Chapter 16 Chapter Sixteen

There is a saying: "History never repeats itself".There is another saying: "There is nothing new under the sun".These two sentences taken together may contain the full truth.From China's point of view, within the scope of international politics, the contemporary world history and the world history of the last few hundred years are like Chinese history reenacting the Spring and Autumn and Warring States periods: The Spring and Autumn Period (722 BC-481 BC) was named after the period included in the "Spring and Autumn Annals".The Warring States Period was named after the fierce wars among the countries at that time.We already know that the behavior of people in feudal times was bound by etiquette.In fact, etiquette not only restricts the behavior of Cambodian individuals, but also restricts the behavior of countries.Some rites apply in times of peace, and some rites apply in times of war.The peacetime and wartime etiquette that a country follows in its foreign relations is equal to what we now call international law.

We see that in modern times, international law is increasingly ineffective.In recent years, there have been many examples: a country attacks another country without issuing an ultimatum or declaring war in advance.Aircraft from one country bombed hospitals in another country, but pretended not to see the Red Cross.In the Spring and Autumn Period and the Warring States Period, we also saw a similar situation where "international law" was invalid, which was the decline of ritual. In the Spring and Autumn Period, there were still people who respected international etiquette. "Zuo Zhuan" records the battle of Hongshui between Song State and Chu State in 638 BC.The old-fashioned Song Xianggong personally commanded the Song army.When the Chu army was crossing the river, and when the Chu army had crossed the river and had not formed a formation, the commander of the Song army twice asked Duke Xiang to order an attack. Duke Xiang said "no", and said that if he did not attack the formation that would not form a formation.As a result, the Song army was defeated, and Duke Xiang himself was injured.Nevertheless, Duke Xiang still defended his original decision.It also said that "a gentleman is not seriously injured, and he is not a bird."The commander of the Song army said angrily: "If you love serious injuries, you should not be injured; if you love two hairs, you should obey them!"It represents the chivalry of feudal warriors; what the commander of the Song Dynasty said represents the reality of the turbulent era.

The method used by politicians in various countries today to maintain international peace.It is very similar to the methods that politicians of various countries tried but failed in the Spring and Autumn and Warring States Periods.It is amusing and frustrating to note this.For example, in Song Dynasty in 551 BC, a meeting of the fourteen countries to "eliminate soldiers" was held (the twenty-seventh year of Duke Xiang in "Zuo Zhuan"). Later, the "world" at that time was divided into two "spheres of influence", the Eastern It is under the control of Qi State, and the west is under the control of Qin State. In 288 BC, the king of Qi was the emperor of the east, and the king of Qin was the emperor of the west ("Historical Records Tian Jingzhong's family"). There are also various alliances between countries. During the Warring States Period, the alliance boiled down to two Large type: "vertical" from north to south, "horizontal" from west to east. At that time, there were seven main countries. Among them, Qin was the most aggressive. The vertical alliance was the six countries against Qin, Because Qin State is in the west, and the six countries are distributed in the east, from north to south, it is called Hezong. The horizontal alliance is formed by Qin State and one or several of the six countries to attack the rest of the countries, so it is formed by Expansion from west to east, spreading the name evenly.

Qin's policy is to "make friends from afar and attack near".In this way, it always finally destroys the anti-Qin alliance and wins.Taking advantage of its "farming warfare" advantage, Qin also widely used the "fifth column" tactics in the six countries.After a series of bloody battles, they conquered the six kingdoms one by one victoriously.Finally, the whole of China was unified in 221 BC.So the king of Qin decided to honor himself as "Qin Shi Huangdi", and this name will go down in history.At the same time, he abolished the feudal system, thereby creating for the first time in history the centralized Chinese Empire, known as the Qin Dynasty.

