Chapter 24 Section 4 The Influence of Chinese Traditional Culture on Europe
In terms of literature, the missionary Joseph Marose was the first to translate the Yuan opera "The Orphan of the Zhao Family" into French. In 1735, the "Quanzhi of the Chinese Empire" published in Paris and edited by Du Hede included this translation, and also included more than a dozen poems in the four chapters. After "The Orphan of Zhao" spread to Europe, it aroused widespread repercussions in the European literary and art circles.Voltaire, the famous French Enlightenment thinker and a generation of writers, wrote the play "Orphan of China" based on the translation of "The Orphan of Zhao", which was staged in Paris in 1755.After the French version of "The Orphan of Zhao" was published, there were two English translations within five or six years.After processing and recreating, British playwrights compiled four or five adapted plays.After "The Orphan of Zhao" rewritten by Voltaire was staged in Paris, the British playwright rewrote Voltaire's play and staged it in London in 1759.Starring Garlick, the most famous playwright and actor of the time, the sets and costumes were also very oriental, which earned it success and acclaim.Another famous British writer, Thomas Passy, also had a strong interest in Chinese culture.He translated Chinese novels from the Portuguese version and wrote a Miscellaneous Work of Chinese Poetry and Prose, which was published in 1762."The Orphan of Zhao Family" is also included in it.In Germany, a German translation of The Orphan of Zhao was published in the 1740s.In addition, the Germans translated the novel from English into German.Both Goethe and Schiller, the two great writers in modern Germany, were influenced by Chinese literature.Schiller wanted to rewrite it, and created a charade-style Chinese mythology script, named "Turandot", which was applauded by Goethe.Goethe mentioned the enlightenment of "The Orphan of Zhao" many times in his diary and letters.It was under the influence of some Chinese stories such as "The Orphan of Zhao" that Goethe created the unfinished tragedy "El Pennor".
In terms of history, Italian missionary Wei Kuangguo was the first writer to write systematic and serious Chinese history in a foreign language.His "Ten Volumes of Chinese History" records the ancient Chinese history from the beginning of Pangu to the second year of Yuanshou (1 BC) of Emperor Ai of the Western Han Dynasty.And his "Tatar War Records" is a historical work of the nature of Wenjianlu, which provides important information on Chinese history before and after the entry of the Manchu Qing Dynasty.French missionary Feng Bingzheng compiled and published 13 volumes from 1777 to 1783.This book is mainly translated into a book based on excerpts from the Manchu version of Zhu Xi's "Tongjian Gangmu", and the Ming and Qing Dynasties are supplemented.Although the translation is not very accurate, it is the first time to systematically introduce Chinese historical knowledge to the West.Interestingly, the list of 530 people who ordered this general history is still preserved, from which we can understand the geographical and social status of this book in France.Another erudite French missionary, Song Junrong, wrote the "History of the Tang Dynasty" with the assistance of Chinese scholars.Song Junrong was also very interested in the history of ethnic minorities in Northwest China, and published "Genghis Khan and the History of Mongolia" in 1739.However, the missionaries understood the history and served the religious activities at that time.Therefore, they pay more attention to the study of contemporary history. In 1688, Orleans published "The History of the Two Manchurian Conquerors Who Annexed China", which described the history of the founding of the Qing Dynasty. In 1697, Bai Jin published the biography of Emperor Kangxi, "Historical Portraits of Chinese Emperors".This book compares Emperor Kangxi with Louis XIV, the "Sun King" of France, and highly admires both, which has had a great influence on the West.After the knowledge about Chinese history was introduced to Europe, it had some influence on the broadening of horizons and theoretical generalizations of European historians.For example, Gibbon, a great British historian and author of the famous "History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire", talked about the Tatars' conquest of China in his writings, and believed that Chinese history books can be used to explain the reasons for the fall of the Roman Empire .In addition, he also cites some historical materials about China from time to time in his book, such as Su Wu's sheep herding in Beihai, the history books of Sima Qian and Sima Guang, how Yelu Chucai persuaded the Mongolian invaders, and the death of Emperor Jianwen of the Ming Dynasty, etc. .In Germany, Feng Bingzheng compiled it. While giving readers knowledge of Chinese history, it also gave people the impression that China did not change fundamentally from the 10th century BC until the Qing Dynasty.Hegel and another famous German historian, Ranke, etc. were influenced by this, and came to the conclusion that "the history of China itself has not developed much", China "is still outside the history of the world", "the Chinese are forever static people" and other negative and fallacious conclusions.These circumstances show that the communication between the two cultures is a complex and even tortuous process.
