Chapter 14 Section 5 The export of ceramics and its role in cultural exchanges

The Tang Dynasty was a great era of unprecedented development of Chinese feudal society. Since the founding of the Tang Dynasty, there have been 24 emperors for 289 years, among which the three most prominent are Tang Taizong, Wu Zetian and Tang Xuanzong.They were talented and bold, and they were extremely confident in politics. They implemented a set of policies that were conducive to consolidating national defense, developing the economy, and stabilizing the society, which made the economic strength of the Tang Dynasty continuously strengthened.Strong military force, political stability, and eclectic acceptance of foreign cultures made the Silk Road linking China and the West more active than ever before, and sea lines of communication continued to be developed.The Tang Dynasty conducted economic and trade transactions with more than 300 countries and regions, with frequent personnel exchanges.Economic exchanges require handicraft goods as a means of exchange. Ceramics are the most distinctive, convenient, beautiful and elegant commodities in China. Its production was strongly promoted in the social environment of the Tang Dynasty.Tang people with pioneering spirit and businessmen from foreign regions transported Chinese ceramics to distant foreign countries, which made the relationship between production and sales smooth and production flourished.It was also they who transported excellent handicrafts from outside the region to the Tang Dynasty, which influenced the production of handicrafts in the Tang Dynasty.The highly prosperous Tang culture has sufficient absorption and digestibility, selectively absorbs new elements according to the needs of its own development, and combines them with the traditional artistic style of our country to create new culture and handicrafts. Therefore, the culture of the Tang Dynasty , including ceramics, greatly surpassed the Han, Wei, Jin, Southern and Northern Dynasties, and appeared broad and fresh, brilliant and splendid.

There are two ways to transport Tang Dynasty ceramics abroad: first, envoys, monks, scholars, overseas students who came to China, and craftsmen who came to Tang Dynasty to perform.When they came to China, they received gifts from the Tang Dynasty government, officials, and friends, or bought them themselves and brought them back to China, or they were brought out as gifts by officials sent abroad by the Chinese government, and presented them to the government, bureaucrats, or friends after arriving in the country they were going to.Second, goods traded as commodities are exported to foreign countries together with silk and other handicrafts and local products. After the middle of the 9th century, the export of ceramics increased significantly, and more were found in coastal port cities in China.For example, in the port city of Ningbo in the Tang Dynasty, ceramics were continuously discovered underground. The Heyi Road Site belonging to the Tang Dynasty port wharf found more than 900 pieces of high-grade celadon from the Yue Kiln and Changsha Kiln at one time, and one piece of celadon was inscribed with Dazhong Inscribed in the second year (848 AD), this should be the earliest porcelain.At the same time, square bricks inscribed in the fifth year of Qianning (898 A.D.) were also found, indicating that there were nearly half a century of commercial porcelain relics deposited here.Based on the relics of port cities in China and the ceramic objects discovered abroad, the important commercial ceramics of the Tang Dynasty include Yue kiln, Changsha kiln celadon and underglaze porcelain, Guangdong Meizhou waterwheel kiln, Chaozhou kiln, Xinhui kiln, and Guanchong kiln. Celadon from Wuzhou Kiln and Ou Kiln in Zhejiang, white porcelain and tricolor glazed pottery from Xing Kiln, Quyang Kiln and Gongxian Kiln in the north.Apart from Ningbo, important commercial port cities along the coast include Shanghai, Yangzhou, Zhenjiang, Quanzhou, Wenzhou, and Guangzhou.In addition to white porcelain, celadon porcelain, underglaze porcelain and three-color glazed pottery, there are also black porcelain, brown-green glazed porcelain, fine high-grade porcelain, and rough low-grade porcelain, such as the coarse porcelain of Cizao Kiln in Quanzhou, Fujian.It may be that the production site is on the seaside near the port city of Quanzhou, there are no transportation obstacles, and the price is low. Sea-going ships can be loaded at any time, and they can also be purchased on board as crew equipment. Sell ​​or stay in the countries where you do business.