Although the actual unification of China was not realized until Qin Shihuang, the people all over the country have long had this desire for unification. "Mencius" records that King Hui of Liang asked Mencius: "Is the evil in the world fixed?" Mencius replied: "It is fixed in one." The king asked again: "Who can be one?" Mencius replied: "He who is not addicted to killing can be one." " ("Liang Huiwang" on) "one" is "unity".This dialogue clearly expresses the aspirations of the times. Here, world (世界) is used to translate the Chinese "天下", and the literal meaning of "天下" is "under the whole world".Some people translate "tianxia" as empire (empire), because they believe that what the ancient Chinese called "tianxia" was limited to the feudal states of China.This is totally true.But we must not confuse the connotation of a noun with the denotation of the noun understood by people of a certain era.As far as denotation is concerned, it is limited to the knowledge of facts mastered by the people at that time; as far as connotation is concerned, it is a matter of definition.For example, the word "ren" in ancient Chinese actually referred to people of Chinese descent at that time, but it cannot be translated as "Chinese" when it is translated into modern Chinese.When the ancient Chinese said "people", they really meant human beings, but the understanding of human beings at that time was limited to the people in China.In the same way, when the ancient Chinese said "tianxia", they meant to say "the world".However, the understanding of the world at that time did not go beyond the scope of China.

From the time of Confucius, Chinese people in general, and Chinese political thinkers in particular, began to think about political issues worldwide.Therefore, the unification of China by the Qin Dynasty was in the minds of people at that time.It's like the unified world in our minds today.For more than 2,000 years after the unification of the Qin Dynasty, the Chinese people lived under one world and one government, with only a few short periods of exceptions, which were considered abnormal by everyone.Therefore, the Chinese have become accustomed to having a centralized organization to keep the world peaceful, that is, world peace.But in recent decades, China has been dragged into another world, and its international political situation is similar to the situation in the distant Spring and Autumn and Warring States Periods.In the process, the Chinese have been forced to change their habits of thought and action.In the eyes of the Chinese, this is another aspect of history repeating itself, which has caused the current deep suffering. (see note at end of chapter):

As an example of the internationality of Chinese philosophy.We now cite certain concepts of The University. "University", like "Doctrine of the Mean", is also an article in "Book of Rites".In the Song Dynasty (960-1279), Neo-Confucianism put "The Great Learning", "The Doctrine of the Mean" and "Mencius" together and called it the "Four Books" as the basic classics of Neo-Confucian philosophy. New Confucianism says that "The Great Learning" was written by Zeng Zi, who was a student of Confucius who received the true teaching.However, there is no actual evidence to say that it was made by Zeng Zi.Neo-Confucianism regards Daxue as an important introductory book to Daoism.Its first chapter says:

The way of the university is to be clear and bright, to be close to the people, and to stop at perfection. ... In ancient times, those who wished to manifest their virtues in the world first ruled their country; those who wanted to rule their country first ordered their families; Righteous.Be sincere in your intentions first; if you want to be sincere in your intentions, first extend your knowledge; extending knowledge lies in investigating things. When you know things, you will know them; if you know them, you will be sincere; if you are sincere, you will be upright; if you are upright, you will cultivate your body;

These words are also called the "Three Programs" and "Eight Items" of "University".According to later Confucianism, the Three Programs are actually just one program, which is "clear and bright virtue". "Close to the people" is the method of "clearing morality". "End to perfection" is the final completion of "Ming Mingde". Similarly, the eight items are actually just one item, which is "self-cultivation".Investigate things, extend knowledge, and be sincere.These steps of rectifying the mind are the roads and means of self-cultivation.As for the steps of regulating the family, governing the country, and governing the world, they are the roads and means to achieve the final completion of self-cultivation.The so-called reaching the final completion means "stopping at the ultimate good".Only when people fulfill their duties in society can they fulfill their nature and achieve completion.If you don't become an adult at the same time, you can't become yourself.

"Ming Mingde" and "self-cultivation" are the same thing.The former is the content of the latter.So several concepts come down to a single concept, which is the center of Confucianism. A person does not have to be the head of state or the world before he can manage the country and the world.He just needs to be a member of the country and do his best for the country; as a member of the world, he needs to do his best for the world.As long as this is the case, he has fulfilled all the responsibilities of governing the country and the world.He did his best so honestly, he was just as good as he could be.

