Chapter 17 Chapter Seventeen
Mencius said that those who don't like to kill can unify the world ("Mencius. Liang Hui Wang Shang").He seems to be wrong, because hundreds of years later.It was Qin who unified the whole of China.Qin State surpassed other countries in two aspects of "farming and war", that is, economically and militarily.At that time, Qin State was known as "the country of tigers and wolves".It relied entirely on force, coupled with the brutal ideology of the Legalists, to successfully conquer all enemy countries.
But Mencius was not completely wrong.Because the Qin Dynasty only existed for about fifteen years after it was established in 221 BC.Shortly after the death of the first emperor, a series of rebellions against the rule of the Tyrant Qin Dynasty occurred, and the empire collapsed and was replaced by the Han Dynasty (206 BC-220 AD).The Han Dynasty inherited the Qin Dynasty's idea of political unity and continued the unfinished business of the Qin Dynasty, which was to establish a new political and social order.
Dong Zhongshu (about 179 BC-about 104 BC) was a great theorist who theorized according to this intention.He is from Guangchuan (now southern Hebei Province).The Han Dynasty dismissed hundreds of schools and only respected Confucianism.He played a big part in it.He also played an important role in creating the basic institutions for Confucian orthodoxy: the famous examination system began to take shape from his time.Under this system, government officials at all levels entered their careers not by noble birth or wealth, but by successfully passing a series of periodic examinations.These exams are administered by the government.held simultaneously across the country.Doors are open to all members of society, with very few exceptions.Of course, these exams were still in their infancy during the Han Dynasty, and they were not really widely practiced until hundreds of years later.This system was first initiated by Dong Zhongshu, and more significantly he advocated the use of Confucian classics as the basis for these examinations.
It is said that Dong Zhongshu specialized in his studies and once "did not peek into the garden for three years".As a result, the great work "Spring and Autumn Fanlu" was written.It is also said that he "speaks and recites, and his disciples teach each other for a long time, or he never sees him", that is to say, new students only learn from old students, and do not necessarily meet him in person ("Hanshu·Dong Zhongshu Biography") .
What Dong Zhongshu had to do was to provide a theoretical basis for the new political and social order at that time.According to him, since man is a part of heaven, the basis for human behavior must be found in the behavior of heaven.He adopted the thought of Yin Yang School, and believed that there is a close relationship between heaven and man.Starting from this premise, he combined the metaphysical basis mainly derived from Yin Yang School with the political and social philosophy mainly derived from Confucianism.
The word "天" in Chinese is sometimes translated as Heaven (the day of the ruler), and sometimes translated as nature (the sky of nature).However, these two translations are not very accurate.This is especially true in Dong Zhongshu's philosophy.My colleague Professor Jin Yuelin once said: "If we interpret 'heaven' as both the heaven of nature and the heaven of God who dominates nature, and sometimes emphasize this interpretation and sometimes the other, then we may be close to this A bit of truth about Chinese nouns.” (unpublished manuscript) This statement seems inappropriate for some situations, for example, it is not suitable for Laozi and Zhuangzi, but it is completely suitable for Dong Zhongshu.When the word "heaven" appears in this chapter, readers are reminded of Professor Jin's words as the definition of the word "heaven" in Dong Zhongshu's philosophy.
pointed out in Chapter 12.There are two different lines of pre-Qin thought: the line of yin and yang, and the line of five elements, each of which makes a positive interpretation of the structure and origin of the universe.But the two routes were later mixed.This mixture is particularly evident in Dong Zhongshu's works.Therefore, in his philosophy, he saw both the theory of yin and yang and the theory of five elements.
According to Dong Zhongshu, the universe is made up of ten components: heaven, earth, yin and yang, the five elements of wood, fire, warriors, metal, and water, and finally human beings (see "Spring and Autumn Fanlu · Yin and Yang of Heaven and Earth", only the title of the article is noted below) ).His concept of yin and yang is very specific.He said: "Between the heaven and the earth, there are yin and yang qi, and those who often become human. Bitter water often become fish. Therefore, those who are different from water can be seen or invisible." ("Like Heaven")
The order of the five elements set by Dong Zhongshu is different from that set by "Hong Fan" (see Chapter 12 of this book).The order he set is: the first is wood, the second is fire, the third is earth, the fourth is metal, and the fifth is water ("The Righteousness of the Five Elements").The five elements are "compared with each other and win each other" ("Five Elements Generate Together").Wood produces fire, fire produces earth, earth produces metal, metal produces water, and water produces wood, ("The Meaning of the Five Elements"), this is "comparison with each other".Wood wins earth, earth wins water, water wins fire, fire wins metal, metal wins wood ("Five elements win each other"), this is "inter-phase wins".
