Chapter 5 chapter Five

After Confucius, the next major philosopher was Mozi.His surname is Mo and his name is Zhai. "Historical Records" does not say which country he is from, and there is very little about his life, which is equivalent to nothing.Therefore, there have always been differences of opinion on which country Mozi was from.Some scholars say that he is from Song (now east of Henan and west of Shandong), while others say that he is from Lu.The year of his birth and death is not certain, but it was probably within 479-381 BC.Study Mozi's thought.The main material is the book "Mozi", with a total of fifty-three articles, which is a collection of works by Mozi himself and his followers.

The school founded by Mozi is called Mohism.In ancient times, Mozi and Confucius enjoyed equal fame.The influence of Mohism is no less than that of Confucianism.It's interesting to compare the two.Confucius had a sympathetic understanding of the traditional systems, rites and music documents of the Western Zhou Dynasty, and tried to demonstrate that they were reasonable and justified in ethical terms; Mozi, on the contrary, believed that they were improper and unsuitable, and tried to use simple and In his opinion, there is something else to replace it.In short, Confucius is the defender of ancient culture, defending it is reasonable and just, and Mozi is its critic.Confucius is an elegant gentleman, and Mozi is a combatant missionary.The purpose of his preaching is to oppose the traditional system and routine, and the theories of Confucius and Confucianism.

In the Zhou Dynasty, the emperor, princes, and feudal lords all had their military experts.The backbone of the army at that time was composed of hereditary warriors.With the disintegration of the feudal system in the late Zhou Dynasty, these samurai experts lost their titles and scattered all over the place. They lived by serving whoever hired them.This kind of people are called "rangers", and "Historical Records" says that they "must believe what they say, do what they do, and keep their promises. They don't love their bodies, and they go to the troubles of scholars" ("The Biography of Rangers").These are their work ethic.Most of Mohism is the play of this kind of morality.

In Chinese history, both Confucianism and chivalry originated from experts attached to the aristocratic "family", and they were themselves members of the upper class.Later, Confucians were still mostly born in the upper or middle class; Xia was not, and more of them were born in the lower class.In ancient times, social activities such as ritual and music were completely limited to the nobles; so from the perspective of the common people.Rites and music are luxuries without practical value.It is from this point of view that Mozi and Mohists criticize the traditional system and its defenders, Confucius and Confucianism.This critique, coupled with the development and defense of their own class's professional ethics, constitutes the core of Mohist philosophy.

There is sufficient evidence for the assertion that Mozi and his disciples were descendants of chivalrous men.From the Mozi, as well as other contemporary texts, we know that the Mohists formed a group capable of military operations and were extremely disciplined.The leader of this group is called "Juzi" and has the authority to decide life and death for all members.Mozi was the first Juzi of this group. He led his disciples to conduct at least one military operation, that is, when Song State was threatened by the invasion of neighboring Chu State, they prepared military defense for Song State.

This episode is very interesting, and it can be seen in the "Gongshu" chapter of "Mozi".According to this article, there was a famous mechanical inventor, Gongshu Pan, who was employed by Chu State at that time to create a new type of siege machine.The state of Chu was going to use this new weapon to attack the state of Song.When Mozi heard about this, he went to the state of Chu to dissuade the king of Chu.There, he and Gongshu Pan practiced their instruments of attack and defense in front of the king of Chu.Mozi first untied his belt, used it to form a city, and took a small stick as a weapon.Then Gongshu Pan used nine different miniature attacking instruments, and was repelled by Mozi nine times.In the end, Gongshu Pan used up all his offensive tools, but Mozi's defensive methods were far from exhausted.So Gongshu Ban said: "I know how to defeat you, but I don't want to say it." Mozi replied: "I know your way, but I don't want to say it."

The king of Chu asked Mozi what this meant, and Mozi continued: "Gongshupan is trying to kill me. But my disciple Qin Huali and three hundred people are already waiting on the city of Song with my defensive equipment in hand. Chu invaders, even if you kill me, you can’t exterminate them.” Hearing these words, the king of Chu shouted: “Okay, okay! I said don’t attack Song Dynasty.” If this story is true, it will set a good example for the world today to resolve disputes between the two countries.War doesn't have to be fought on the battlefield.As long as the scientists and engineers of the two countries take out the offensive and defensive weapons in their experiments to compete, the war will be decided without a fight!

