Chapter 14 7. A Brief Discussion on the Thoughts of Taoism and the Patriarchs of Taoism (1)

The academic thought of Taoism is completely derived from the content of Taoism, as mentioned above.The so-called Taoist thought, the concept and content of this name are based on the classification after Qin and Han. For example, during the Zhou and Qin Dynasties, not only Confucianism and Taoism were not separated, but also the academic thoughts of various schools of thought were born. As for Taoism, however, this concept of Taoism is not the way of Taoism after the separation of Qin and Han.But no matter Taoism or Taoism, according to the habits that everyone is familiar with, of course, it cannot do without the theories and thoughts of Laozi and Zhuangzi as the suzerain.In fact, we trace ourselves back thousands of years, deeply understand the historical background of the Spring and Autumn Period and the Warring States Period, and the relationship with the geographical environment. Regarding the thoughts of Laozi, the suzerain of Taoism, and the thoughts of Confucius, the sage enshrined in Confucianism, apart from diction and language Other than the similarities and differences between the ways of expression and the method of advocating Shushi to save the world, there is really not much conflict.Later generations molded their ideology and personality to be too opposite, forming sectarian views, just like fire and water are incompatible, which are all right and wrong created by Confucianism and Taoism, and have nothing to do with the original two schools of thought.The purpose of what we are going to talk about now is to focus on the thoughts of Taoism and Taoism itself after the Qin and Han Dynasties, so there is no need to explain this special issue, but just give a few examples at random as the beginning of talking about Taoism and Taoism. .

1.The Meaning of the Character "Heaven" in Confucianism and Taoism We all know that the basis of Confucius’ philosophical thoughts in the academic thought of the Five Classics edited and written by Confucius comes from the concept of the way of heaven in ancient Chinese traditional culture. The regulations are not strict. For example, for Tianyu, there are roughly five types of concepts that are mixed in the noun of the word Tian: (1) The word Tian refers to a visible celestial body. (2) The word Tian refers to the metaphysical sky, which is a purely abstract idea. (3) The word Tian refers to heaven, which is similar to the religious deity, and has the function of connecting the will of God and man. (4) Tianzi is the symbol of the highest spiritual crystallization. (5) Tianzi is the expression of psychological sublimation.Therefore, when reading books above the Qin and Han Dynasties, every time this character is used, one must go through the context, and even more so, one must understand the entire text in order to communicate where it is used and what it means. The annotated meanings of books such as "Erya" and "Shuowen" are authoritative references; , is already the thinking of the people of the Han Dynasty. Although it is close to ancient times and is more credible, there are still some things that are not necessarily true, and they must be worth studying.

2.The Meaning of the Word "Tao" in Confucianism and Taoism Regarding the character of Dao, it is also as complicated as that of the character of Tian. It can be roughly summarized that during the Zhou and Qin Dynasties, there are about five types of concepts in the character of Dao used in academic thought, which are also mixed in the character of Tao: (1) Metaphysical noumenon concept, referred to as Tao. (2) All laws that are regular and immutable are collectively called Tao. (3) In the personnel society, the ethical norms that are commonly observed, also known as Tao. (4) Mysterious and unknowable, mysterious and unexpected, all inconceivable things are called Tao. (5) The common walking path called Tao.Therefore, Confucianism, Taoism, etc., all of which are said by hundreds of schools, are also called Tao. For example, Yinyang school, famous school, legal school, military school, etc., all mention that what I say is Tao.Except for some places where metaphysical Tao is specifically discussed, most of these statements belong to the scope of the second type of normative Tao we mentioned, and should not be confused with metaphysical Tao, that is, the Five Classics The Tao character in .In some places, in the same concept, two different concepts are used, either as nouns or as verbs, and among nouns, they either belong to the first category or belong to the fifth category, with different changes.This is all because the ancient nouns are simple and the vocabulary is not enough to throw away, and in the ordinary concept, they are probably familiar and understood, but people of later generations will feel confused when reading it. For example, in the book "Laozi", he used Therefore, after thousands of years, those who commented on Lao Tzu, each of them formed a family, had different interpretations and understandings of the words of Tao, just as we observe things now, because of different standpoints and different viewpoints. , they are all ingenious and self-contained.

(1) Lao Tzu 1.Lao Tzu's Idea of ​​Inaction and Nature The Dao and Heaven in Laozi's theory of thought are also confused because of the confusion of concepts, so that after thousands of years, they have been groping in every possible way, but can't find a solution.For example, everyone knows Lao Tzu's famous saying: "Tao can be Tao, it is very Tao. Name can be named, but it is very famous." and "Man follows the earth, the earth follows the heaven, the sky follows the Tao, and the Tao follows the nature." If we don't necessarily trust the later What's more, I think that they are all theories developed by everyone. Then, as long as you read the original text thoroughly, use the scriptures to annotate the scriptures, and understand this book with the thoughts of this text, you will be able to understand it clearly and feel very kind.Lao Tzu wants people to imitate heaven, but why is heaven worth imitating?In the original text, he told you very clearly that heaven is about "everything is done without giving up, it is born but does not exist, it does not rely on it, and it does not live when it is successful." , so you can live forever" and other famous sayings, that is to say, the world grows and cultivates all things and people. It has no selfish purpose, nor does it have the requirements of opposing conditions, and it has no utilitarian functions such as interests, rights and wrongs. It only has charity and giving. There is no requirement to take back anything, and all things come into being and die out of it, which is a natural phenomenon.It works tirelessly and creates all things for a long time, but it does not claim credit, does not rely on itself, and does not take possession of it for itself. Therefore, people can follow the spirit of selflessness and benevolence of the heaven and earth. The natural laws of the universe world.So some people think that nature is the foundation of Tao and heaven, and some take the name of nature as Laozi, and take it as the nature in Indian philosophy, or the nature in the physical world in later sciences. You should know that after more than 2,000 years from Lao Tzu, the natural names of philosophy and science introduced from the West were all borrowed from the Chinese Lao Tzu's word "natural". It is not that we have philosophy and science first It was only Lao Tzu who borrowed the terms of nature. Before Lao Tzu, there were no terms of nature. After Lao Tzu, the names of nature have been used in many ways, and most of them are not the original meaning of Lao Tzu.If we understand the grammar of Chinese single-character sentences in the time of Lao Tzu, then the principle of "Heaven follows Tao, Tao follows nature" as Lao Tzu said, is very simple and clear. His words start with the standard of imitating a person , turn forward layer by layer, and push it to the metaphysical way.What did he say that heaven imitated?Nothing, it is just the law of nature, what is the law of nature?Self is the way of heaven itself.Of course, it's just that Tiandao itself is natural, and there is no other reason to say.Taken together, nature is the natural law of the way of heaven itself.As the times go downhill, the original language used single characters as the original language in ancient times, and gradually evolved into famous sentences and articles. Therefore, people tend to forget the original norms and set nature as a noun. , it becomes a matter of course.It is equal to Laozi and Confucius. They talked about the concepts of Tao and virtue separately, but when Laozi was mentioned later, they combined the two words morality into one and explained it as a noun.Lao Tzu's famous "Wuwei" theory is based on his own natural principles of the way of heaven, and uses the word "wuwei" to describe the realm and function of the way of heaven. The principle of "doing nothing" does not mean not doing anything;He said that "inaction" is the realm of the Dao of Heaven. "Nothing without doing" means that although the body of Taoism is "doing nothing", it has endless functions and functions.Therefore, there are sayings about the function of Taoism such as "existence and non-existence" and "moving will come out". What should be done, to achieve the standard of being truly selfless and impartial, is the natural law.Therefore, he said that "success, fame, retreat, the way of heaven" is based on this principle. Let's try to compare him with the theories of King Wen, Duke Zhou, and Confucius, and draw a conclusion. Speaking of my stupidity and superficiality, I just feel that they are the same consistent ideas of ancient traditional culture, and there is really no big difference. Doing government with virtue is like Beichen, which lives in its place, and all the stars share it." "Don't mean, don't have to, don't be solid, don't be me." etc., it's exactly the same.

