou, Zhejiang) people.The date of birth is unknown.When he became an adult, he took Li Zhizao as his teacher and was a colleague of Sun Yuanhua. He once served as a garrison with a rank of garrison, and was appointed as the deputy commander-in-chief of Denglai.He fully supported Xu Guangqi's proposition, personally organized personnel to go to Macau, completed the purchase of the first batch of Western cannons, transported them back to Beijing, and hired Portuguese gunners to come to Beijing to assist in the production of guns and train gunners. "History of Ming Dynasty Xu Congzhi Biography" said that he was arrested in the fifth year of Chongzhen (1632 A.D.) because of the mutiny of the minister Kong Youde. "Ming Sizong Veritable Records" said that he was captured by the rebels and hanged himself because he refused to surrender. "History of Ming Dynasty Yiwenzhi" and "Qianqingtang Bibliography" contain the volume "Western Fire Attack Illustrations" co-written by Zhang Tao and Sun Xueshi, but this book has not been found so far. Jiao Xu was a famous firearms theorist in the late Ming Dynasty.Ningguo (now Guichi, Anhui) people.The year of birth and death is unknown, and his main activities were later than those of the above-mentioned firearms developers.It was at the time of turmoil at the end of the Ming Dynasty. He witnessed the corruption of the government, the slack in armaments, and the disasters of war among the people, so he devoted himself to researching firearm technology, thinking that it would be useful to save the time.Based on the cannon-making technology dictated by German missionary Tang Ruowang (1591-1666 A.D.), he compiled "Fire Attacks and Essentials", which was published in the 16th year of Ming Chongzhen (1643 A.D.).The original book is divided into two volumes, with a volume of "Fire Attack Secret Essentials" attached. The Beijing Library has a clear copy of the original publication.During the Daoguang period of the Qing Dynasty, Ding Gongchen, a military technician, corrected the omissions in the book.Soon, Pan Shicheng, a military technologist, included two books when he edited the "Haishan Xianguan Series". They were collectively called "Huo Gong Qi Yao", also known as "Ze Ke Lu". It was divided into three volumes, about 40,000 Words, 27 attached drawings.The whole book mainly introduces gunpowder, Western cannon and various firearms manufacturing and usage methods, involving metal smelting, machinery manufacturing and knowledge of mathematics, physics and chemistry. The overview of the old nest, turning to a new track combining qualitative and quantitative analysis, is one of the important signs that ancient Chinese firearms have entered a new stage of development. Among the above-mentioned famous firearms developers, except for Jiao Xu’s later activity and unknown life story, Xu Guangqi, Li Zhizao, Sun Yuanhua and Zhang Tao are all directly related to the introduction, imitation and use of Western cannons.The 30 Western cannons they bought from the Portuguese authorities in Macau were actually 30 naval cannons equipped on British ships that ran aground near Macau a year ago. They were a type of cannon made by Britain in the late 15th century. Great power, long range and other advantages. Zhang Tingyu, the author of "History of the Ming Dynasty", misrepresented it as being made by the Dutch in "The Biography of Helan (Netherlands)".Because the Dutch were called "Red Barbarians" at that time, it was called "Red Barbarians".In recent years, some scholars believe that it came from England instead of Holland after researching the handed down objects and documents, and their arguments are relatively sufficient and reliable.In the first month of the sixth year of Mingqi (AD 1626), Yuan Chonghuan, the former soldier of