The countries and locations where Tang Dynasty ceramics were discovered include Korea, Japan, Indonesia, Malaysia, the Philippines, Thailand, India, Pakistan, Sri Lanka, Iran, Iraq, Oman along the communication lines in West Asia, Tanzania in Africa, and the bustling city of Fusta in Egypt Special ruins and islands.The Tang Dynasty has a history of more than 1,000 years, and it is not easy to find Tang Dynasty ceramics in cultural sites in China. However, the number of Tang Dynasty ceramics found in the above-mentioned countries and regions, on land and sea lines of communication, and in port sites Quite large and of high quality, with some surprises to discover.For example, at the sea port in Bangkok, Thailand, fishermen often salvage Changsha celadon and underglaze porcelain from shallow waters near the sea, and unearth celadon from Xing Kiln, Quyang Kiln and Guangdong in ancient cultural sites and tombs.In Sri Lanka, since the beginning of this century, thousands of porcelains from Yue Kiln, Xing Kiln, Quyang Kiln and Changsha Kiln have been unearthed in Jaffna Peninsula, Yapahuwa, Polonnaruvana and other places, some of which are exquisite. Green-glazed pottery from the Qing dynasty is hard to find in China, and remnants of Xing kiln white porcelain bowls, bowls, and jars have been unearthed, ranging from fine white porcelain to rough white porcelain of lesser quality.In the Philippines, Tang Dynasty ceramics have been unearthed in many islands, such as the products of Yue Kiln, Xing Kiln, Wuzhou Kiln, and Ou Kiln. It is easy to see Tang Dynasty porcelain unearthed in the country in museums and private collectors.After more than 100 years of archaeological excavations at the Fustat site in Egypt, many celadon wares from Yue kiln, white porcelain from Xing kiln, celadon wares from Changsha kiln and some unidentifiable porcelain wares were discovered. The high quality and quantity are surprising.High-quality three-color and Yue kiln celadon were unearthed in Rey and Naishabur, Iran.This strongly proves the close relationship between the Tang Dynasty and Asia and Northeast Africa.

Chinese ceramics, with its perfect craftsmanship and artistic charm, have a positive impact on the ceramic production of the above-mentioned countries.Suleiman, a businessman born in the port city of Shiraf on the Persian Gulf, praised Chinese ceramics as "delicate as glass and clear as crystal".Chinese ceramics have penetrated into the upper class of society and ordinary families. Due to the popularity of Chinese ceramics, many countries and regions produced imitations, which led to changes in local ceramic craftsmanship. For example, many 9 to 10 Imitations of Chinese ceramics produced during the Islamic era in the Middle East.In the book "Road to Ceramics", Professor Sanji Nan of Japan pointed out: "About 70 to 80 percent of these pottery produced in Egypt are imitations of Chinese ceramics. When Chinese ceramics are imported, they will soon be This kind of imitation was made in the same period." When Tang Sancai pottery was imported in the 9th and 10th centuries, it produced pottery with colorful patterns that imitated the tricolor pottery; , The imitation was done very well, for example, the ring foot of the imitation bowl was made into a jade bi-shaped shape with a wide surface and a short height, which is a feature of porcelain bowls in the prosperous Tang Dynasty.

In Persia, Afghanistan, and the Arab world in the Middle East, Chinese ceramics were mainly transported along with silk by camel caravans.The three-color camels unearthed in Xi'an, Luoyang and other places, with goods like porcelain and three-color pottery hanging on their backs, are proof.Of course, ceramics were also transported by sea to Persia and Arabia.In the tenth year of Tianbao (751 A.D.), the army of the Tang Dynasty was defeated by the Arab army in Da Da Ross, and some technicians were taken to their capital, Kufa. The Arabs obtained a lot of "vessels with colored and gold" and Silk and other trophies, the so-called colorful containers may be pottery such as Tang Sancai.Baihaji wrote in 1059: At the end of the 8th century and the beginning of the 9th century, Isa, the governor of Khorasan, sent 20 kinds of beautiful Chinese noble ceramics and 2000 pieces of ordinary Chinese ceramics to the King of Baghdad that had not been brought into the Caliph's court before.Everyone knows that ancient Persian pottery is very exquisite and has a high status in the history of world art. However, when we compare Persian pottery with Tang Sancai glazed pottery, we can see that a considerable part of the pottery’s shape and glaze characteristics are from In China, Persian tricolor is very obviously influenced by Tang tricolor.This influence of Chinese glazed pottery can be seen not only in Persia, but also in Mesopotamia and the entire Middle East.

Our neighbor North Korea, Chinese ceramics spread even more. The Changsha kiln underglaze porcelain found on Longmei Island mentioned above has brown color written on the underglaze, "Zheng's small mouth, number one in the world", " Bian's small mouth, famous in the world" and other words, Tang Dynasty porcelain has been unearthed in Korea's three thousand miles of rivers and mountains.The influence of Tang dynasty pottery crafts on Korean pottery crafts can be seen everywhere. North Korea’s Silla Sancai was developed on the basis of Tang Sancai.From the 9th century to the 10th century, Yue Kiln celadon was introduced to North Korea in large quantities. Around the first half of the 10th century, the craftsmanship of Yue Kiln celadon spread to Kangjin in South Jeolla Province and Buan in North Jeolla Province.It is also possible for North Korea to introduce white porcelain technology from the late Tang and Five Dynasties.Under the influence of Tang, Five Dynasties and Northern Song Dynasties, the so-called "Jade Color" celadon was created, which has been greatly developed since then and has become an outstanding representative of Korean celadon.Xu Jing talked in detail in the book "Koryo Illustrated Classics" that he saw local imitation of Yuezhou ancient secret color porcelain in North Korea.