2.Lao Tzu's Concept of Benevolence, Righteousness and Sage So, why does Lao Tzu satirize benevolence and righteousness, and ridicule saints?That was his exaggerated rhetoric about the social ills of the Spring and Autumn Period at that time, not for the benevolence and righteousness and sages mentioned by Confucius.In the Spring and Autumn Period, in the period of Laozi and Confucius, the world was corrupt, the king’s government was not governed, and the princes attacked and plundered the land. As a result, they all call for the practice of benevolence and righteousness, publicize the way of saints, try to read the writings of various schools of thought in the Spring and Autumn and Warring States periods, call them saints, and talk about benevolence and righteousness.Those intellectuals who only pursue fame and wealth with academic thoughts also use the way of sages to assist the master in their expectations, so that sages are everywhere, and benevolence and righteousness have become the basis for conspiracy. He cursed, so he said: "Saints never die, thieves will never stop", "Abandon sages and wisdom, the people will benefit a hundred times, never benevolent and righteous, the people will return to filial piety, never use cleverness and abandon profits, there will be no thieves" and other theories, and he came out casually.But he also cited the truth of a true sage, that he should imitate the natural cultivation of all things in the world, without any purpose or condition. It is wrong to think that the world is pre-possessed with a benevolent heart, like the theories of some scholars at that time; It is said that all things are born in the world, regardless of right and wrong, and they are born as they are. He is equal to all things and dogs, regardless of their status. A true saint, a savior of the world, is just like the heart of heaven and earth, equal and selfless , without purpose or condition, just doing what he should do, so he said: "The world is not benevolent, and all things are like dogs; the sage is not benevolent, and the people are like dogs." Later generations interpreted these words he said as The irony of saints and heaven and earth can only be confirmed by referring to Lao Tzu above the ages, or asking the Taishang Laojun in the gossip furnace to confront it.Because he believes that the world is natural and is commonly used without a heart, so he believes that the heart of a true saint is also "doing nothing" and "doing everything". Those who are good and those who are not good, I am also good and good. Believers I believe, and those who do not believe, I also believe. Virtue. Saints are in the world, and Sheshe is the world's heart. The common people pay attention to their eyes and ears, and the saints are all children." Isn't this his self-explanation?Therefore, the meaning of "success, fame, retreat, the way of heaven" is not to teach people that they must retreat, but it is equivalent to what he said: "everything, everything returns to its root", which is the same concept.For example, the classical Chinese saying of Qian Gua says: "A grown-up man has the virtues of heaven and earth, the brightness of the sun and the moon, the order of the four seasons, and the good and bad luck of ghosts and gods." Isn't it the same typical thought as Lao Tzu, just a way of expression? Is it different?The adults mentioned by Yi Xue are also equivalent to the true saints called by Lao Tzu. "Harmony with heaven and earth" is exactly the same as Lao Tzu's saying that "heaven and earth do not exist when they are born, do not rely on them, and do not live in them when they are accomplished", isn't it the same?Isn't it the same as Lao Tzu's "Heaven and earth are inhumane, and everything is a humble dog"?The sun and the moon shine on the heaven and the earth, regardless of cleanliness and filth, they all shine in the same benevolent way, up to the quiet peak, and down to the dirty culvert, as long as you hide it unselfishly, it will see it all without error, all things and dogs, In its benevolent light, there is no distinction between superior and inferior.The remaining meanings of "the four seasons are in their order, and ghosts and gods are in harmony with their good and bad luck" can be understood by analogy, so there is no need to say more.If Laozi really scolded benevolence and righteousness and sages, why would he need to put forward a Tao and virtue besides benevolence and righteousness?Isn't this a way of changing the soup without changing the medicine, and putting old wine in new bottles?If you understand his overall meaning, his attitude towards true benevolence, righteousness and morality can be said to be more serious!