According to the requirements of this chapter, it is only necessary to point out that the author of "University" is for the sake of world politics and world peace.That's enough.He's not the first to think about it, but it's remarkable that he's done it so systematically.In his view, just curing one's own country is not the ultimate goal of politics, nor is it the ultimate goal of self-cultivation. There is no need to discuss here how studying things can become a way and means of self-cultivation.This issue will be discussed later when we talk about New Confucianism. In the field of Chinese philosophy there was a strong tendency towards compromise in the second half of the third century BC.The main work of Zajia "Lu Shi Chunqiu" was compiled at this time.However, although this work covered most of the schools at that time, it did not give a theoretical basis for the concept of eclecticism itself.However, writers of Confucianism and Taoism have both put forward such theories, which show that despite their differences, they both reflect the spirit of demolition at that time. These writers all agree that there is one absolute truth called "Tao".Most of the schools have seen a certain aspect of "Tao", and in this sense, they have all made contributions to the elucidation of "Tao".However, Confucian writers maintain that only Confucius saw the whole truth, so all other schools are inferior to Confucianism, although in a sense they are also supplements to Confucianism.Taoist writers, on the contrary, maintain that only Lao Tzu and Chuang Tzu have seen the whole truth, and therefore Taoism should be superior to all others. In the past, those who were blinded by Binmeng were in disorder.Mozi was concealed in use but did not know literature; Songzi was concealed in desire and did not know what to obtain; Shenzi was concealed in law and did not know virtuous; Shenzi was concealed in power but did not know knowledge; Huizi was concealed in words and did not know reality; Zhuangzi was concealed in heaven and did not know people . Therefore, if you call it by use, the Dao will be beneficial; if you call it by desire, the Dao will be exhausted; if you call it by the law, the Dao will be exhausted; if you call it by the situation, the Dao will be complete; Called by the sky, the Dao has its origins; these few tools are all corners of the Dao. Husbands and Taoists, the body is constant and changing, and one corner is not enough to lift it up.A person who knows the music, observes in a corner of the Tao but does not know it. ……Confucius is benevolent and knowledgeable, so learning chaos is enough to be the first king. Shenzi sees the latter, but not the first; Lao Tzu sees the scorpion, but not the letter; Mo Zi sees Qi, but not abnormality; Song Zi sees the few, but not the many. According to Xunzi, the philosopher's "seeing" and "concealment" are linked together.He sees, but is often blinded by what he sees at the same time.Thus the strength of his philosophy is at the same time its weakness. compromise trend The author of the last chapter presents a Taoist compromise point of view.This article is actually a summary of pre-Qin philosophy.We are not sure who this author is, but this does not prevent him from being the best historian and critic of pre-Qin philosophy. This article begins by distinguishing between whole truths and partial truths.The whole truth is "the way of the inner sage and the outer king", and the study of it is called "Taoshu"; the partial truth is a certain aspect of the whole truth, and the study of it is called "Fangshu".This article said: "There are so many people in the world who rule alchemy, and they all think that they can't be added. The so-called Taoism in ancient times, is the result evil?... The saints are born, the kings are accomplished, and they all originate from one." This "one" is "the way of inner sage and outer king".This article continues to distinguish the basic, the final, the fine, and the rough in the "Tao".It said: "The ancients were so prepared!...The knowledge lies in the original number, and it is tied to the final degree. The six connections and the four openings, the small, the big, the fine and the rough, and their luck are everywhere. Those who are clear and counted are the history of the old law handed down from generation to generation. , There are still many of them. It lies in the poems, books, rituals and music, the scholars of Zou and Lu, and Mr. Jinshen, who can understand it. Poems use Taoism, books use Taoism, etiquette is Taoism, music is harmony with Taoism, Taoism is Yin and Yang, and Spring and Autumn is Taoism. name." Therefore, the article believes that Confucianism has some connection with "Tao".But what Confucianism knows is limited to "numbers" and does not know the principles contained in it.That is to say, Confucianism only knows the rough aspects and subtle details of "Tao", but does not know its essence or its foundation. The article goes on to say: "The world is in great chaos, the sages are not clear, and the morality is not the same. The world has more than one, and it is better to observe it. For example, the ears, eyes, nose, and mouth all have clarity and cannot communicate. Just like the skills of a hundred schools of thought, all have their own knowledge. It is long, and it is useful when it is used. Although, it should not be repeated, a man of one song.... Therefore, the way of the inner sage and the outer king is dark but not clear, and dark but not forthcoming." The article then makes a classification of each school, affirming that each school has "heard" about a certain aspect of "Tao", but at the same time sharply criticizes the shortcomings of this school.Both Lao Tzu and Chuang Tzu are highly praised.But it is worth noting that the Taoism of these two Taoist leaders, like other schools, is said to be "the ancient Taoism lies in the true ones."It is only one aspect of "Taoism".This is an implicit criticism. From this point of view, the implication of Pian seems to be that Confucianism knows the specific "number" but does not know the underlying principle; Taoism knows the principle but does not know the number.In other words, Confucianism knows the end of "Tao" but not its origin; Taoism knows its origin but not its end.Only the combination of the two is the whole truth. This trend of compromise continued until the Han Dynasty. "Huainanzi", also known as "Book of the King of Huainan", is as eclectic as "Lushi Chunqiu", but it is more inclined to Taoism.Except "Huainanzi".There are also two historians, Sima Tan and Liu Xin, mentioned in Chapter 3 of this book, who also showed a tendency to compromise.Sima Tan was a Taoist.His "On the Six Schools of Essentials" said: ""Yi Da Zhuan": 'The world is united but full of worries, and the same return is different. Also, there is a different way to follow the words, and there is no need to save one's ears." ("Historical Records. Tai Shi Gong's Preface") He pointed out the advantages and disadvantages of the six schools, but concluded that Taoism has absorbed all the essence of each school , and therefore live above each other. Liu Xin is different, he is a Confucianist.His "Seven Strategies" are basically preserved in "Hanshu·Yiwenzhi".After listing ten schools of thought, he wrote a conclusion, which also quoted the sentence from "Yi Da Zhuan" quoted by Sima Tan, and then went on to say: "Nowadays, people from different families recommend their own strengths, and they only know what they know. , to clarify its meaning. Although there are shortcomings, it fits its main purpose, and it is also a branch and descendant of the Six Classics.... If you can practice the art of the Six Arts, then read the words of these nine schools (novelists are omitted among the ten). If you discard the short and take the long, you can understand the strategy of all directions." ("Han Shu·Yiwenzhi") All this speaks of a strong desire for unity even in the realm of thought.People in the third century BC suffered from long-term wars and longed for political unity; their philosophers also tried to achieve ideological unity.Eclecticism is an initial attempt.But eclecticism by itself cannot create a unified system.Eclecticists believe that there is all truth.I hope to obtain this truth, which is the "Tao", by selecting the advantages of each school.However, the "Tao" they obtained from this is probably just a hodgepodge of many fundamentally different ingredients, without any organic connection and consistent principles, so it is incompatible with the lofty title they added. "Tao" is completely unworthy. [Note] About the national concept of the Chinese Dr. Bude expressed doubts about the assertion in the last paragraph of the section "Unification of China".He writes: "The Six Dynasties (third to sixth centuries), the Yuan Dynasty (1280-1367). This situation may not be "orthodox" in theory. Moreover, even in the period of "orthodox" unification, there were still cases of softening or conquering a series of foreign tribes, such as the Huns, and suppressing domestic rebellions. So I don't think that at present The current internal and external troubles are unfamiliar to the Chinese after the Spring and Autumn Period and the Warring States Period. Of course, the current troubles do have a global scale, and their consequences are even more serious." The historical facts mentioned by Dr. Bude are undoubtedly true.However, what I want to talk about in this section is not the historical facts themselves, but the Chinese people's feelings towards these historical facts until the last century, or even the beginning of this century.Emphasizing that the Yuan and Qing dynasties were ruled by outsiders was raised with a modern nationalist perspective.Since the pre-Qin period.It is of course true that the Chinese clearly distinguish between "China" or "Huaxia" and "Yi Di", but this distinction is emphasized culturally.Not racially emphasized.The Chinese traditional view has always been that there are three kinds of creatures: Huaxia, Yidi, and beasts.China is of course the most civilized, followed by Yidi, and animals are completely uncivilized. By the time the Mongols and Manchus conquered China, they had already largely adopted Chinese culture.They rule China politically and China rules them culturally.The Chinese were most concerned with the continuation and unification of Chinese culture and civilization, which the Mongols and Manchus did not significantly interrupt or alter.So traditionally.The Chinese believe that the Yuan and Qing dynasties are just two dynasties among many successive dynasties in Chinese history.This can be seen from the history of the official dynasties.For example, the Ming Dynasty represented a national revolution against the Yuan Dynasty in a certain sense, but the "Yuan History" compiled by the Ming Dynasty regarded the Yuan Dynasty as the orthodox dynasty that succeeded the Song Dynasty, which was purely Chinese.Similarly, in "Song and Yuan Xuean" compiled by Huang Zongxi (1610-1695).It did not morally criticize scholars such as Xu Heng (1209-1281) and Wu Cheng (1249-1333), who were Han Chinese but served as high-ranking officials in the Yuan Dynasty, and Huang Zongxi himself was the most ethnically honest anti-Manchu one of the scholars. In the Republic of China, there was also an official "Drafts of Qing History", which regarded the Qing Dynasty as the dynasty that inherited the orthodox Ming Dynasty.Its handling of some matters related to the Revolution of 1911 was considered inappropriate by the government, and it was banned.If there is a new "History of the Qing Dynasty" compiled by Bu Guan, the writing method may be completely different.But what I want to talk about here is the traditional view.As far as the traditional point of view is concerned, the Yuan and Qing dynasties, like other dynasties, are "orthodox."People may say that the Chinese lack nationalism, but I think that's the point.The Chinese lack nationalism because they are used to seeing problems from the perspective of Tianxia, ​​that is, the world. The Chinese have always had to fight the Xiongnu and other non-Chinese peoples. Regarding this matter, the Chinese have always felt that they sometimes have to fight the barbarians, just as sometimes they have to fight animals.They feel that people like the Huns are not worthy of sharing the world with China, just as Americans feel that the Red Indians are not worthy of sharing America with them. As the Chinese placed less emphasis on racial distinctions, the result was that various foreign races were allowed to immigrate freely into China during the third and fourth centuries AD.This migration is now called "inward colonization" and was a major cause of political turmoil during the Six Dynasties.It is this "inward colonization" that Hitler criticizes from the point of view of the supernation in . The importation of Buddhism seems to have made many Chinese realize that there are other civilized people besides the Chinese, but traditionally there are two views on India.Chinese who opposed Buddhism believed that Indians were just another barbarian.Buddhist Chinese believe that India is the "Pure Land of the West".They praise India as a world beyond the world.Therefore, although the import of Buddhism has had a huge impact on the lives of Chinese people, it has not changed the Chinese people's belief that they are the only civilized people in the world. Because of these views, when the Chinese came into contact with Europeans in the 16th and 17th centuries, they believed that they were also the same Yidi as the previous Yidi, and called them Yidi.Therefore, the Chinese do not feel much uneasy, even if they are defeated in the battle.However, it was discovered that although the civilization of Europeans is different from that of China, it is still of the same degree.This started to get uneasy.The novelty of the situation is not that there are peoples different from the Chinese, but that there are civilizations different from Chinese civilization, but of equal strength and importance.In the history of China, only the Spring and Autumn Period and the Warring States Period had a similar situation. Although the countries at that time were different, they had the same level of civilization and fought against each other.The Chinese now feel that history is repeating itself, and this is the reason. If you read the articles of ministers in the nineteenth century such as Zeng Guofan (1811-1872) and Li Hongzhang (1823-1901), it can even confirm their feelings about the impact of the West, which is indeed the case.