Chapter 23 Section 3 The third climax of cultural exchanges between China and the West

It was during the late Ming and early Qing Dynasties that, along with the relatively free activities of European missionaries in China, the spread of Western learning, that is, European technology and culture in China, experienced an active and climax. In terms of astronomy, after European missionaries came to China, they not only translated and introduced many western books on astronomy and calendar, but also imported and manufactured a number of astronomical instruments, such as globes, astronomical instruments, telescopes, and so on.For example, Tang Ruowang compiled "Chongzhen Calendar" and "Shixian Calendar" successively in the late Ming Dynasty and early Qing Dynasty.The latter is the lunar calendar that is still in use today.He also edited astronomical works such as "Ancient and Modern Cross-eclipse Test", "Measurement of Eclipse", "Stellar Appearance and Disappearance", and "Armillary Sphere".During their service in the Qing Dynasty, the Belgian missionaries presided over the design and manufacture of six large copper astronomical instruments, including celestial bodies, equatorial theodolites, ecliptic theodolites, local altimeters, quadrants, and chronometers, which were placed in the Beijing Observatory.And Nan Huairen drew and stated it, and included it in "Lingtaiyi Xiangzhi".Another missionary who made important contributions to the introduction of advanced European astronomical theory was Jiang Youren of France. In 1761, Jiang Youren presented the hand-painted "Kunyu Quantu" to Emperor Qianlong.This picture is accompanied by a description, introducing Galileo's and Copernicus's theory of earthquake and planetary motion, and pointing out that Copernicus' theory "mainly focuses on the motion of the sun and the earth".The manuscript of Jiang Youren's "Kun Yu Tu Shuo Draft" was polished by famous Chinese scholars He Guozong and Qian Daxin, engraved and handed down, and has been valued by Chinese scholars.

In mathematics, Matteo Ricci and Xu Guangqi jointly translated Euclid's famous mathematical work "Elements of Geometry", which is a systematic work on plane geometry.From this, a brand-new method of logical reasoning was introduced into China, which also greatly enriched the content and expression of Chinese geometry.The original book had 15 volumes, but only the first six volumes were translated and engraved in 1607.Another mathematical work "Tongwen Suanzhi" jointly translated by Matteo Ricci and Li Zhizao is the earliest work introducing European pen arithmetic in my country.In this book, from addition, subtraction, multiplication and division to square root, Chinese and Western arithmetic are integrated for the first time.Due to its simplicity and ease of use, it has been widely promoted after subsequent improvements. The "Chongzhen Almanac" compiled in 1634 also introduced a large number of Western mathematical methods, and introduced Western plane trigonometry and spherical trigonometry to China.Tang Ruowang has also compiled mathematical works such as "Essentials of Geometry" and "New Method of Arithmetic".In China in the 17th century, there were four kinds of calculation tools: abacus calculation, pen calculation, planning calculation, and ruler calculation, and the latter three were all imported from the West.

When Western missionaries came to China, it was the end of the Ming Dynasty.The Ming Empire, whose national power was gradually declining, was naturally very interested in advanced Western firearms in the face of the Manchus rising outside the customs (founded in 1636 and named the Qing Dynasty).The Portuguese first brought western cannons from Macau to Beijing, and they were called "cannons in red" at that time.Because Portugal is called "Flang machine", it is also called "Flang machine gun".These "Flang machine guns" played a powerful role in the battle against the Manchu army, and were named "generals in red".After Tang Ruowang came to China, he was also ordered to cast artillery.A cannon foundry was specially set up next to the palace, and 20 cannons were cast in two years.The largest can hold 40-pound shells.Tang Ruowang also dictated "Huo Gong Jie Yao", which is a book dedicated to teaching the design, production and application of artillery.Before the founding of the Qing Dynasty, it attached great importance to Western firearms.Their "cannons in red clothes" were also named "generals" and marched and fought with the troops.In the early years of the Qing Dynasty, in order to put down the "San Francisco Rebellion" and prepare for the needs of Taiwan's Zheng Chenggong's armed forces, the manufacture of Western firearms was still emphasized.Nan Huairen was once ordered to supervise the construction of the Shenwei Cannon, and he wrote "Shenwei Tukuang".

When the rule of the Qing Empire gradually consolidated, the interest and attention of the rulers gradually turned to the fresh and ingenious European handicrafts brought by the missionaries, such as automatic machines and clocks, and so on.Lu Bojia, a French missionary who served in the Qing Palace during the Kangxi period, specialized in making clocks and physical instruments; another French missionary, Yang Zixin, once presented to Emperor Qianlong a self-propelled lion that could walk a hundred steps, and the clockwork was hidden in the lion's belly; He also made a lion and a tiger, which can walk thirty or forty steps.Two robots made by missionary Wang Dahong can walk holding vases in their hands.He also modified a robot donated by Britain so that he could write Manchurian characters.