3.Misunderstanding of Lao Tzu's Political Thought In order to explain Taoism and Taoist thought, it is inevitable not to involve Lao Tzu's theory first. Although I have talked about Lao Tzu's concept of heaven, Tao and nature as concisely as possible, I still feel that it is too verbose, because Lao Tzu only has five thousand words, and we Talking too much is not in line with what he said to be frugal, and the truth that "it is better to keep the middle than to talk too much".But Taoism and Taoism, in fact, both trace back to him as the suzerain, so they have to circle in his circle.Speaking of Lao Tzu’s political thoughts on governing the country, I must first ask you a question, that is, when you read books above Zhou and Qin, you must pay attention to the fact that 80% of the country is not the same as the national character of the modern so-called country. idea.Because the ancient Chinese characters, after the Qin and Han Dynasties, were still used as the names of local political units in many places, especially in the Spring and Autumn Period and the Warring States Period, Bangguo and Bangjia had a common meaning. "Guo" means to take office in the place where the enfeoffment is enfeoffed. In the past, the term "national thought" in Chinese history and culture used the term "tianxia" as the modern concept of the country or the world.In Laozi's book, the philosophy of political thought is somewhat similar to the principles of heaven and Tao mentioned above.As for his political views, he advocated the ideal of local autonomy of "a small country with few people", so he also has political methods such as "governing a large country is like cooking small fish", because he is a person who advocates the world, and he needs moral awareness and awareness. Self-government is like cooking small delicacies, slowly steaming with gentle fire to turn people into customs.His idea of ​​"chickens and dogs hear each other, old and dead do not communicate with each other" is equivalent to what Confucians call Emperor Yao when he traveled in Kangqu and heard children's songs: "Let me be the prime minister, Mo Bandit Erji. I don't know, I don't know, follow along." The Emperor’s Rule.” And the old man’s song on the road: “Work at sunrise, rest in the sun, dig a well to drink, plow the field to eat, what does the power of the emperor mean to me.” The concept has the same meaning .If you further understand Lao Tzu's thoughts, he is the representative of southern cultural thoughts in the Spring and Autumn Period, and you have an understanding of the geographical environment of Chuanze Mountains in the South, then, what he said: "Chickens and dogs hear each other, old and dead do not communicate with each other" , then it is not surprising.Let’s go back a few decades. There were so many country people who lived on the hills in the south of the mainland that they had never been to a city in their whole life, and they had never left their homes. This is the case, such as the development of modern scientific civilization, the development of industry and commerce, among the best, the citizens of several major cities in the United States who are pioneers of the times, live in box-like, cage-like apartments, often without access, neighbors next door and opposite Neighbor, who lives here?Or the neighbor on the opposite side died in the house without knowing anything about it. Isn’t this a common phenomenon in a free society ruled by law?Then, when we look back at the society in which Lao Tzu said that "chickens and dogs hear each other, old age and death do not communicate with each other", we feel that he only represents an ideal state of peace in the world, but it is even more lovely, and there is nothing wrong with it.In addition to these, it is Lao Tzu's ideals of local autonomy, moral politics and conscious politics. His concept of Tianxia (the concept of the country in later generations) advocates a unified rule of virtue. One Yin Ning, Hou Wang Deyi thinks the world is chaste." Isn't he a good self-explanation?As long as we understand these points, and then study Lao Tzu's political ideology being misunderstood and falsely wronged, we will feel deeply wronged for him.

4.Laozi was framed as an instigator of conspiracy and power Throughout the ages, among the intellectuals who read books, for a person who is slippery, irresponsible, or ambiguous; good at using push, push, and pull; It is easy to add a comment, this is Huang and Lao.In terms of Taoism or Taoism, there is sacred and lofty admiration for Huang, Lao, Lao, and Zhuang. However, in the general people's concept of Huang Lao, this sacred and lofty idol has become a despicable and dirty curse. Even Taoism and Taoism are no longer contemptuous of scholars.Since the Tang Dynasty, Lao Tzu was respected by others and ascended to the throne of the leader, Taishang Laojun. In the Song Dynasty, it was even worse. Although Song Confucianists secretly absorbed Lao Tzu’s academic thoughts to enrich their content, As soon as Buddha and Taoism are mentioned, they criticize both sides. What's more, they refer to them as femininity and deceit.Where did the injustice come from?Because Lao Tzu said: "If you want to hide it, you must strengthen it. If you want to be weak, you must strengthen it. If you want to destroy it, you must strengthen it. If you want to take it, you must firmly give it. This is called twilight. "So since Lao Tzu, the political strategists have used morality and righteousness in public, and they have followed the principles mentioned by Lao Tzu in secret. They are used for power fraud and treachery, as the use of the monarch's political strategy; military strategists are even more common. This principle is applicable to the implementation of strategies and tactics. After the Spring and Autumn Period and the Warring States Period, the kingly way declined and hegemony flourished. All the theories are applicable to this law, so ordinary people, invisibly, combine the disadvantages of strategists, military strategists, etc., and attribute them to Lao Tzu's crimes.In fact, what Lao Tzu said pointed out the causal law of cosmic physics and the inevitable laws of human affairs, and told people the principle of "the way of heaven is good to return" and "the one who is against the way is moved by the way, and the weak is used by the way". Do it morally, but only focus on power and fraud, and ultimately fail.He said: "If you want to shed it, you must strengthen it".It refers to the situation in the physical world and tells people the moral law of "the weak wins the strong". For example, when a flower or a tree is about to wither, it will bloom especially lushly, but that kind of lush opening is the prelude to decline. "If you want to be weak, you must be strong because of it" is the law of the biological world. For example, when a person's life reaches the strongest stage, it will be the trend of "when things are strong, they will grow old, and when they get old, they will not know the way". "If you want to discard it, you must lift it because of it" is also an inevitable law of the physical world, such as the effect of mechanics. When we want to throw something to the destination, we must first lift it high and throw it far away. Going out, this kind of state of holding high and throwing far away is of course the prelude to falling. "To take what you want, you must give it" is the law of the universe. For example, when the heaven and the earth give life to all things, when it gives you life, it is the beginning of taking in. Therefore, between giving and taking, people It seems that there is a sense of success or failure, but from the perspective of the natural principles of heaven and earth, "where life comes, death comes, and where death comes life", it is just a process of life phenomena.Therefore, the "twilight" mentioned by Lao Tzu means that Lao Tzu wants people to understand the subtle "inception" of things when they first move, and to have the understanding of "knowing the subtle, knowing the writing" and distinguishing the original state of why it is. , you can understand its consequences, so he said: "The way of heaven, is it like drawing a bow? The higher ones suppress it, the lower ones lift it up, the surplus damages it, and the deficiencies make up for it. Insufficient. The way of man is not the case. The damage is not enough to serve the world. Who can serve the world with more than enough. Only those who have the way are sages who do not treat them. They do not want to see sages. "Seeing the virtuous" means not wanting the world to ascribe the reputation and achievements of being virtuous to himself.

However, the natural law of cause and effect mentioned by Lao Tzu has been misunderstood by later generations out of context and applied to political changes. Lao Tzu's Taoist thought is used as a political policy, but apart from Emperor Wen's thrift and corporal punishment, which are close to morality and benevolence, he still has not really adopted the Taoist morality of quietness and inaction, and, in his bones, it is actually used Strategists and other strategists are misunderstood, and they are called Taoist academic thoughts.In the past, the so-called political forms of "using Huang Lao internally and displaying Confucianism externally" were mostly just this example, so there is no need to talk about it.In short, Lao Tzu's academic thought was misunderstood and wronged, and it was because he observed the phenomenon of human affairs too thoroughly and wrote some profound words, which caused this wrong.Fortunately, he has already said: "I don't want to see the virtuous", so, as far as he is concerned, it doesn't matter.In fact, the Taoist thought represented by Lao Tzu is exactly the same as the Datong thought in the "Li Yun Chapter" in the "Book of Rites" of Confucianism. It aims at moralizing politics, and even more than that.Therefore, some post-Confucian scholars suspect that the Datong thought in "Li Yun Pian" is a later work mixed with Taoist thought.