Regardless of whether this story is true or not, it can also reflect the nature of the Mohist group, which is also mentioned in other books.For example, "Huainanzi·Thai Clan Training" said: "Mozi served one hundred and eighty people. All of them can go to the fire and die without hesitation." In the book "Mozi" itself, there are almost nine articles about it. Defensive tactics and defense equipment.All this shows that the people who formed the Mohist school were a group of warriors. However, Mozi and his disciples.There are two differences from ordinary rangers.The first point is that as long as ordinary knight-errants are rewarded or received favors from the feudal lord, they will fight any battle. Mozi and his disciples are not like this. They strongly oppose aggressive wars, so they are only willing to participate in events that are strictly limited to self-defense. war.The second point is that ordinary knight-errants are limited to abiding by the rules of professional ethics and have nothing to do with it; but Mozi clarified this professional ethics in detail, arguing that it is reasonable and justified.In this way, although Mozi's social background was a chivalrous man, he became the founder of a new school at the same time.

Mozi believed that "the way of Confucianism is enough to ruin the world": (l) Confucianists do not believe in the existence of ghosts, "the ghosts are not happy." (2) Confucians insist on heavy burials, and implement a three-year funeral after the death of parents, thus wasting the wealth and energy of the people. (3) Confucians emphasize music, resulting in the same result. (4) Confucians believe in pre-determined fate, which causes people to be lazy and entrust themselves to fate ("Mozi·Gongmeng"). The "Not Confucianism" chapter of "Mozi" also said: "You can't do your best with a long life, you can't practice your rites, and you can't support your happiness by accumulating wealth. If you are full of sorcery, you can use it to win the world; if you are full of vocal music, you can use obscenity." Yu Min: His way cannot be predicted for the world, and his learning cannot guide the masses.”

These criticisms show the different social backgrounds of Confucianism and Mohism.Before Confucius, some learned and thoughtful people had already given up their belief in heavenly emperors and ghosts.People of the lower classes are usually slower to suspect ghosts.Mozi held the view of the lower class.He objected to the first point of Confucianism.Therein lies the meaning.The second and third points are also raised on this basis.As for the fourth point.It is irrelevant, because although Confucianism often talks about "fate", it does not refer to the kind of pre-determined fate that Mozi attacked.This point has already been pointed out in the previous chapter, that is, from the perspective of Confucianism.Life refers to things beyond the scope of people's control.However, if he tries his best, there are always some things that are within his control.Therefore, only when man has done all that he can do, what is still to come must be regarded as inevitable, and must be accepted calmly and resignedly.This is what Confucianism means by "knowing fate".