Mingning, commanded the Ming army to use this kind of artillery in Ningyuan City, repelled the attack of the Houjin army, and won the victory in the defense of Ningyuan. The tactics of defending the city with large artillery.So far people still praise Yuan Chonghuan's achievements and the "Ningyuan Victory" commanded by him.Nurhachi, who is superb in martial arts and resourceful, has never suffered such a big loss since he started his army. Since Yuan Chonghuan was defeated in the first battle of Ningyuan, he has been aggrieved and unable to swallow this breath. As a result, he died of depression and anger that year. After the "Ningyuan Great Victory", the Ming court relied more on the red barbarian cannon, and sent Xu Guangqi and others to organize craftsmen to manufacture it.From February to August in the third year of Chongzhen (1630 A.D.), more than 400 doors were manufactured.Five years after Chongzhen, the Ming court hired German missionary Tang Ruowang to preside over the production of cannons, and more than 500 cannons were built.In addition to the imperial court organizing craftsmen to manufacture Western cannons, military and political officials in some places at that time, such as Wang Zunde, Governor Lu Xiangsheng, Governor Gao Qiqian, Governor Hong Chengchou, etc., also privately donated money to manufacture some Western cannons. For offensive purposes. After the "Ningyuan Great Victory", not only did the Ming court continue to manufacture red barbarian cannons, but also Huang Taiji, who succeeded Nurhachi, also wanted to use the red barbarian cannons to improve the combat effectiveness of the later Jin army. In 1631 A.D., the first red-clothed cannon was made, and it was named "God Bless the Great General".Since then, the Hou Jin army, who is good at riding and shooting, and is good at galloping to win in field battles, has become even more powerful.They used the red cannon as a sharp weapon to siege the city and land, launched a large-scale attack on the Ming army, and soon seized all the Ming court's territory outside Shanhaiguan. 明崇祯十七年(公元1644年)，清军入关，建立了我国历史上第二个由少数民族入主中原的统一政权清朝。清朝建立以后即增设八旗炮厂、濯灵厂，制造红衣炮与火药，使红衣炮成为清军装备的系列炮种。清军入关之初，南明政权、南方各地人民、民族英雄郑成功所部，也都制造和使用红衣炮，抗击清军的进攻。清顺治二年(公元1645年)四月十五至二十五日，史可法在扬州以大型火炮进行守城战，击杀攻城清军数千人。闰六月，江阴典史阎应元，以上千支鸟铳、上百门火炮，在江阴与清军相持80多天。郑成功在顺治三年兴师反清后，曾使用大量火炮突入长江口，先后克瓜州、下镇江、逼南京，转战江南和江北29城，清军屡受其挫。顺治十八年(公元1661年)初，郑成功在率领部下渡海进攻台湾岛上的荷兰人时，曾使用200多门火炮，进行渡海作战，并于当年三月，将荷兰殖民者逐出台湾，收复了我国的领土台湾岛，创造了从海上进攻岛屿的用炮战术。 清康熙年间，清廷曾任用在华供职的比利时人南怀仁(公元1623—1688年)，督造红衣炮等各种火炮，为平定三藩和收复被沙俄侵占的雅克萨城创造了条件。康熙十三年(公元1674年)，清廷着手组建火器营，使清军在全国范围内，形成了以火器营炮兵、京师八旗炮兵、各省驻防的八旗炮兵及绿营炮兵组成的炮兵力量，具有较强的威慑作用。康熙三十五年(公元1696年)，康熙帝亲率大军，携火炮100多门，前往新疆平定噶尔丹部的叛乱。在昭莫多之战中，清军使用冲天炮轰毁敌营，取得了平叛战争的胜利。总计康熙一朝，共制造大小铜炮900多门，濯灵厂每年产火药50万斤。 康熙年间，清朝曾出现过一位著名的火器研制家戴梓。戴梓字开文，钱塘(今浙江杭州)人。戴梓生于清顺治六年(公元1649年)，善诗画，晓天文，通算法，熟谙火器制造。清康熙十二年(公元1673年)，三藩叛乱，次年六月，康熙命康亲王杰书率军南征，途经杭州时，25岁的戴梓从军，并向康亲王进献了连珠火铳。之后，戴梓在作战中因功受奖，回师北京后，受到了康熙皇帝的召见和殿试，又授予翰林院侍讲。 据清朝乾嘉时期的著名学者纪昀，在中记载，戴梓所研制的连珠火铳“形若琵琶，凡火药铅丸，皆贮于铳脊。以机轮开闭。其机有二，相衔如牡牝。扳一机则火药铅丸自落筒中，第二机随之并动，石激火出，而铳发矣，计二十八发。火药铅丸乃尽，始需重贮”。从这一描述中可知，扳动第一机是装填弹药，第二机随动是发射弹丸；依次再扳再射，可连续28次，发射28弹，可见这是一种连扳连射的燧发枪。这种枪的最大优越性在于简化了装填手续，每装填一次，可连续射击28发弹丸，提高了发射速度。因此，这是一种由单装、单发向多装、单发、连射过渡的一种新式单兵枪。可惜，这种枪在当时并未得到重视，也没有推广使用，不久便失传了。 戴梓还仿制过一种欧式“蟠肠鸟枪”。据说当时的欧洲传教士曾经向康熙进贡一支“蟠肠鸟枪”，以示其武器的精良。康熙即命戴梓仿制，戴梓很快仿制成功，并以10支仿制品返赠传教士。戴梓还为研制冲天炮作出了贡献。据说康熙曾命南怀仁制造冲天炮，但时过一年，却进展缓慢。戴梓只用了八天时间便创制成功。康熙非常高兴，亲自率领王公大臣，前往靶场观看射炮演习，果然性能良好，威力较大。演试后，康熙封此炮为“威远将军”炮，命工匠在炮身上镌刻戴梓之名，“以示其不朽”。此炮在康熙三十五年(公元1696年)的平定噶尔丹之战中，发挥了重要作用。乾隆时期的国子监博士金兆燕，对“威远将军”炮作了十分生动的描述。他说这种炮“子在母腹中，母送子出，从天而下，片片碎裂，锐不可当”。 清朝前期还有些火器研制者曾有过创造发明，如江苏吴县的薄玉，对地雷与火炮都有研究。康熙时期，武备院有一位名叫连登伍的铁匠，曾创制过子母炮式的爆炸弹，杀伤威力甚大，康熙也曾赐名此弹为“五子夺莲”，并给连登伍以奖励。但因后来战事减少，国内局势日趋平定，对枪炮的需要日渐减少，制造数量也随之削减，几乎有刀枪入库之势。加上历届朝廷实行闭关自守的政策，限制国内的火器研制，隔绝外国先进火器研制成果的传入，致使中国火器发展受到挫折，走向低谷，直到鸦片战争爆发时，清军依旧使用陈旧的火绳枪炮抵御西方侵略者，结果战败，这一沉痛的历史教训，是值得我们记取的。