Dong Zhongshu, like the Yin-Yang family, uses wood, fire, metal, and water to govern one season of the four seasons and one side of the four directions.Wood is in charge of the east and spring, fire is in charge of the south and summer, metal is in charge of the west and autumn, and water is in charge of the north and winter.Earth governs the center and supports wood, fire, metal, and water.The transformation of the four seasons is explained by the movement of yin and yang ("The Righteousness of the Five Elements").
The ups and downs of yin and yang follow a fixed orbit, which is a circle passing through the four sides.When the yin is at its peak, it goes to help the wood in the east, forming spring.When Yang is in full bloom, it goes to the south to support the fire, forming Xia.However, according to the law of the universe that things must be reversed at extremes, as stated in "Laozi" and "Yi Zhuan", of course it must decline when it flourishes.When yang flourishes and declines, yin begins to flourish at the same time.At the beginning of the yin, it goes to the east to help the money, forming autumn.When the cathode is full, it goes to the north to support the water, forming winter.Yin flourishes and declines, and Yang begins to flourish at the same time, so there is a new cycle.
① Not the West, although the West is compatible with autumn.According to Dong, the reason is that the sky "regulates yang but not yin" ("Yin and Yang").
Therefore, the changes of the four seasons come from the ups and downs of yin and yang, and the cycle of the four seasons is actually the cycle of yin and yang.Dong Zhongshu said: "The way of heaven is constant, one yin and one yang. Yang is the virtue of heaven, and yin is the punishment of heaven. ... This is the way of heaven. It is born in three seasons (spring, summer, autumn), and it is born in one season. (Winter) died." ("Yin Yang Yi")
According to Dong Zhongshu, this shows that "Heaven allows yang and not yin, and loves virtue but not punishment." ("Yin and Yang Position") also shows that "heaven also has the spirit of joy and anger, and the heart of sorrow and joy. It is compatible with people. To When similarities combine, heaven and man are one." ("Yin Yang Yi")
Therefore, whether in physical or spiritual aspects, man is a copy of heaven. ("Heaven for Man") That's the case.Man is above all other things in the universe. "Heaven, earth, and man. The foundation of all things. What is born in nature, nurtured by the earth, and made by man." ("Li Yuan Shen") How do people become what they are?Dong Zhongshu said that through rituals and music, that is to say, through civilization and culture.If there is no civilization and culture, the universe is like an unfinished product, and the universe itself will feel the pain of incompleteness.Therefore, he said, heaven, earth, and man "the three are brothers and feet, and they combine to form a body, and they cannot be left alone." ("Li Yuanshen")
Because the sky has its yin and yang, and humans are copies of the sky, the human heart also contains two components: nature and emotion.Dong Zhongshu used the word "nature".Sometimes broadly, sometimes narrowly.In a narrow sense, sex and emotion are separate and relative; in a broad sense, sex includes emotion.In a broad sense, Dong Zhongshu sometimes regards sex as "quality", "Sex is quality." ("Shen Cha Minghao") This kind of human quality includes sex (narrow sense) and emotion.From nature comes benevolence, from emotion comes greed.In a narrow sense, sex is equivalent to the yang of the sky; emotion is equivalent to the yin of the sky. ("Deep Observation Name")
Link to this.Dong Zhongshu talked about an old question that has been debated for a long time, that is, human nature, that is, the quality of a person, whether it is good or evil.He disagreed with Mencius's theory of good nature, saying: "Goodness is like rice, and nature is like grain. Although grain produces rice, the grain is not rice. Although nature produces goodness, nature is not good. Rice and goodness are inherited by people." What is formed by heaven comes from outside. It is not within what heaven does. What is done by heaven comes to an end. What is within is called heaven, and what is outside is called king teaching. .” ("Reality")
Therefore, Dong Zhongshu emphasized the role of man-made and enlightenment, and only enlightenment can make man equal to heaven and earth.In this respect, he is close to Xunzi.But he is different from Xunzi, the difference is that he does not think that human nature is already evil.Goodness is the continuation of sex.Not a sexual reversal.