Compared with literature and historiography, Confucian classics, the core and quintessence of ancient Chinese culture, is much more difficult for Europeans.However, because most of the missionaries who came to China in the early days had a high level of education and cultural literacy, and they all studied Chinese Confucian classics with extraordinary enthusiasm and diligence, they gained considerable experience in this aspect. and attainments.Matteo Ricci was the first European who studied and introduced Confucianism to the West.After Matteo Ricci, Jinnige translated the "Five Classics" into Latin.In addition to Jinni Pavilion, Song Junrong translated the "Book of Books", Ma Ruoser and Sun Zhang once translated.The most difficult one was also translated by the French missionary Lei Xiaosi.In the early Qing Dynasty, Italian missionary Yin Duoze and others translated "The Great Learning" into Latin and named it "China's Wisdom".Later, Yin Duoze translated "The Doctrine of the Mean" and named it "Chinese Political Ethics". In 1687, Belgian missionary Bo Yingli published "Chinese Philosopher Confucius" in Paris.During the Kangxi period, French missionary Bai Jin and others studied for many years. Bai Jin won the trust of Emperor Kangxi. Emperor Kangxi encouraged him to study and supervised him many times.Later, Bai Jin finally wrote "The Essentials of the Book of Changes" in Latin.
Chinese culture with Confucian classics as its core was introduced to Europe after inaccurate absorption and digestion by missionaries, and was absorbed by the ideological and cultural circles of European countries according to their own national conditions.The "Enlightenment Movement" in Europe in the 18th century was also influenced by Chinese culture to a certain extent.
In Germany, the famous philosopher Leibniz was influenced by the writings of the missionaries in China, and he came into contact with Chinese Confucianism, Buddhism and Taoism very early, and read the works of the ancient Chinese philosopher Lao Tzu, especially Confucius, In 1689, when Leibniz traveled to Rome, he met Min Mingwo, an Italian missionary who served as the supervisor of Qin Tianjian in China, and gained a lot of knowledge about China. In 1697, Leibniz edited and published the important work "A New Essay on China", which showed his great enthusiasm and emphasis on Chinese culture.Leibniz believed that the theoretical basis of Chinese Confucianism had many similarities with the teachings of Christianity.He closely linked the "Great Harmony" ideal of European peace he pursued with China's "Great Harmony" and "Great Unification." Feudal divisions, endless wars and dissatisfaction with the tyranny of the princes.In order to effectively promote the communication between European and Chinese cultures, Leibniz was also committed to creating the Berlin Academy of Sciences.What is particularly worth noting is that the correspondence between the French missionary Bai Jin in China and Leibniz lasted for six years, and they discussed about it.This discussion was helpful to Leibniz's mathematical research, who found similarities between hexagrams and Leibniz's mathematical binary, thus contributing to the perfection of Leibniz's binary arithmetic.The great writer Goethe once "engaged in the most serious research on the Chinese Empire".He is familiar with the Chinese "pragmatic philosopher" Confucius from the translation of Confucian classics, and appreciates the close integration of Chinese philosophy with real politics.Goethe called Confucius a "moral philosopher" and believed that Confucius' views on promoting one's own good and beautiful development through self-cultivation were very similar to his own; he believed that Chinese people behaved moderately and acted moderately, which was superior to Europeans.Therefore, Goethe was called "Confucius of Weimar" and "Chinese of Weimar" at that time.In his later years, Goethe was more influenced by the "virtue" of Confucianism and the "Tao" of Taoism. From the "restless impulse" of Chinese art in his youth, he entered into the yearning for the tranquility and stability of Chinese ethics. In 1827, Goethe wrote "Sino-German Four Seasons Morning and Twilight Miscellaneous Songs" 14 ques. The poem reflected the author's China, life is like "a pool of still water", and everything is "clearer, clearer, and more moral - it is precisely These strict restraints have enabled the Chinese Empire to survive for thousands of years, and it will survive for a long time."It was in this poem that Goethe put forward that "everything you see is the East", expressing his deep yearning for Chinese culture.