The influence of Tang Dynasty ceramics on Japan, and the relationship between Chinese and Japanese ceramic art and technology have always been very close. For example, the celadon produced in Japan after the 9th century is very similar to the celadon in southern China, especially in coastal areas.There are even more similarities in the shapes of porcelain bowls, water injections, and jars.Nara three-color, two-color and single-color glazed pottery are very similar to the single-color glaze, one-color, two-color, and three-color glazed pottery in Tang Sancai, and it can be seen that there are many similarities.In addition, such as kiln structure and kiln furniture diversification are also related to kiln farms in northern China.

During the Tang Dynasty's cultural exchanges with foreign countries, excellent handicraft products were also introduced to China.The potters of the Tang Dynasty widely absorbed the shapes and decorative patterns of foreign handicrafts, combined them with traditional Chinese ceramic crafts, refined and innovated, so the development of Tang Dynasty ceramic crafts was not only an increase in quantity, but an infusion of fresh Vitality, endowing a new style of the times, that is, the artistic style of the prosperous Tang Dynasty, is extremely charming. Tang Dynasty ceramics received the most prominent influence of Persian culture.Persia is at the intersection of Eastern and Western cultures. Throughout the Middle Ages, its economy, culture, and craftsmanship were at a high level, creating a splendid Persian culture.Persia has long been associated with China.Chinese envoys went to Anxi during the reign of Emperor Wu of the Han Dynasty, and Gan Ying also passed through Anxi in the Eastern Han Dynasty to go to Daqin.During the Sasanian Dynasty, Persia and the Northern Wei Dynasty had close relations and frequent trade exchanges.Pingcheng, which is now Datong City, was established in the first year of Tianxing (398 A.D.) by Tuobagui, Emperor Daowu of the Northern Wei Dynasty.At that time, many merchants, monks, craftsmen, and various people with unique skills lived in the Pingcheng area of ​​Central Asia and West Asia. A large number of rare treasures from Persia and other countries in the Western Regions gathered here.According to the "Book of Southern Qi", there are many high-grade Central Asian wool fabrics, Daqin glazed wares, gold and silver wares, and gilt copper utensils. In 1970, the Datong City Museum in Shanxi Province discovered five artifacts from the northern Khorasan region of the Sasanian Dynasty, including eight-curved silver washers, engraved silver bowls, and gilded tall copper cups, among the architectural sites of the Northern Wei Dynasty. Artistically influenced engraved stone inkstone box.Gold and silver wares from Persia, the Arab world, and Rome are often unearthed in the vast northwest region. These gold and silver wares, silk and wool fabrics have exquisite shapes, patterns, and beautiful layouts, especially the exquisite chiseling and hammering skills. Loved by the Chinese.The Northern Dynasties was an era of frequent wars. Although the society was relatively calm in the later period and production developed, there was still a lot of waste to be done, and many departments with high technical requirements were in their infancy.