Mozi did not criticize benevolence and righteousness, the central concepts of Confucianism; in the book "Mozi", he often talked about benevolence and righteousness, and often talked about benevolent people and righteous people.However, what he refers to by these terms is somewhat different from what Confucianism refers to.According to Mozi, benevolence and righteousness refer to universal love, and benevolent and righteous people are those who practice this kind of universal love.Universal love is the central concept of Mozi's philosophy.Mozi came from a ranger, and Jianai is the logical extension of the professional ethics of a ranger.This kind of morality is, in their group, "Share the blessings and share the misfortunes" (this is what later chivalrous men often say).Based on this concept of community, Mozi tried to expand it by promoting the doctrine of universal love, according to which everyone under heaven should love everyone else equally and without distinction. There are three chapters in "Mozi" that talk about both love and love.In it, Mozi first distinguished what he called "Jian" and "Bie".Those who insist on loving both are called "Jianshi", and those who insist on loving differently are called "Bieshi". "The words of other scholars say: How can I be my friend's body as my body, and my friend's relatives as my relatives", he does very little for his friends.Jianshi is not the case, he "will treat his friends as if he were his own, and his friends' relatives as if they were relatives", and he will do everything he can for his friends.Having made this distinction, Mozi asked: "Which one is right? (For the quotation, see "Mozi·Jianaixia") Then Mozi used his "three forms" to judge the right and wrong of Jian and Bie (and all speeches).The so-called three forms are "those with roots, those with roots, and those with usefulness. Based on their roots, they test the aspirations of heavenly ghosts and the affairs of sages and kings." ("Mozi Fei Hit") "Yu What is it? Xiayuan observes the reality of the eyes and ears of the people. What is it used for? It is considered as a criminal administration, and the interests of the people of the country and the people are observed.” ("Mozi·Fei Ming") Among the three tables, the last table is the most important . "The benefit of the Chinese people and the people" is Mozi's criterion for judging all values. This standard is also the main standard Mozi used to prove that universal love is the most desirable.In the article "Under Universal Love", he argued: "Those who do things for the benevolent must seek the benefits of the world and eliminate the harm of the world. However, in today's time, which harm is the greatest in the world?" Attacking a small country, causing great chaos to a small family; the strong destroying the weak, the many oppressing the few, the deceitful seeking the foolish, the noble being arrogant and lowly: this is the harm of the world.... If you try the original principle, if many harms arise from themselves, Is this Hu self-generated? Is this self-loving and benefiting others? That is to say: No way. It must be said: Live from the wicked and the thieves. Those who are named as the wicked and the thieves in the world, and both? Don’t be with? That is to say: Don’t also But that is to say goodbye to those who will cause great harm to the world? That is why it is different. "Those who are not human must have something to change. ... That's why Mozi said: "Also use the method of changing."However, what is the reason why it can be easily distinguished?Said: If it is a country of people, if it is a country, who will use his country alone to attack the country of people?Those who are for the other are still for themselves.If it is the capital of the people, if it is the capital, who will use it alone to kill the capital of the people?For others is still for oneself.If it is a family for others, if it is for a family, who will learn from the family alone and mess up the family of others?For others is still for oneself. "However, even if countries do not attack each other, and people do not fight with each other, what is the harm of the world? Since evil people and thieves live with each other? You must say: It is not true. You must say: From loving others and benefiting people. It is called in the world who loves and benefits others. Don’t be with? Those who are in harmony with each other, are those who will bring great benefits to the world? That’s why Mozi said: It’s also true.” ("Jian Ai Xia") Mozi used this utilitarian argument to prove that universal love is absolutely correct.The task of a benevolent man is to bring benefits to the world and eliminate harms, so he should take universal love as the standard of action for himself and all the people in the world. "Taking both is right, it is based on sharp ears and eyesight, and seeing and hearing; it is based on the strength of the thighs and arms, and the relationship is the prime minister. And there is Taoism and teaching, so the old and without wives should be cared for and supported. End of life; young, weak, orphans, who have no parents, have something to rely on to grow their body. Today, it is only right not to take both as righteousness, that is, if it is beneficial." (Ibid.) This is the ideal world of Mozi, it It can only be created by practicing universal love. But there is still a fundamental problem: how to persuade people to love both?You can tell people what is said above, saying that practicing universal love is the only way to benefit the world, and that benevolent people are people who practice universal love.But people still ask: Why should my personal actions benefit the world?Why do I have to be humane?You can further argue that if it is beneficial to the whole world, it is also beneficial to everyone in the world.Or in the words of Mozi, "If a husband loves others, people will love them; if he benefits others, he will benefit them; if he hates others, he will hate them; In Love") In this way, loving others is a kind of personal insurance or investment that pays off.But the vast majority of people are very short-sighted and do not see the value of this long-term investment.There are also instances where such investments are not repaid at all. In order to induce people to practice universal love, Mozi introduced many religious and political sanctions in addition to the above principles.Therefore, there are several chapters in "Mozi" about "Tianzhi" and "Minggui".It says that the Emperor of Heaven exists, the Emperor of Heaven loves people, and the will of the Emperor of Heaven is that all people should love each other.The Emperor of Heaven constantly monitors the actions of people, especially those of rulers.He punishes those who violate the will of heaven with misfortune, and rewards those who obey the will of heaven with blessings.In addition to the Emperor of Heaven, there are many smaller ghosts and gods. Like the Emperor of Heaven, they reward those who practice universal love and punish those who "farewell" to each other. There is a story about Mozi related to this, which is very interesting.The story says: "Zi Mozi has a disease. He stumbled his nose and asked: Sir, ghosts and gods are the light, and they can be misfortunes and