Along with astronomy and mathematics, it was Western geography that was introduced to China.Matteo Ricci's "The Complete Map of Kun Yu Wan Guo" showed the Chinese people the whole picture of the earth for the first time, which greatly broadened the Chinese people's horizons.The world map compiled by Matteo Ricci has been improved and engraved many times later, and there are many engraved versions.The book "Zhi Fang Wai Ji" written by the Italian missionary Aurelius has a world map in the front and an introductory text in the back. It is the first book that comprehensively introduces modern world geography knowledge to China.Italian Wei Kuanguo wrote "New Atlas of China" and was called "the father of Chinese geography" by Europeans.During the Kangxi period, missionaries Lei Sixiao, Bai Jin, Du Demei and others were commissioned to conduct universal surveying and mapping of the whole country.The surveying work was carried out under very difficult conditions.At that time, the measuring tools were simple and could only be measured with ropes.Observe celestial bodies anytime and anywhere, and use triangulation to measure to specify latitude and longitude.After 10 years of hard work, the "Huangyu Quanpan Map" was finally completed.It was the largest engineered and most precisely mapped map in the world at the time.This map of China is more accurate than all European maps at that time.Later, during the Qianlong period, missionaries Song Junrong, Jiang Youren and others drew a map of Asia with the cooperation of Chinese scholars, which was called the "Copperplate Map of Qianlong's Neifu", or "Map of Thirteen Rows of Qianlong".

European missionaries also introduced western biology and medical knowledge to China.In order to gain their own advancement, European missionaries often used their medical knowledge and skills to treat the royal family and princes and ministers.For example, French missionaries Hong Ruohan, Liu Ying and others once cured Emperor Kangxi’s malaria with Cinchona Cream (Quinine), and surgeon Rhodes also cured Emperor Kangxi’s heart palpitations and upper lip tumors; Touring, becoming an attendant physician, and usually seeing a doctor for the faithful, there are often crowds of people.Missionaries Bai Jin and Ba Doming also translated a French medical book, "Human Anatomy" based on blood circulation and the latest inventions, into Manchu, with illustrations in Manchu.

Missionaries also brought European architectural techniques and styles to China.They built European-style churches everywhere.It is particularly worth noting that the famous royal garden in my country, the Old Summer Palace, which began to be built during the Kangxi period, had European-style buildings.The attached garden of the Yuanmingyuan, a part of the Changchun Garden, was designed and built in the style of a French palace.This project was presided over by the Italian missionary Castiglione under the order of Emperor Qianlong.French missionary Jiang Youren assisted Castiglione in the design of the Western Building complex, which combines Chinese and Western styles and is grand in scale.Jiang Youren is good at design and construction machinery skills, especially shouldering the task of designing "water method" (that is, fountain).The fountain-style water clock he designed uses the twelve zodiac signs to represent the twelve hours, and will spray water on time in turn.The water viewing method at the southern end of Yuanying Temple in the Western Building is the place where Qianlong watched the water spray scenery. You can still see the platform base and stone carving screen where the throne was placed, as well as the European-style door.After it was completed, it was greatly appreciated by Emperor Qianlong.

Castiglione not only made an important contribution to the introduction of Western architecture to China in the design and construction of Western Buildings, but also brought Western painting art to China.This Italian missionary was an outstanding painter.Before coming to China, he had achieved quite a lot.When he was about 20 years old, he completed the frescoes of a monastery in Genoa, showing mature skills.Castiglione brought the advanced European artistic achievements since the Renaissance to China.He brought a batch of Western art classics with him, and compiled teaching materials based on them after he came to China to teach his apprentices.He is said to have collaborated with a Chinese official to write a book teaching the art of painting.When Castiglione arrived in China, he was greatly loved by the rulers of the Qing Dynasty and became a court painter.During his long-term work in the Qing court, he taught Chinese painters scientific techniques such as Western perspective and light and dark expression.Castiglione's important contribution to Chinese painting lies in his ability to comprehend and comprehend Chinese painting with Western methods.On the basis of Western proficiency in realism and perspective, Castiglione absorbed traditional Chinese painting methods. Not only are the shapes of flowers and birds full of vitality, but all kinds of horse poses are particularly wonderful. Performance.For example, one of Castiglione’s lifetime masterpieces, "Equestrian Map", is 2.23 meters high and 4.26 meters wide, which has broken through the scope of Chinese scrolls. It is actually in the form of a huge Western oil painting, but the brushwork is all Chinese.This giant work depicts the actual situation of Emperor Qianlong receiving the Mongolian leader Amursana and others in the Chengde Mountain Resort. The 11 Mongolian leaders including Amursana are in the center, Qianlong is on the right on horseback, surrounded by civil and military ministers Finally, on the left side are painted cavalry performing equestrianism.The composition of this painting is also completely different from the traditional Chinese "Son of Heaven in the Center" court reception picture. It is unfolded from the side, from right to left. The compositional form of worship.In addition, Castiglione often collaborated with Chinese court painters in the Qing Dynasty, such as "Qianlong's Snow Scene Pleasure Picture", which he collaborated with Tang Dai, Chen Mei and others.In the picture, the trees, slopes and rocks are all painted in Chinese style, while the heads of the characters are drawn in Western style, and the buildings are drawn in perspective.

European missionaries not only brought Western culture to China, they also brought Chinese civilization back to the West. After entering China, the missionaries often traveled around and preached everywhere, so they had a more practical understanding of China.The notes, diaries, letters, etc. they wrote based on their own knowledge and experience, unfolded a more real China before the eyes of Europeans, and greatly broadened Europe's vision of understanding the East.The notes on China left by Matteo Ricci include various aspects of China in the Ming Dynasty and the missionary process of the Jesuits in China since Xavier. In 1614, the Belgian Jesuit Kinney Court brought this note back to Europe, translated it from Italian to Latin, and published it in Augsburg, Germany in 1615.The title of the book is "History of Jesuit Father Matteo Ricci's Christian Expedition to China".In this work, Matteo Ricci called the Chinese "the most industrious people" and said: "China, an ancient empire, is famous for being generally gentle and courteous." My understanding is still only scale armor, not beyond the mysterious description written by Marco Polo.They don't even know the inner relationship between the names Silk Country, Khitan and China.It was Matteo Ricci who figured out that Khitan and China were one country.In this posthumous work, Matteo Ricci described the situation of the Chinese Empire, such as customs, ethics, religious beliefs, especially the words and deeds of Confucius and Confucian classics, and so on.After the publication of this work, it was translated into many languages ​​and spread in Europe.The famous German missionary Tang Ruowang read this book, which aroused his strong desire to come to China.

Before Kinney Court compiled and published Matteo Ricci's Notes, in 1592, the British fleet intercepted a Portuguese merchant ship "Notre Dame" near the Azores.A book on the Orient and China published in Macau in 1590 was found on board.This book includes some materials left by missionaries in China.The British geographer Hacklut included the excerpts of this book into the "Complete Book of Navigation" edited and published by him.The excerpt part describes China's territory, territory, capital, and the Great Wall that guards the frontier; the book introduces Chinese men planting rice and women raising silkworms, and also records the ceremony of the emperor pushing the plow and the queen picking mulberry every spring; It describes China's crops such as wheat and rice, handicrafts such as cotton cloth and porcelain, as well as the enfeoffment of the royal family and the imperial examination system, etc.

For Europeans, one of the biggest obstacles to cultural exchanges with China is Chinese language and writing.After Western missionaries came to China, in order to adapt to the environment and facilitate activities, they generally worked hard to learn Chinese and characters.When summarizing his activities in China, Matteo Ricci pointed out that "speaking the native language of this country" and "concentrating on studying their literature day and night" are his major advantages in China.In order to make it easier for Westerners to learn Chinese language and characters, Matteo Ricci and others first compiled a phonetic book of Chinese characters.On this basis, the missionary Jin Nige, with the help of Chinese scholars Wang Zheng, Lu Weiqi and others, compiled "Xiru Ermu Zi" in 1626.This is the earliest Chinese vocabulary book with Latinized pinyin.It can look up characters according to the pronunciation of Chinese, or look up its pronunciation according to Chinese characters.Later, the French missionary Bai Jin compiled the "Sino-French Dictionary", and also wrote Chinese research methods in Latin and French.On this basis, Joseph Marseille wrote "An Introduction to Chinese" in 1728, which analyzed the structure and nature of Chinese characters.French missionaries also paid attention to learning the languages ​​of other ethnic minorities in China besides Chinese. And "French-Chinese-Manchurian-Mongolian Dictionary", etc. In the middle of the 18th century, the German missionary Wei Jijin compiled the first "Chinese-German Dictionary" in history, which included 2,200 Chinese words.