5.The Center of Gravity of Lao Tzu's Political Thought Since the book "Lao Tzu" was renamed Taoism by the emperors of the Tang Dynasty, later generations will link moral concepts together when they talk about "Lao Tzu". In fact, in the text of "Lao Tzu", Tao and virtue are separate , are not unified, Tao is its body, and virtue is its function.As for the order of the chapters in the original text, after Qin Huo and Chu Huo, and because of the disorder of bamboo slips and leather books in ancient books, it has long been impossible to determine what it should be?However, there are differences between body and function, which is very clear. Therefore, regarding the focus of Lao Tzu’s political thought, one should understand his thoughts involving the word “virtue.” And the center of gravity for political and foreign use.Moreover, the meaning of the ancient German word also has the function of the word, which is equal to the principle of the so-called effect and achievement in modern language. Therefore, when he talked about the word "virtue", he said, "there is no virtue at the top, so there is virtue. There is no loss of virtue at the bottom. Therefore, there is no virtue.” In other words, this is equivalent to saying that with high-grade virtue, even if he has done meritorious deeds, in his own heart, he does not feel that he is virtuous. The concept of meritorious deeds, or the concept of gain and loss exists in the heart, which is the synonymous annotation of the words "wu wei" and "doing nothing" in his preaching.We briefly defended Lao Tzu's thoughts earlier, and the unjust prison that was misunderstood as femininity and deceit, we should pay attention to his key points, so that there will be no more misunderstandings.The art of femininity and deception is bound to like to use conspiracy. For example, Chen Ping, who assisted Han Gaozu in the early Han Dynasty, was a person who likes to use tricks, so he himself said: "I have many schemes, which are forbidden by Taoism, and my life will be abolished." It's over, and I can't get back up in the end, because I have a lot of troubles." When Sima Qian wrote his family biography, he praised him and said: "Prime Minister Chen is flat. When he was young, he was good at yellow and old skills. Its meaning is already far away. It is inclined to disturb Chu and Wei, and the death returns to Emperor Gao. He often makes strange plans to save the troubles of disputes and revitalize the country. As for Empress Lu, there are many current events, but Ping actually escaped from it. If you only look at the praise of Tai Shigong, it seems that he also approves of Chen Ping's success in his life with resourcefulness, but be careful. The micro-words in his pen say: "When I was young, I was good at yellow and old techniques." It means that although Chen Ping was eager to learn from Huang and Lao's academics, when he encountered an opportunity to work, because he learned from Huang and Lao's self-cultivation, he became a manipulative manipulator and distanced himself from the original purpose of Huang and Lao's morality. farther.Therefore, in Chen Ping's biography, he quoted his own words to explain this truth.And at the end, he recorded that when Chen Ping's grandson, Chen He Daihou, "sitting on the wife and abandoning the market, the country will be eliminated." Feng Chen's family, but in the end." Waiting for the conclusion.It can be seen from this that Sima Qian has worked hard to write the wrong use of Taoist thought as the harm of tactics, and those who use tactics must have foresight in advance. Treat the big man with the thick, not the weak. Treat the truth, don’t take the flower. So go with the other and take the one.” From this we can see how Laozi’s Taoist thought denounced power and strategy, and advocated to treat oneself with the thick, which is similar to that of Confucius How is Confucianism different in China?

Lao Tzu's political thinking not only denounces power and strategy, but also does not advocate the degeneration of politics to that of primitive society.But the so-called "small country with few people" is only one of his academic thoughts, which involves the political thoughts of the feudal lords at that time who founded the country and divided it, and local self-government.His views on the politics of the world (the ancient Chinese often used the word tianxia to summarize the habits of the whole country) are even more unified.For example, he said: "The heavens get one to make it clear, the earth to be peaceful, the gods to get their spirits, the valleys to prosper, and all things to live when they get one, and the princes and kings to get one to think that the world is pure." It is not enough to show that Lao Tzu's proposition must be a unified thought.The one he used here also includes the element of self-cultivation, so he also said: "So nobility is based on lowliness, and high and low are based on it. It is because the princes claim to be lonely and widowed, and this is not based on lowliness." No? What people hate is loneliness, widows and selflessness, and Hou Wang claims to be himself. Therefore, he has no reputation. I don’t want (Wang Lu) (Wang Lu) to be like jade, and luoluo to be like a stone." From this we know him The political thought of the unity of moralization has been fully expressed in all the writings of the original text.As for Lao Tzu's idea of ​​"repaying grievances with virtue", it is a long-standing traditional spirit of Chinese culture.Confucius advocated "repaying grievances directly", so he also said to himself: "Hide grievances and make friends with others, Zuo Qiu is ashamed of them, and Qiu is also ashamed of them", which is more or less cheerful. Laozi seems to have the feeling that the furnace is pure but not green, so Confucius' "Charter on Civil and Military Affairs" is justified.As for Lao Tzu's thought, it has been ups and downs for more than three generations, far ahead of the Yellow Emperor, and it is well-deserved to use it as the way of a master and a teacher.