blessings. Those who are good will be rewarded, and those who are not good will be punished. Today, Mr. Sage is also a saint, why is he sick? Is the teacher’s words not good? Are the ghosts and gods not clear? Mozi said, “Even though I am sick, why are the ghosts and gods so ignorant? People get sick in many ways: There are cold and heat to get it, and there are toils to get it. Hundreds of doors are closed. If there is one family, how can there be no one to steal?" ("Mozi·Gongmeng") If you use the terminology of modern logic, Mozi can say that the punishment of ghosts and gods is a sufficient reason for a person's illness, but not a necessary cause. Now is an appropriate time to point out that both Mohism and Confucianism seem to be contradictory in their attitudes towards the existence of ghosts and gods and in their attitudes towards offering sacrifices to ghosts and gods.Mohists believe in the existence of ghosts and gods.However, it seems contradictory to oppose the rituals of funeral and sacrifice at the same time.Confucianism emphasizes funeral and sacrificial rites, but does not believe in the existence of ghosts and gods, which also seems to be contradictory.When Mohists talked about Confucianism, they themselves pointed out this contradiction very clearly.Gong Mencius was a Confucian. "Gong Mencius said 'no ghosts and gods', and also said 'Mencius must learn sacrifices'. Zi Mozi said: 'Practice the absence of ghosts and learn sacrifice rituals, it is like learning rituals when there are no guests, it is like doing fish scorpions when there are no fish .'" ("Mozi·Gongmeng") Confucianism and Mohism, which seem to be contradictory, are not real contradictions.According to Confucianism, the reason for performing sacrifices is no longer the belief in the real existence of ghosts and gods, which of course is undoubtedly the original reason for the sacrifices.Saluting is just out of the feeling of filial piety to ancestors, so the meaning of ritual is poetic, not religious.This theory was later developed in detail by Xunzi and his school, which will be discussed in Chapter 13 of this book.So there is no real contradiction at all. Also in the Mohist view there is no actual contradiction.Because Mozi wanted to prove the existence of ghosts and gods, originally to impose religious sanctions on his theory of universal love, not to have any real interest in supernatural entities.Therefore, he attributed the great chaos in the world to "doubts about the existence and non-existence of ghosts and gods, and not knowing that ghosts and gods can reward the virtuous and punish the violent." And punish violence, how can the world be in chaos?" ("Mozi Ming Guixia") So his "Heaven's Will" and "Ming Gui" are just to induce people to believe that if you practice universal love, you will be rewarded. If you don't practice universal love, you will be punished.It may be useful to have such a belief in the human heart, so Mozi needed it. "Frugal use" and "frugal burial" are also useful, so Mozi also needs it.From Mozi's extreme utilitarian point of view, there is no contradiction in needing these two things, because both are useful. If people want to practice universal love, apart from religious sanctions, political sanctions are also needed. "Mozi" has three chapters "Shangtong", which expounds Mozi's theory of the origin of the state.According to this doctrine, the authority of the king has two sources: the will of the people and the will of the emperor.It further states that the main task of the monarch is to monitor the actions of the people, to reward those who practice universal love, and to punish those who do not practice universal love.In order to do this effectively, his authority must be absolute.At this point we may ask: Why should men choose voluntarily to have such absolute power rule over them? Mozi's answer is that people accept such authority not because they have chosen it, but because they have no choice.According to him, before the establishment of an organized state, people lived in what Thomas Hobbes called a "state of nature."At this time, "Gai Qi said that people in the world have different meanings. It is because one person has one meaning, two people have two meanings, and ten people have ten meanings. If there are many people, the so-called righteous people are also many. It is because people are righteous." Its righteousness. It is not the righteousness of human beings, so it is wrong to communicate with each other." "The chaos in the world is like a beast. The husband understands that the reason for the chaos in the world is born without a political leader. That is why the selection of the world's virtuous people is established as The Son of Heaven." ("Mozi·Shang Ibid") In this way, the monarch was originally established by the will of the people to save them from anarchy. In another article, Mozi also said: "In ancient times, gods, ghosts and gods built a country's capital, established an upright position, and made a long-term success. Widowedness, security, and chaos." ("Mozi Shang Tongzhong") According to this statement, the country and the monarch are established through the will of the emperor of heaven. No matter how the monarch obtains power, as long as he has the power in hand, he will carry out the order.According to what Mozi said, the Son of Heaven will "govern the people of the world, saying: If you hear what is good and what is not good, tell your superiors; "("Mozi Shang ditto") This leads to Mozi's famous saying: "The top is the same but not the bottom" (same as above), that is to say, always agree with what is above, and never follow what is below... Thus Mozi argued that the state must be totalitarian and the authority of the monarch must be absolute.This is the inevitable conclusion of his theory of the origin of the state.Because the establishment of the country has its clear purpose, which is to end chaos, and the existence of chaos is due to "different opinions among people in the world."Therefore, the fundamental function of the state is to "unify the righteousness of the country" (see "Mozi·Shang Ditto" for both).Within a country, only one righteousness can exist, and this righteousness must be the one determined by the country itself.Other righteousness cannot be tolerated, because if there is any other righteousness, people will soon return to the "natural state" and have nothing but chaos.In this political theory, we can also see that Mozi developed the professional ethics of chivalry, which places great emphasis on obedience and discipline within the group.It undoubtedly also reflected the chaotic political situation in Mozi's era, which made many people yearn for a centralized regime, even if it was an autocratic one. In this way, only one meaning can exist.Righteousness, Mozi thinks is "together with each other", and unrighteousness means "together with each other".That's the only thing that is non-standard.By resorting to this political sanction, combined with his religious sanction, Mozi hoped that all people in the world would be able to practice his way of universal love. This is what Mozi taught.All the documents contemporaneous with Mozi tell us unanimously that Mozi's own words and deeds are the true examples of his own teachings.