The Tang Dynasty established the country, the society was stable for a long time, the economy was highly developed, and the connection with foreign countries was closer. The influence of this connection on the above-mentioned arts and crafts is clearly shown.For example, among the celadon and tri-color glazed pottery works of the Tang Dynasty, there is a beautifully shaped crested pot. Inherited by the trumpet-shaped ring feet, a sturdy dragon-shaped handle is installed on the other side opposite to the phoenix peck, which is graceful and graceful.If you don’t look at the crested head (hukou and lid combined) and the clinging dragon handle, the main structure of the pot is not a traditional shape in mainland China, but a Hu bottle.The northern white porcelain trough-flow pot is more like a Hu bottle, with a trough-shaped flow on the mouth, and the front end of the abdomen is decorated with precious flowers. On the other side, there is a strong handle with a bald human head.These shapes are common styles of copper and glass bottles in Persia and Arabia in the Middle East from the 1st century to the 4th century AD.Not only ordinary people like these novel utensils, but also the supreme ruler loves to use them very much.The heroic and talented Tang Taizong Li Shimin liked Hu Ping very much. "Old Tang Book·Li Daliang Biography" records that in the first year of Zhenguan (AD 627), Tang Taizong's confidant and important minister Li Daliang came back from his meritorious service. Tang Taizong was very happy and repaired the book himself. To praise him, saying that Li Daliang is capable of writing and martial arts, and has a firm and loyal heart, I will give you a Hu bottle. Although it is not a precious thing worth a thousand yi, it is for my own use.It looks dignified and kind.Ceramic craftsmen in the Tang Dynasty used the Hu bottle style when producing celadon, white porcelain and three-color porcelain for people's daily use.The figurines of Hu merchants unearthed from the tombs of the Tang Dynasty show that the Hu people in the Western Regions worked tirelessly in commercial activities in the Tang Dynasty. They carried bags on their backs and held Hu bottles in their hands.The three-color camels, which reflect the busy commercial exchanges between the Tang Empire and the Western Regions, carry goods, stretch their necks and raise their heads, and travel slowly westward.For a long time, bowls, alms bowls, stem cups, stem bowls and other utensils, which are indispensable in people's life, all had such beneficial contacts in the Tang Dynasty, and their shapes became graceful, such as an open bowl turned into a curved mouth. Bowls, stem cups, and stem bowls are made into multi-curved boat-shaped cups and boat-shaped bowls, which obviously absorbed the characteristics of living utensils in the Western Regions.Some shapes, such as small-mouthed flat-bellied bottles, animal-head-shaped cups, patterns of linked beads, patterns of facing beasts and birds, barbarians training lions, barbarian people playing fireballs, etc., have been transmitted to China and are represented on Chinese ceramics.There are dragon-head-shaped cups, tiger-head-shaped cups, lion-head-shaped cups, multi-curved boat-shaped cups and images of Hu people taming lions surrounded by beads.

The metal crafts and woolen fabrics of Persia, Egypt and other countries in the Western Regions have been popular for a long time with patterns such as honeysuckle and vines, linked beads, pairs of beasts and birds, and they were the most mature and used the most during the Persian Sasanian Dynasty.Such patterns appeared one after another on the art of cave temples, metal utensils and ceramics during the Northern Dynasties of China.It was widely used in ceramics in the Tang Dynasty and developed into curly vine.The two-sided continuous vine pattern, the so-called tangle of flowers, is called a suitable pattern in the decoration process.Dance patterns of popular characters on Sassanian period utensils appeared a lot on Tang Dynasty ceramics, especially the scene of the Hu people with deep eyes and high nose dancing with strong rotation to the accompaniment of the band, which is full of exotic flavor.A celadon teapot with a dragon handle and a crested head in the early Tang Dynasty is in the collection of the Palace Museum in Beijing. Its shape is taken from a Persian vase. The Hu people dance on the abdomen. The chest is exposed and the body is covered with body. It is composed of the image and pattern on the Persian silver pot. very similar.It's just that the dancing figures on the Persian silver pot are women, while the figures on the celadon dragon handle pot are bearded, deep-eyed and high-nosed men.The Hu dancers on the celadon underglaze pots in Changsha, Hunan are like women. The dancers are plump and bare arms. The dresses and scarves are soft and transparent, and the pleats are flowing and flowing.

These contents of Tang Dynasty ceramics are influenced by both Persian art and Indian art.Because it is said that Bahran Gul, King of Iran (420-440 A.D.), summoned 12,000 musicians, singers and dancers from India. Afterwards, this kind of topless, thin clothes and light gauze, dancing postures began to appear on Persian silverware. Charming image of Indian dancing girl.On the celadon pot with a dragon handle and a crested head, there are grape patterns, bird patterns, stars, crescent moons, wine pots and other living utensils that appear at the same time as the dancing figures, which are very realistic.This kind of decorative theme has a long history and is popular in a vast area. It is a product of the early Hellenistic art and is related to the Dionysian customs of Bactria (Big Xia).This custom was popular in eastern Iran during Shabbat. The top of the 6th and 7th century AD silver jug ​​discovered in Mazandaran (Tobasdan) in 1893 is full of paintings such as grapes, birds, boys pulling grapes and containers. In 1970, the Persian gold-plated tall copper cup discovered in Datong, Shanxi Province also contained curly grapes and boys climbing branches. From this, we can see how closely the artistic content of ceramics in the Tang Dynasty was related to foreign crafts, reflecting the relationship between the Tang Dynasty and the Friendly economic and cultural exchanges between countries in the world.The combination of traditional Chinese ceramic techniques and excellent craftsmanship from other regions formed the unique artistic style of the Tang Dynasty.Tang Dynasty ceramics are the witness of friendly exchanges between China and Asian and African countries from the 7th to the 10th centuries.