6.Lao Tzu's Academics on Health Preservation Chinese cultural philosophy, the habit of tradition since ancient times, whether it is talking about transcending the metaphysical nothingness, or talking about the wonderful use of physical and human affairs in the world, narrowing it down to life, must be attributed to the practicality of cultivating the body, mind and life, and expanding it, it can be seen in the The application of regulating the family, governing the country, and pacifying the world has never been "just empty words" and has not been seen in action, but it makes the mind debate and learn independently.Especially in terms of physical and mental cultivation, it is necessary to seek self-respect, and it must be compatible with ethical and moral virtues before it can be called learning. This is the key to the biggest difference between Chinese cultural philosophy and Western cultural philosophy.Therefore, looking at Chinese culture from the perspective of Western philosophy, I think that Chinese culture has no real philosophy at all, and only has a side of life cultivation, but it can be called philosophy of life.From the standpoint of Chinese culture, it is not necessarily required to be consistent with the thinking and internal cultivation of Western philosophy, and you will think that it is only a subtle delusion, which is logical. It is reasonable enough to inspire deep thinking, but if it is used in the human affairs world, it will run counter to it and is completely impractical, so it must be carefully selected and accommodated.Lao Tzu, of course, is a master of Chinese culture and thought, and he is also a representative of the Taoist academic center. During the Zhou and Qin Dynasties, apart from Lao Tzu's cultivation of Taoism, which paid attention to body, mind and life, there is no information about "alchemists", so Lao Tzu It is the earliest and more specific theory to talk about health preservation and health preservation.The real Zhang Ziyang, who really revised and unified alchemy in the Song Dynasty, said in his book "Enlightenment": "The "Yinfu" has more than three hundred precious characters, and the "Tao De" has five thousand spiritual texts. Counting, all from here to reach the true interpretation." "Jun Rao is more intelligent than Yan Min. If you don't meet a real teacher, don't try to guess. It's just for the golden elixir, there is no formula, and it will teach you where to conceive a soul." This is a representative Taoist figure who attaches great importance to Lao Tzu value, now we briefly summarize his main points for the convenience of telling: (1) Start with the theory of nourishing tranquility based on the foundation of emptiness and tranquility: For example, it is said: "To achieve the emptiness and keep tranquility, all things work together, and I can see their recovery. All things return to their roots. Returning to the roots, the day is quiet, Restoring life on a quiet day. Returning life to daily life, knowing the daily life, knowing the daily life. If you don’t know the constant, you will act recklessly." This is the principle and principle of the theory of maintaining tranquility put forward by Lao Tzu. He pointed out that the source of life is based on static, so it is necessary to cultivate Returning to the original static state of life is in line with the usual way.As for the method of maintaining tranquility, there are no tricks such as meditation (sitting in meditation) and keeping the orifices proposed by the Taoists of later generations. He just said the principle of six words, "to the extreme of emptiness, and to keep the tranquility". Extremely quiet, keeping quiet to the extreme, is a wonderful way to keep in good health and nourish the mind. (2) The theory of cultivating the spirit from the extreme of stillness to the lingering existence: For example, it is said: "The god of the valley is immortal, it is called the mysterious female. The gate of the mysterious female is called the root of the heaven and the earth. If it is continuous, it is not used diligently." This is It is to explain that starting from the cultivation of tranquility, and then reaching the unambiguous spirit, as for the unity of the spirit, and the state of being dense and long-lasting with the heaven and the earth, it can communicate with the same root of the heaven and the earth, and share its long-lasting magical effect in a dense trance.His so-called "gu god" is neither a prominent god in the religious valley, nor is it the role of the "gu god" in a certain acupoint on the human body, or a pinch of grains, which Taoists of later generations refer to as the transmission of things.The so-called valley is an adjective that cannot be explained by borrowing the real thing.The valley is the deep mountain valley, the state of deep and quiet air conditioning, but in the deep valley, because the air flow is still, even though the fine dust is moving, it has the effect of returning to the sound, as if there is a god, so I use it to describe the empty space. The divine state of spiritual tranquility also has unambiguous functions, which is called "the god of the valley".The so-called "Xuan Mu" is not all the dantian miraculous orifice referred to by the Taoists of later generations. "Xuan Mu" comes from the thinking of the academic department.Xuan is common with Yuan, and Mi is a common term for female code names in ancient times.All animal life in this world is conceived and born from the empty root of the female female, so if people want to cultivate to achieve the fruit of immortality, they will reach the state of "God of the Valley" by cultivating tranquility and rejuvenating the spirit, and it will last forever. , the door of the "Xuanmu" that is not ambiguous in spirit is also the source of life, and it can communicate with the spirit of heaven and earth. (3) The theory of nourishing qi by assisting in nourishing tranquility and nourishing the spirit: For example, it is said: "Between heaven and earth, it is like a stick! It is empty and unyielding, and moves and heals." It is used to explain the role of life and death.A 橐 is a bag that is empty at both ends and can hold things.龠, is an ancient musical instrument, a bamboo pipe that can blow air and ventilate.橐 and 龠 were originally two things, used as an example, and later explained that it is a transmission piece for the bellows used for ventilation and fire.This is a phenomenon that shows the interaction between breathing and the function of one qi, which can assist in nourishing the mind and uniting the spirit, so he also said: "Embracing the one with the soul, you can be inseparable! Focus on the qi and make it soft, and you can be like a baby." Cleanse the Xuanlan, and it will be flawless!" Ying and Wei are synonymous words used for qi and blood in ancient medicine.Soul and soul are also synonymous words used by ancient Taoists for spirit.What he said is "carrying one's soul and holding one's heart, there can be no separation"!That is to say, if a person can cultivate to the point that the spirit and soul are integrated into one without being separated, and the mind and energy are concentrated in communication, reaching the state of being as weak as a baby, and washing the mind without leaving the slightest blemish, then one can achieve "When the gate of heaven opens and closes, can there be no females?" The realm of complete male yang, later generations of alchemy Taoists who cultivated immortals called it the Yang God. (4) The wonderful way of trance to essence: due to the effect of nourishing tranquility, nourishing spirit, and nourishing qi, you can finally know the true function of strength and spirit. For example: "Kongde's appearance is only Tao. Tao is a thing. There is nothing but trance. Trance and trance, there are images in it. Trance and trance, there is something in it. Mystery and darkness, there is essence in it. The essence is so real, and there is faith in it. From ancient times to the present, its name has not been removed, How do I know the shape of the public? From this." The spirit and Tao he said can be obtained by all living beings; the public is the ancient meaning of all living beings, and later came to Zhuangzi Renamed sentient beings.Trance, not coma or confusion, trance is to describe the state of mind and spirit.Yaoming is not ambiguous, and Yaoming refers to the realm of profound clarity.These are all the results of nourishing tranquility, nourishing the mind, and nourishing the qi, which are in line