Dong Zhongshu believed that enlightenment was the continuation of sex, and he was close to Mencius in this regard.He wrote: "Maybe it is said that nature has a good end, and the heart has a good quality, and peace is not good? The answer is: No. Cocoons have silk, but cocoons are not silk. Eggs have chicks, but eggs are not chicks. Analogy Frankly, there is no doubt about it." ("Shen Cha Minghao") The raising of the question represents the point of view of Mencius.Answers to questions.Dong Zhongshu clearly separated himself from Mencius.
But the difference between the two philosophers is really nothing more than a difference in terms.Dong Zhongshu himself said: "Mencius is inferior to what animals do, so he says his nature is already good; my quality is superior to what saints do, so he says his nature is not good." ("Shen Cha Minghao") Mencius and Dong Zhongshu's The difference boils down to the difference between the two terms "already good" and "not good".
According to Dong Zhongshu, the theory of yin and yang is also the metaphysical basis of social order.He wrote: "Everything must have a joint. For a joint, there must be an upper, there must be a lower, there must be a left, there must be a right, there must be a front, there must be a back, there must be an exterior, there must be an interior... There is heat, and there must be night when there is day. These are all combinations. Yin and Yang are combined, wives and husbands are combined, sons and fathers are combined, ministers and rulers are combined. There is no combination of things, and each combination has yin and yang. ...The righteousness of the monarch, the minister, the father, the son, and the husband and wife are all related to the three principles of yin and yang, which can be sought from heaven." ("Jiyi")
Confucianism before this period believed that there were five social relationships, namely monarch and subject, father and son, husband and wife, brothers, and friends.Dong Zhongshu selected three ethics from them, which are called Sangang. "Gang" yu means the big rope of the net, and all the thin ropes are connected to the big rope.The king is the guide for the ministers, that is to say, the king is the master of the ministers.The husband guides the wife, and the father guides the son, both of which mean this.
In addition to the Three Cardinal Guidelines, there are also the Five Constant Principles, which are all upheld by Confucianism. "Chang" means unchanging, and Wuchang refers to the five unchanging virtues mentioned by Confucianism: benevolence, righteousness, propriety, wisdom, and faith.Although Dong Zhongshu himself did not particularly emphasize this point, all Han Confucians hold that these five virtues are consistent with the five elements.Benevolence is in harmony with wood in the east, righteousness is in harmony with gold in the west, rite is in harmony with fire in the south, wisdom is in harmony with water in the north, faith is in harmony with earth in the center (see Volume 8 of "Baihu Tongyi").
The five constants are personal virtues, and the three cardinal principles are social ethics.In the old days, the two characters were often used together.Means morality, or the general moral law.Human beings must follow the moral law to develop their humanity, and the moral law is the foundation of culture and civilization.
But not everyone can do this by themselves.So the function of government is to help develop human nature.Dong Zhongshu wrote: "The nature of the people is born with good qualities, but they are not good, so they set up a king for them and make them good. This is God's will." ("Shen Cha Minghao")
The king regards celebration, reward, punishment, and punishment as the "four policies", which are equivalent to the four seasons.Dong Zhongshu said: "Celebrations, rewards, punishments and spring, summer, autumn and winter correspond to each other, as if they coincide. Therefore, it is said that the king matches the sky, which is called the way. The sky has four seasons, and the king has four states. If the four states are four seasons, the same class also , Heaven and man have the same thing." ("Four Seasons of Vice")
The organization of the government is also modeled on the four seasons.According to Dong Zhongshu, government officials are divided into four levels.It is to imitate that there are four seasons in a year.There are three deputies under each official at each level, and it is also imitated that there are three months in a season.Officials are divided into four grades like this, and it is because people's talents and virtues are also naturally divided into four grades.So the government selects those who should be elected, and appoints them according to their natural rank of virtue and ability. "Therefore, the heavens choose the four seasons and the twelve [months], and human beings will change completely. The changes of human beings will be perfected, and the heaven will be united. Only the saints can do it." ("Official System Xiangtian")
Since the relationship between heaven and man is so close, Dong Zhongshu believes that political faults in society must appear as abnormal phenomena in nature.The Yin-Yang School had already put forward this theory, while Dong Zhongshu provided teleological and mechanistic explanations.
From a teleological point of view, political mistakes in the human world will inevitably make nature angry and angry.The manifestation of heaven's wrath is through natural disasters, such as earthquakes, solar eclipses, lunar eclipses, droughts, and floods.These are all warnings from heaven, asking the Lord to correct his mistakes.
From a mechanistic point of view, according to what Dong Zhongshu said, "everything gets rid of its differences, and follows its commonness." "Things are always called by their kind" ("Similar Motion").Therefore, the abnormality of man will inevitably cause the abnormality of nature.Dong Zhongshu believes that this is entirely a natural law, without any supernatural factors, which contradicts his teleological theory elsewhere.
In Chapter 12, we have already talked about how Zou Yan explained the change of dynasty with the theory of five virtues, beginning and end.A certain dynasty, because it uses a certain virtue, must rule in a way that conforms to this virtue.Dong Zhongshu modified this theory, arguing that the selection of dynasties is not based on the operation of the five virtues, but according to the order of what he called the "Three Traditions".The three systems are black system, white system and red system.Each system has its own ruling system, and each dynasty is unified ("Three Dynasties Restructuring Zhiwen").
According to Dong Zhongshu, in actual history, the Xia Dynasty (legendary 2205 BC-1766 BC) was the black system; the Shang Dynasty (1766 BC? 1122 BC?) was the white system; the Zhou Dynasty (1122 BC ? One before 255) Orthodoxy.This forms a cycle of historical evolution.The new dynasties after the Zhou Dynasty will be the Heitong again, and the cycle will continue like this.
Interestingly, we see that in modern times, colors are also used to represent various systems of social organization, and these are the three colors used by Dong Zhongshu.According to his theory, we may say that fascism is black, capitalism is white, and communism is red.
certainly.This is just a coincidence.According to Dong Zhongshu, the three traditions are not fundamentally different.He believed that the new king established a new dynasty because he was ordered by heaven.So he had to make some outward change to show his new order.These changes include "living in vain, changing titles, correcting Shuo, and changing clothes".Dong Zhongshu said: "If the husband's outline, human relations, principles, politics, enlightenment, customs, and literary meanings are all the same as before. How can it be changed? Therefore, the king has the name of reform, but there is no such thing as reform." ("Chuzhuang King")
The restructuring did not change the basic principles, which Dong Zhongshu called "Tao".He said: "The great origin of the Tao comes from the sky, and if the sky does not change, so will the Tao." ("Hanshu·Dong Zhongshu Biography")
The doctrine that kings are ordered by heaven is not new. This is already said in the "Book of Books", and Mencius made it more clear.But Dong Zhongshu included it in his overall philosophy of heaven and man, making it more clear.
In feudal times.Monarchs inherit their authority from their ancestors.Even Qin Shihuang was no exception, but Liu Bang, who founded the Han Dynasty, was not. He came from a commoner background.However, he won the world successfully, which requires some theoretical basis.Dong Zhongshu provided such a basis.
His theory that the king is ordered by heaven not only provides a basis for exercising imperial power, but also restricts the exercise of imperial power.The emperor must watch the expression of joy and anger in heaven and act according to it.The emperor of the Han Dynasty, and the emperors of all subsequent dynasties were more or less the same. They used this point to test themselves and their policies, and tried to correct them when disasters occurred that made them uneasy.
Dong Zhongshu's theory of the Three Traditions also restricted the rule of each dynasty.A royal family, no matter how good, has a limited time to reign.As soon as the end is reached, it will have to give way to a new dynasty, whose founders are destined by heaven again.Confucianism uses such measures to try to restrain the absolute power of the autocratic monarch.
According to Dong Zhongshu, neither the Qin Dynasty nor the Han Dynasty directly succeeded the Zhou Dynasty.He asserted that, in fact, it was Confucius who was ordered by heaven to succeed the Zhou Dynasty and rule the black system.Confucius was not a real king, but a legal one.
This is a strange theory, but Dong Zhongshu and his school insist on it and believe in it. The "Spring and Autumn Annals" was originally the chronicle of the Lu State, the hometown of Confucius, but it was (incorrectly) considered by them to be an important political work of Confucius.They say that Confucius exercised the power of the new king in the Spring and Autumn Annals.Confucius was in the black system, and carried out all the reforms according to the black system.Dong Zhongshu is famous for his interpretation of the Spring and Autumn Annals and was able to cite the Spring and Autumn Annals to substantiate aspects of his philosophy.In fact, he merely cited the Spring and Autumn Annals as his main source of authority.This is the reason why his book is entitled "Spring and Autumn Fanlu".
Dong Zhongshu divided the Spring and Autumn Period (722 BC to 481 BC) into three generations: Confucius saw the world, heard about the world, and heard about the world.According to Dong Zhongshu, when Confucius wrote "Spring and Autumn", he used different words to record the events that happened in the three generations.Through these different "calligraphies", we can discover the "subtle words and great meaning" of "Spring and Autumn".
In the past, there were three important books explaining "Spring and Autumn".That is, the "Three Biography", since the Han Dynasty, the Three Biography itself has become a classic.They are "Zuo Zhuan" (maybe it was not originally written to explain "Spring and Autumn" as a whole, but was added later), "Gongyang Zhuan" and "Guliang Biography".The three biographies are all named after the surname of the author who is said to be the author.Among them, the interpretation of "Gongyang Zhuan" is especially consistent with Dong Zhongshu's theory.In the "Biography of Gongyang", there is the same theory of the third generation.In the late Eastern Han Dynasty, He Xiu (129-182) interpreted the "Gongyang Zhuan" and further processed this theory.
According to He Xiu, the process recorded in "Spring and Autumn" is Confucius' ideal change from "declining and chaotic times" to "promoting and peaceful times".The process of becoming a "peaceful world" again.He Xiu combined "the rumored world" with the "declining and chaotic world". This is the first stage.At this stage, Confucius focused all his attention on his own state of Lu, with Lu as the center of reform.He Xiu cooperates with "the world we have heard" and "the world of peace". This is the second stage.At this stage, Confucius had cured his own country, and then spread stability and order to other Chinese countries in "China".Finally, in the third stage, He Xiu uses "the world we see" to cooperate with "the world of peace".At this stage, Confucius not only spread stability and order to the kingdom of Xia.And civilized the surrounding barbarian and di kingdoms.at this stage.He Xiu said: "The distance and size of the world are the same" ("Gongyang Zhuan" Yin Gongnian Note).Of course, He Xiu does not mean that Confucius actually accomplished all these things.What he means is that if Confucius really had power, authority, he would have done these things.But.Even so, this theory is still absurd, because Confucius only lived in the later period of "Chunqiu" III, how could he do things in the earlier period?
The road explained by He Xiu is that Confucius started from his own country.And then rule the world.this path.It is similar to the steps of governing the country and the world as explained in "University".So in this respect, "Spring and Autumn" has become an example of "Great Learning".
This theory of dividing social evolution into three stages is also found in the "Li Yun" chapter of "Book of Rites".According to the "Li Yun" chapter, the first stage is a troubled world, the second stage is a "well-off" world, and the third stage is a "great harmony" world. The "Great Harmony" described in "Li Yun" is as follows;
The journey of the great road also means that the world is for the public.Select the virtuous and capable, trustworthy and harmonious.The old man is not alone in kissing his relatives, not only in his sons.Let the old have their end, the strong will be useful, the young will have their strengths, the widows, the widows, the lonely, the disabled and the sick will all be supported, men will have a share, and women will return.Goods are evil, and they are abandoned on the ground, so there is no need to hide them in oneself; power is evil, and they do not come from the body, so there is no need to do it for yourself.That's why they don't prosper when they seek closure, and they don't commit thieves and thieves, so they don't shut down outsiders.It means Datong.
Although the author of "Li Yun" said that this kind of Datong was in the golden age of the past.It actually represented the dream of the people of the Han Dynasty at that time.What the people of the Han Dynasty saw was political unity, and they must have hoped to see more unity, such as Datong.