In France, Voltaire emphasized that although Chinese Confucianism is a national religion, it is broad and inclusive, which is enough to prove China's tolerance towards various religions. He believes that Chinese people respect heaven, and "heaven" is the principle of heaven, not a god, not a worship Chinese people respect Confucius, but Confucius is not a religious leader, but a sage who preaches ethics and morality.These viewpoints were the critique of the feudal despotism of "one king, one belief, one law" in France at that time.The famous philosopher Montesquieu also inspected Chinese culture, believing that it is one of many national cultures that coexist in the world, and opposed the view that Western European Christianity monopolizes all "virtue" and "truth".He also used Chinese materials to discuss his views on the state and law, and criticized the French autocracy.Following the Enlightenment thinkers, the Physiocrats were also influenced by Chinese culture in the European intellectual circles.The founder of this school, Quesnay, a famous French economist, is called "Confucius of Europe". He published the book "China's Despotism", in which he entrusted his ideal of enlightened autocracy.Another well-known economist of the Physiocratic School, Durgo, once had friendly exchanges with Gao Leisi and Yang Dewang, young Chinese scholars who were studying in France at that time. When Gao and Yang were about to return to China, Durgo handed over to They have a list of detailed understanding of China's land, taxation, papermaking, textiles and many other aspects, including a total of 52 questions.After returning to China, Gao Leisi and Yang Dewang made regular reports to the French Minister of State after investigation, and cooperated with French missionaries to write papers such as "On Ancient China" and "On the Art of War in China".In France, missionaries contributed most to the introduction of Chinese culture.Editor-in-chief of French missionaries, three great works published in Paris: "Letters of the Jesuits", "Complete Chronicles of the Chinese Empire", "Beijing Missionaries' Treatises on Chinese History, Academics, Art, Customs and Habits, etc.", produced had a great impact.
In Britain, where the bourgeois revolution had already been completed, the bourgeois cultural circles also paid attention to assimilating Chinese culture to serve themselves.The famous philosopher Berkeley once quoted the words of Confucius to demonstrate the morality of Europe.Economist Adam Smith also demonstrated his views on classical economics through his discussion of China.
After the opening of the new sea route, the trade between Europe and China broke through the barriers of the Ottoman Empire, making exchanges more convenient and more frequent.A large number of Chinese exquisite handicrafts and other products flowed into Europe and entered the lives of all levels of European society.
Silk remained one of the most popular commodities among Europeans.Silk fabrics were not only sold very well in France, but also dyeing techniques and dyes were also introduced from China to France, such as gardenia (a leguminous plant) producing golden yellow, thorn bark producing "Chinese green", and so on.At that time, Paris was the center of fashionable fashion in Europe, and the fashion models wore silk, and traveled from here to England, Italy and Germany.France is constantly innovating, and hand-painted and printed silk have been popular successively.