with the Tao and achieve virtue, and accommodate all kinds of real situations.If a person's self-cultivation has reached this level, he can confidently see the magical effect of the spirit. (5) The results of health preservation: As for the results of health preservation, he first mentioned the situation of babies as an example, such as: "The virtue of virtue is comparable to that of a child. The bones are soft and the tendons are weak, but the grip is firm. I don’t know the union of male and female, but the mouth is made, and the essence is perfect. I am happy all day long, but I am harmonious. I know the harmony of the daily life, and the knowledge of the daily life is bright. Benefit the birthday (evil sheep). Heart Make the qi stronger day by day. When things are strong, they will grow old. It is called immoral, and it has already been established.” This is the physical and mental condition used to explain the achievements of self-cultivation. Based on this, he also said: "Those who are good at maintaining life will not encounter tigers when traveling on land, will not be armored when entering the army, will not have anything to throw their horns at, tigers will not know what to do with their claws, and soldiers will have nothing to hold their blades. Why? Death." This is the basis for the later Taoists to claim "immortality". In addition, the virtues of politics, the character of one's own conduct, and the attitude of dealing with the world that Lao Tzu discussed are all based on this highly cultivated state, so there is no need to say more, so I will stop here.孔子所谓的"道"与"仁"，曾子所谓的"明德"与"止静"等工夫，子思所谓的"中庸"与"中和"，"虽然都从无为静养而出发，但是程度各有不同。可是这种高深的修养，得其好的成果，便有如老子所说神妙的境界，如果流弊偏向，便会走到杨朱为己，趋向个人自私主义，所以后来论者，以墨子、杨朱，都出于道家的一脉，也是很有道理的事；杨朱为己，拔一毛而利天下不为也，便是老子俭、窗之教的偏向；墨翟摩顶放踵以利天下，便是老子仁慈之教精神的发挥。儒家重视师道，崇尚教化，也可谓等同老子"不敢为天下先"的作风。兵家阴谋奇计，源出于黄、老用柔、用弱的原理。纵横家的长短，钩距，捭阖，扰攘的作风，便是老子"前知取与有无"的余事。阴阳家与道家黄、老之术，本来便不分家。法家、名家的思想，都渊源于儒、道的支流，由于周代礼教文化的蜕变，进为刑名法治的学术，并非纯出道家。农家与黄、老的"道法自然"，本来就主旨相同，观念合一。至于"方士"们的思想，本来便以黄、老为宗主，更无话说。由此可知，我们要了解道家的学术，或黄、老或专以老子为代表学术思想所涉及的内容，确是"综罗百代，广博精微"，不能只从狭义的道家观念去研究，那就会有得不偿失的遗憾了。 7.道教《清静经》 渊源于道家老子思想，纯粹从道教立场，发挥修养的妙义，而不同于丹道家的修炼方术，颇有相当价值的，要算道教的《清静经》为最好。但《清静经》的著作，虽然号称为太上所说，实为晚唐时代的作品，而且章制体裁，极力仿效佛教的，名辞术语，也多探纳佛学的名相。我们如果不谈考据，只论内容，放弃时间与门户观念，那么，《清静经》不但可以代表道家与道教的必读之书，如要了解晚唐以后中国文化的精神，与儒、释、道三教思想融会贯通的情形，也是必读之书。 Like the cloud: 老君曰：大道无形，生育天地。大道无情，运行日月。大道无名，长养万物。吾不知其名，强名日道。夫道者，有清有浊，有动有静。天清地浊，天动地静，男清女浊，男动女静。降本流末，而生万物。清者浊之源，动者静之基。人能常清静，天地翻皆归。夫人神好清，而心扰之。人心好静，而欲牵之。若能常遣其欲而心自静。澄其心，而神自清，自然六欲不生，三毒消灭。所以不能者。为心未澄，欲未遣也。能遣之者，内观其心。心无其心，外观其形。形无其形，远观其物。物无其物。三者既悟，惟见于空。现空亦空，空无所空。所空既无，无无亦无。无无既无，湛然常寂。寂无所寂，欲岂能生。欲既不生，即是真静。真常应物，真常得住。常应常静，常清静矣。如此清静，渐入真道。既入真道，名为得道。虽名得道，实无所得。为化众生，名为得道。能悟之者，可传圣道。老君曰：上士无争，下士好争。上德不稳，下德执德。执著之者，不名道德。众生所以不得真道者，为有妄心。既有妄心，即惊其神。既惊其神，即著万物。既著万物，即生贪求。既生贪求，即是烦恼。烦恼妄想，忧苦身心。便遭浊辱，流浪生死。常沉苦海，永失真道。真常之道，悟者自得。得悟道者，常清静矣。 便是《清静经》全篇的原文，共计三百九十二字，其中所谓的空、六欲、三毒、苦海等名辞，都是佛家的术语，我们如果借用禅宗五祖的语意为它作评价，便可以说："后世依此修行，亦可以人道矣。" （二）庄子 关于中国文化思想的源流演变，它如何产生道家与道教的问题？如果以人物作中心，以时代作陪衬，在春秋时期，当然以老子、孔子为代表。而在前面已经讲过有关于老子思想的大略，也正是反映出孔子的一切，为了限于时间与本题范围，不必节外生枝，涉及孔子与儒家思想的论议。自老子、孔子以后，到了战国阶段，诸子学说，分门丛出，凡无关本题的需要，也都不牵涉在内，而与本题最有关系，如庄子的学术思想，便不得不稍加注意了。战国时期的学术思想，正如当时的政局一样，虽然天下宗周，实则诸侯各国，各自纷纷图强，互争霸主。当时的学术思想，也正像这种局面，尽管都由中国上古一个整体文化的来源，但各凭所得所见，互相标榜门户，各立异说。其中最为著名的，便为众所周知，道家的庄子、儒家的孟子、墨家的墨子等人的学说。我们已经讲过孔、孟是代表当时北方鲁国系统的文化思想，老、庄是代表南方楚国系统的文化思想，而与燕、齐、宋国的文化渊源，都有互相关系。尤其道家，在战国阶段，为北方道家学术思想的中坚，便是燕、齐之间的"方士"们，为南方道家学术思想的代表，据有史料文献可征的，当然要算庄子了。但是，后世虽把老、庄并称，做为道家思想宗主的总代表，事实上，庄子的学术，与老子的思想，已经大有不同了。孟子学术，不比孔子的精纯，已稍杂有霸气。庄子的学术，也不比老子的质朴，也杂有英气的成分，现在为了讲述庄子思想的大要，又须稍费一点时间，略作引论。 1.的寓言 庄子的著作，凡三十三篇，从首篇《逍遥游》开始到《应帝王》等七篇著作，通常都称它为内篇，其余都属于外篇和杂篇。一般研究的，都认为比《老子》难读，因为它牵涉的知识范围较广，而且许多理论和譬喻，都是属于当时理论物理的学识，所以不只是纯粹的思想而已。此外，因为庄子善用寓言，现在一般人提到寓言，便会和联想在一起，或者认为寓言只是架空构造的幻想事实，用做譬喻而已，它的本身并无道理。其实，的寓言，既不能做纯粹的譬喻来看，也不能做为虚构事实的幻想来读，近代西洋文化传入中国，我们翻译，这个寓言的名称，是借用的名辞，而且性质并不完全一样，并非是庄子借用寓言，才来杜撰故事。寓言的寓字，是寄托的意思，换言之，庄子所指的寓言是把一个事实或道理，不直接地说出，只是间接地寄寓在另一个类同的故事里，要人透过这个故事的背景，再了解他所说的语意。如果把它下拉到唐、宋时代来讲，庄子语言文字的机锋，转语，实在是很高的禅境，例如第一篇的《逍遥游》，开始所用的寓言：北溟（北极）有一条很大的鲲鱼，忽然变为大鹏鸟，而飞到南滨（南极）去歇夏。第二个寓言，就说尧让天下给隐士许由，许由不受；因此引出肩吾间连叔，讨论那个称为楚国狂人接舆说的大话，他讲姑射山上的神人，"肌一肤若冰雪，淖约若处子。不食五谷，吸风饮露。乘云气御飞龙，而游乎四海之外。其神凝，使物不疵疠，而年谷熟。"藉以说明高人隐士们所要追求的人生最高境界，所以像许由他们，才有薄工业而不为的风格。第三个寓言，便借用与他同时代，以智辩出名的惠子，与庄子自己谈论的话，以说明人各有志。虽然见仁见知，各有不同，但各凭所志，以求达到适性逍遥为目的。他所提出的逍遥，我们借用佛学的名辞来说，等于就是解脱的意义；不过，佛学的解脱，是纯粹出世的思想，庄子的逍遥，是道家的思想，介乎出世人世之间的大自由、大自在的境界，犹如佛教教外别传的禅宗的宗旨。 2.的《逍遥游》与内七篇 第一个寓言鱼化鹏的故事，在一般常理说来，简直是满纸荒唐之言，但庄子却慎重其事地举出一本书，叫做《齐谐》的来做引证，表示确有其事似的，用以证明并非是他自己架空构想出来的，他说："齐谐者，志怪者也。"这本书是专门记载怪异故事的书，应该犹如一样的奇谈。可是，我们要注意，他所说这本书，又是"其民阔达多匿知"的齐国人的著作，与燕、齐之间的方士思想，势必互有关系。这个寓言故事所代表的道理，历来对于它的讲解，大概归纳起来，有两种说法：（1）是普通的：认为寓言本身，便是虚构故事，不必去追究它，庄子本意，只是用它来说明一个人的学问、知识、见解、志气，各有大小远近不同的主观成见而已。（2）道家丹道派的：认为北溟的鱼，便是指下丹田（海底会阴）元气基地的气机，它化为大鹏，起飞到南溟，便是循督脉（脊髓神经）上行，到了泥洹官（顶门），打通任督脉的境界。其实，庄子引用这个寓言故事的本身，是极力说明天地万物，都是一息变化的气化作用，讲述这个宇宙万物的物化道理。天地万。物的互变，是道家学术科学而哲学的中心思想，因为天地万物的生命，相互生灭变化而存在，如梦样的依存，只是大家都醉生梦死而不觉醒，是最可悲可笑的事实。后来五代道家的谭峭，著了一本《化书》，列举许多可靠或不可靠的资料，便是引申说明这个道理，牵涉太多，恕不一一分析讨论。总之，庄子这个寓言故事的重心，首先提出"野马也，尘埃也，生物之以息相吹也"三句话，便是极力说明气相与物化的功能，但要注意，当时古代所说的这个物字，决不是近代和现代物质或物理的观念；那个时候物字的意义，是很笼统地用它代表一种东西的意思，如果因为道家或老、庄思想中，经常提到物字，便做为等同近代或现代"唯物"观念的物字来看，那就会犯了削足适履的毛病。 现在为了尽量简捷地讲，的《逍遥游》，便是代表庄子道家思想，要求适性解脱的提纲，并且以此观念来看内七篇，又是一套整体的学术思想：第一篇《逍遥游》，是讲人生最高、最究竟的境界。第二篇《齐物论》，是说明天地万物与人生在现象界中，本来就是不齐（不平等），如要得解脱逍遥的极果，必须先要齐物（平等）。现象界中的万物万象，又如何可齐呢？只有修养达到与天地精神合一，"天地与我并生，万物与我为一"的境界，与本体并存，才能有真正的平等，成为齐天大圣了。第三篇的《养生主》，是从第一二篇的逍遥。齐物而来，如果真能物我齐一，才是懂得养生，真正懂得物吾一齐而养生适性，才可处于人间世而无闷无忧，善于用世而不被世用，而乐其天年，因此才有第四篇的《人间世》。从此到达内养的道德充沛，符合于天机的自然，才有第五篇的《德充符》。我们借用庄子的理论，这五篇联起来，这便是"内圣"之学的完成。然后第六篇的《大宗师》，是说明有"内圣"的成就，才能出为"外王"，便是真正够得上资格的大宗师。由此用行舍藏，做为帝王师而以道自处，故有第七篇《应帝王》作为总结论了。只因庄子的文学，汪洋富丽，引证论述中的物理世事，无一而不宝贵，无一而不成为专题，所以读者便被他引述陈列的种种，先迷住了眼目，忽略他内七篇的条贯系统，不把它融会贯通起来，不过，这也是我的一得之见，不足为训。只为讲述之便。略一申说，以供大家研究的注意而已。 3.外篇的风规 至于的外篇、杂篇等二十六篇，或真或假，或是原著，或为后人的附托，暂时不去说它。总之，它的外篇，虽然仍秉庄子介乎人世出世之间，解脱逍遥的学术思想而出发，但大体上都是讲的用世之学，而且嬉笑怒骂，或动或默，无一而不含有至理。后世的纵横家，以及政治、军事，文韬武略等谋略机权之学，与其说渊源于老子思想，毋宁说都受到庄子思想的影响为多，只是大家都不说穿，把所有的罪过，一律向老子头上一套，未免诬陷之至。自从庄子的著作，有了内外篇分类的雏形以后，后世道家的著作，也孝仿照的成例，以专言内养道术的著作为内篇，讲论其他外用的学术思想为外篇，《淮南子》是如此，《抱朴子》也是如此。而最奇妙的，凡是道家著作的思想，以及道家的人物，都是喜欢谈兵，而且也善于谈兵，等于战国时期的道家，都带有纵横家、法家（政治）的浓厚气氛，是同样有趣的问题，留待以后补充。 4.内篇养生学与方大神仙的因缘 大凡时衰世乱的时期，社会人心，受到时代环境的刺激，必然会走向颓废，讲究现实，贪图一时的享受而找刺激；或者逃避现实，倾向神秘，自寻理想境界的出现。这两条路，是古今中外人类历史变乱中共通的趋势，前者属于现实享受主义，后者属于逃避现实主义，如果从广义来讲，乱世之中，几乎没有一个人能超过这两种范围的。春秋、战国时期，北方"方士"学术思想的勃兴，与南方老、庄摄生养生思想的开展，也当然具有这种时代背景的因素，虽不尽然，而势所难免。我们在前面已经讲过，战国时期，庄子、孟子等人，多多少少，都受到"方士"养神、养气等学说的影响，尤其以庄子为更甚，庄子所有学说的哲学基础，几乎完全由于这种精神而出发，现在归纳内七篇中，有关养生学与神人的学说，举例以作说明： 关于养神、养气的原则，他在《逍遥游》中说："若夫乘天地之正，而御六气之辩，以游无穷者，彼且恶乎待哉！"这与孟子的养浩然之气，直养而无害的观念，确有南腔北调，殊途同归之妙。他在《养生主》中，又说："缘督（督脉）以为经，可以保身，可以全生，可以养亲，可以尽年。"同于"方士"修炼精气而成内丹的方法与观念，完全一致。他在《人间世》中，借用孔子与颜回的对话作寓言，又提出养心的心斋方法与原则，如说："回曰：敢问心斋？仲尼曰：一若志，无听之以耳，而听之以心。无听之以心，而听之以气。听止于耳。心止于符。气也者，虚而待物者也。唯道集虚；虚者心斋也。颜回曰：目之未始得使，实自回也。得使之也，未始有口也。可谓虚乎？夫子曰：尽矣，吾语若。若能人游其樊，而无感其名，人则鸣，不人则止，无门无毒，一宅而寓于不得已，则几矣。绝迹易，无行地难。为人使易以伪，为天地难以伪。闻以有翼飞者矣，未闻以无翼飞者也。闻以有知知者矣，未闻以无知知者也。瞻彼阕者，虚室生白，吉祥止止。夫且不止，是之谓坐驰。夫徇耳目内通，而外于心知，鬼神将来舍，而况人乎？是万物之化也，禹舜之所纽也，伏羲、几遽之所行终，而况散焉者乎！"这一节的心斋论，是与他"坐忘论"的方法与原则互通，与"缘督以为经"等养气之论，又是另一面目的方法。 他在《大宗师》里，又提出外生死的理论，惜用南伯子葵与女偶的问答说："子之年长矣，而色若孺子，何也？曰：吾闻道矣。南伯子葵曰：道可学耶？"曰：恶！恶可！子非其人也。夫卜梁倚，有圣人之才，而无圣人之道；我有圣人之道，而无圣人之才，吾欲以教之，庶几其果为圣人乎？不然，以圣人之道，告圣人之才，亦易矣，吾犹守而告之，三日，而后能外天下。已外天下矣，吾又守之七日，而后能外物。已外物矣，吾又守之九日，而后能外生。已外生矣，而后能朝彻，朝彻而后能见独。见独而后能无古今。无古今而后能人于不死不生。杀生者不死，生生者不生。其为物，无不将也，无不迎也，无不毁也，无不成也，其名为摆宁。撄宁也者，撄而后成者也。"这与他在《庄帝王》中所说："游心于淡、合气于漠，顺物自然，而无容私焉。"以及列举列子之师壶子"衡气机"的养气理论，都是他对于养生方法的多种发挥。 的全书与《老子》一样，它的主旨，在于达到人生的最高境界，完成一个人生的最高目的，老子的摄生，庄子的养生，种种理论与方法，都只是摄养的过程，并非最高的目的；他的最高目的与最终的境界，是完成超世间，超物累的神人、真人、至人的标准。老子所谓善摄生的人，与庄子所谓的藐姑射之仙之，便是他们所立的榜样，这便是道家与孔子、孟子系统以下儒家观念的不同之处。以孔、孟做代表周、秦之际的儒家思想，是为完成现实人生，建立伦常的规范，以安定现实世间为目的，超越宇宙以外的事情，便置而不论了，"六合之外，圣人存而不论"。因此，老、庄的学术思想，他所牵涉到的种种见解，无论是属于形而上道，或形而下人事物理等理论，都是他的余情逸兴，并非就是他的主题，正如庄子所说："是其尘垢批糠，将犹陶铸尧舜者也。"但是，无论为老、庄，或孔、孟，他们在那个时代中，对于社会人群，与人间世现实的世事，都有一个共同的愿望，是想建立长治久安，达到天下太平的局面。孔、孟以仁义为教化，老、庄以道德为要求。孔、孟的仁与义，老、庄的道与德，并非是他们的发明或创造，实际上，都同是上古传统的观念，不过各人所取用的名辞和意义，别有异同的含义而已。老、庄的驳斥仁义与圣人，不是否认孔、孟所说的仁义与圣人，是骂当时一般挂羊头，卖狗肉，借仁义与圣人之道而逞私欲的人们。老、庄所谓圣人、神人、真人、至人的境界，必须要人人自觉自立，完成最高的道德标准，然后自成仁义道德，却不自居于仁义道德的名缰利锁之中，因此和光同尘，藏垢纳污以超越道德，而终其天年。尤其庄子提出的至人与真人，意义更加明显。他认为人能做到那种标准，才够得上说这个人是做到人生的极至了，这样，才算是真正的做一个人，也可以叫他为圣人，或神人，相反的意义，便不算是人了。 总之，在春秋、战国时期，自老子、孔子、庄子、孟子等以次，在道家而言道家，当时北方一带，黄河南北的学术思想，与南方一带，以楚国为代表的道家，如老、庄的思想，或多或少，都受到"方士"养生学术思想的影响，那是有凭有据，不必力求否认的事实。后世儒者，师心自用，想要建立一个师道庄严的权威，独霸儒家的天下，便有是此非彼，建立门庭道统的观念，如与孔、孟、老、庄的态度一比较，简直是"坚儒"之见，非常可笑。我们要知道，老、庄、孔、孟所走的途径，是秉承三代以上君师不分的传统精神。因时移世易，王道衰竭，所以他们都以师道而自处，讲述王者师的学问，后世懦者，虽然号称宗奉孔、孟，事实上，品德、学识、才气，都无法与孔、孟相提并论。，所谓自称孔、孟之徒，宣扬圣人之道的，无非是阿世的所好尚，传经习书，口诵圣人之言，做为脐身仕途的工具；充其量，德行学识稍好的，做到王佐之能，如司马迁所说："人主以徘优言之"，已经足以流传千古，为后学之所景仰了。所以对于道家，如老、庄之徒的出格高人，当然只好拿出孔子所谓"异端"一辞，加以排除异己的心理，痛加讨伐了。至于介于老、庄之间的列子的学术思想，为了时间不够，暂且裁一而不谈。但要研究道家对于理论物理的形而上的本体论，以列子的思想比较具体而有系统，后人有怀疑《列子》是伪书，是魏、晋人的假托，我觉得未必尽然，因为魏、晋时代的学者，对于学术思想，除了坐以守成，加上文学境界的渲染以外，并无如此才能。