Porcelain and silk go hand in hand as the most popular Chinese products in the European market.Fragile porcelain has been transported to Western Europe after thousands of rivers and mountains, so it is naturally regarded as a treasure.Houses of nobles in the courts of Western Europe are searching for them with all their might.The famous painting "The Banquet of the Gods" by Italian Giovanni Bellini during the Renaissance period highlights the exquisiteness of Chinese porcelain.The painting is now in the National Gallery of Washington, USA, and the content is to show the scene of the gathering of gods and fairies in ancient mythology.The large bowls in the center of the picture that hold fruits and soup are all authentic blue and white porcelains from the Ming Dynasty.One is full of fresh fruits and placed in front of the gods; the other two porcelain bowls are held by a male fairy and a fairy respectively.Because the painter placed these three porcelain bowls in a very prominent position and painted them very carefully, the characteristics of blue and white porcelain can be clearly expressed.According to the investigation, the shape, style and pattern of these three blue and white porcelain bowls all indicate that they belonged to the Xuande and Chenghua years of the Ming Dynasty.This painting was made in 1514, and this type of porcelain was shipped to Venice at the end of the 15th century, before Columbus and da Gama opened up new sea routes.Bellini used these three large blue and white porcelain bowls as supplies for the gods, which just reflected the cherishment of Chinese porcelain by Western Europeans at that time.By the 18th century, porcelain had spread to the whole French society.The French also use porcelain to drink tea.The cleanness, smoothness, lightness and delicacy of Chinese porcelain, as well as the colorful drawings of figures, flowers and birds, are admirable. In 1716, someone in France wrote a poem praising the beauty of Chinese porcelain.The poem reads:
While importing Chinese porcelain, Europeans also began to imitate it.As early as the 16th century, Italians began to imitate Chinese porcelain. In the 17th century, porcelain making technology spread to the Netherlands, and then to France, Germany and other countries.The porcelain industry emerged in French cities such as Neville and Rouen, while the German porcelain industry first developed in Nuremberg and other places. At the beginning of the 18th century, Germany successively produced red porcelain, unglazed hard porcelain and colored porcelain.At the Leipzig Fair held in 1714, the polychrome porcelain exhibited was very popular, and its reputation and business boomed ever since.The porcelain industry thus became the most important industrial sector in the Saxon princes where the production was located.
Lacquerware was also imported to Europe from China.France has imitated successfully in the 17th century.At that time, the lacquerware made by the Madan family was well-known in Europe.The imitation Chinese flower and bird lacquerware made by them is the most popular.Voltaire specifically praised in his poem: "Brother Madan's lacquer cabinet surpasses Chinese art." Exquisite and beautiful lacquer paintings have also entered European courts.The famous French Mrs. Pompadour is a lover of lacquer painting.In order to decorate the Bellafu Palace where she lived, Mrs. Pompadour ordered a large number of lacquer paintings.In addition, Germany and France also developed an interest in painted sedan chairs, and France further developed sedan chairs into sedan cars.
A large number of art forms such as Chinese handicrafts and paintings were introduced to Europe, which enriched the material and spiritual life of Europeans, and also influenced Europeans' appreciation and pursuit of beauty. The "Rococo Era" or "Rococo Fashion" that appeared in Europe, especially in the development of French art in the 18th century, was obviously influenced by China.Rococo art style is characterized by the pursuit of lightness and liveliness, rich lines, elegant and light tones, emphasizing natural elegance rather than artificial carving.
In the Rococo era, the most obvious Chinese influence was garden art. In 1743, French missionary and painter Wang Zhicheng wrote to his friends in Paris, reporting in detail the beauty of the Old Summer Palace, which he called "the garden within the garden":
This is heaven on earth.The artificial rivers are not arranged symmetrically like ours, but are arranged so naturally, as if flowing through the fields, with some convex and concave stones on both sides of the bank, which are natural and uncrafted.The width of the river varies, and there are many twists and turns, just like lingering natural hills and stones.Flowers are planted on both sides of the bank, and the flower branches struggle out from the cracks of the stones, just like they were born.
Later, Wang Zhicheng sent a copy of the 40 scenes of the Old Summer Palace painted by Chinese painters Tang Dai and Shen Yuan to Paris.The pictures of the Old Summer Palace aroused great interest in France and Europe.From the late 18th century, some French nobles began to deliberately imitate Chinese gardens, building pavilions, pavilions, pagodas, and arranging small bridges, flowing water, rock islands and rockeries in their private gardens.Through France, Rococo fashion also spread to Germany and other European countries.The most typical Rococo style buildings in Germany are the Piernitz Joy Palace on the outskirts of Dresden, the Elbe Riverside and the Sansuzi Palace in Potsdam. The gazebo is a feature of the Chinese Li Gong Bie Yuan.In addition, the lord of Kassel also built a "Chinese Village" modeled on Chinese villages.The village is named "Mulan", and all the buildings are Chinese-style bungalows. There is a small river at the foot of the mountain near the village, called "Hujiang".Up to now, there are still towers and magic bridges on the former site of this "Chinese village".Chinese gardens and garden art are so popular in Europe that European scholars admit: "Chinese gardens are the model of all garden arts." Goethe used this sentence in the opening speech of the fourth act of his play "The Triumph of Sentimentalism" To describe a Chinese garden: