Chapter 4 Chapter Four

Confucius, surnamed Kong and named Qiu, was born in the state of Lu in 551 BC, located in what is now Shandong Province in eastern China.His ancestors were members of the aristocracy of the Song Dynasty, descendants of the royal family of the Shang Dynasty, which was the previous dynasty of the Zhou Dynasty.Before Confucius was born, his family had lost its aristocratic status due to political disputes and moved to the State of Lu. For the details of Confucius' life deeds, please refer to "The Family of Confucius" in "Historical Records".From this aristocratic family we know that Confucius was very poor when he was young, entered the Lu government at the age of fifty, and later became a high-ranking official.A political conspiracy forces him to step down.Uprooted from home.For the next thirteen years, he traveled around the world, always hoping to find opportunities to realize his ideals of political and social reform.But he couldn't find one. He was old, and finally returned to Lu, where he died three years later.Died in 479 BC.

As mentioned in the previous chapter, the rise of various philosophies began at the same time as private lectures.As far as modern academic circles can conclude, Confucius was the first person in Chinese history to teach a large number of students in a private capacity, and he was accompanied by a large number of students when he traveled around the world.According to tradition, he had thousands of students, dozens of whom became famous thinkers and scholars.The former number is undoubtedly too exaggerated, but there is no doubt that he is a very influential teacher, and more importantly and uniquely, he is the first private school teacher in China.His thoughts are perfectly preserved in it.Some of his disciples compiled his scattered remarks into a collection called .

Confucius is a "Confucianism" and the founder of "Confucianism".As mentioned in the previous chapter, Liu Xin said that Confucianism "travels in the Six Classics and pays attention to the occasion of benevolence and righteousness".The Six Classics are "Yi", "Poetry", "Li", "Yue" (now lost), "Spring and Autumn" (the chronicle of Lu State, starting from 722 BC and ending in 479 BC, the year of Confucius' death. ).The nature of these scriptures can be known from the title of the book, with the exception of "Yi". "Yi" was later interpreted by Confucianists as a work of learning, but it was actually a book of divination.

What is the relationship between Confucius and the Six Classics?There are two schools of thought in traditional academia.One school of thought believed that the Six Classics were all written by Confucius.The other school believes that Confucius is the author of "Spring and Autumn", the commentator of "Yi", the revisioner of "Li" and "Yue", and the editor of "Shi" and "Shi". But in fact, no matter which classic, Confucius is neither the author, nor the commentator, nor even the editor.To be sure, in many respects he is a traditional conservative.He really wanted to revise the rites and music, and that was to correct all the standards and practices that deviated from the tradition. Such examples are not uncommon in Chinese.Judging from the legend about Confucius, he never had any intention to write anything for future generations himself.I haven't heard of any private works at that time.Private works only developed after the time of Confucius, and before him there were only official works.He is China's first private teacher, not China's first private writer.

There were already six classics before the time of Confucius.The Six Classics are the cultural heritage of the past.The Six Classics, also known as the "Six Arts", was the foundation of noble education in the early hundreds of years of feudalism in the Zhou Dynasty.But from about the seventh century BC, with the disintegration of the feudal system, the teachers of the nobles, and even some nobles themselves--they had lost their titles, but they were familiar with the classics--distributed among the common people.As mentioned in the previous chapter, they made a living by teaching classics at this time, and also by "respecting each other" in weddings, funerals and other ceremonies.This kind of person is called "Confucianism".

But Confucius was not just Confucianism in the ordinary sense.In it he is described as merely an educator.From a certain point of view, it is true.He expects his disciples to become "adults" who are useful to the country and society ("The Analects of Confucius Xianwen"), so he teaches them various knowledge based on classics.As a teacher, he felt that his basic task was to explain the ancient cultural heritage to his disciples.According to records, Confucius said that he himself "said but did not write" ("The Analects of Confucius Shuer").That's why.But this is only one aspect of Confucius, he has another aspect.That is, when passing on traditional systems and ideas, the explanations Confucius gave them were derived from his own moral values.For example, when explaining the ancient ritual system of "three-year mourning".Confucius said. ． "A son is born for three years, and then he is free from the arms of his parents. The death of a husband for three years is the universal mourning of the world." ("The Analects of Confucius Yanghuo") In other words, a son's life, at least the first three years, is completely dependent on his parents. Therefore, after the death of his parents, he should mourn for an equal length of time, expressing gratitude.Also, when teaching the classics, Confucius gave them new interpretations.For example, when talking about the "Book of Songs", he emphasized its moral value, saying: "The "Book of Songs" is three hundred, and in a word, it says: 'Thinking without evil'." ("The Analects of Confucius · Weizheng") Now, Confucius is not just simply telling, because he "made" some new things in the "telling".

This spirit of writing as writing was passed on forever by Confucianists of later generations. When the scriptures were passed down from generation to generation, they wrote countless commentaries.The later "Thirteen Classics Commentary" was formed by annotating the original text of the scriptures in this spirit. It was this that made Confucius different from the ordinary Confucianism at that time, and made him the founder of a new school.It is precisely because the people in this school are scholars and experts in the Six Classics that this school is called "Confucianism".

In addition to making new interpretations of the classics, Confucius also had his own theories about the individual and society, heaven and man. With regard to society, he believes that in order to have a well-ordered society, the most important thing is to practice what he calls rectification of names.That is to say, "realness" should conform to the meaning prescribed for it by "name".A student asked him, if you want to govern the country.What to do first?Confucius said: "The name must be corrected!" ("The Analects of Confucius·Zilu") There was another king who asked about the principles of governing the country. ) In other words, each name has a certain meaning, and this meaning is the essence of the class of things referred to by the name.Therefore, these things should be consistent with the nature of this ideal.The essence of a monarch is necessary for an ideal monarch, which is the so-called "Royal Way".A king, if he acts according to the way of a king, he is a real king in reality and in name.This is what it means.Otherwise, he is not a jun, even if he can ask people to call him a jun.In social relations, each name implies certain responsibilities and obligations.Monarch, subject, father, and son are all names for such social relations, and those who bear these names must fulfill their responsibilities and obligations accordingly.This is the meaning of Confucius' rectification of names.

Regarding human virtue, Confucius emphasized benevolence and righteousness, which is characterized by benevolence.Righteousness is the "appropriate" of things, that is, "should".It is an absolute imperative.Everyone in society has certain things that should be done and must be done because it is morally right to do these things.If you do these things only out of immoral considerations, even if you do what you should do, this kind of behavior is not righteous.To use a term often scorned by Confucius and later Confucians, it is "benefit".In Confucianism, righteousness and benefit are in direct opposition.Confucius himself said: "A gentleman is a metaphor for righteousness, and a villain is a metaphor for profit." ("The Analects of Confucius Liren") Here, there is already what later Confucians called "the distinction between righteousness and benefit". is extremely important.

The concept of righteousness is a formal concept, while the concept of benevolence is much more specific.The formal essence of man's duties in society is their "oughts," because they are what he ought to do.But the specific essence of these obligations is "loving others", that is, "benevolence".A father loves his son in the way of a father, and a son loves his father in the way of a son.A student asked what benevolence is, and Confucius said: "Love people" ("Lunhua·Yan Yuan").A person who truly loves others is one who can fulfill his social obligations.Therefore, it can be seen in the book that sometimes Confucius uses the word "benevolence" not only to refer to a particular kind of virtue, but also to the sum of all virtues.Therefore, the word "benevolent person" is synonymous with a person of perfect virtue.under these circumstances. "Ren" can be translated as perfectvirtue (full German).

Record: "Zhong Gong asked about benevolence. Confucius said: '...Do not do to others what you do not want yourself to do to others....' ("Yan Yuan") Confucius also said: "A husband who is benevolent, he wants to establish himself and establishes others, and he wants to achieve it. talent.It can be said that benevolence is the only way to get an example. " ("The Analects of Confucius Yong Ye") From this point of view, how to practice benevolence lies in extending oneself to others. "If you want to establish yourself, you will establish others, if you want to achieve yourself, you will achieve others", in other words, "what you want, you will also do to others", this is an affirmative aspect of pushing yourself and others. Confucius called it "loyalty", that is, "to do one's best. for people".On the negative aspect of pushing yourself and others, Confucius called you, that is, "don't do to others what you don't want yourself to do to yourself".The combination of these two aspects of pushing oneself and others is called the way of loyalty and forgiveness, which is the "fang of benevolence" (the method of practicing benevolence). In the later Confucianism, some people called the way of loyalty and forgiveness "the way of tie (this word has no: ocr) moment".That is to say, this kind of Tao uses oneself as the standard to regulate one's behavior.In the third and second centuries BC, there was a collection of Confucian essays called "Book of Rites", in which there was an article "Great Learning", which said: "What is evil to the upper, do not make the lower. What is evil to the lower, do not focus on the matter. What is evil What is evil in the future is not in the order of the past. What is evil in the back is not in the past. What is evil in the right is not in the left. What is evil in the left is not in the right. This is called the way of the moment.” "There is another article "The Doctrine of the Mean", which is said to be written by Confucius's grandson, Zisi, in which it is said: "Loyalty and forgiveness are not far from the way. Do to yourself and don't want to. Don't do to others. ...... What you want is for the son, to serve the father. ... What you ask for is a minister, and serve the king. ... What you ask for is a younger brother, and serve a brother. ... What you ask for is a friend, and give it first...." The example cited in "University".Emphasis on the negative aspects of the way of loyalty and forgiveness; examples cited in The Doctrine of the Mean.Emphasize the affirmative aspect of the way of loyalty and forgiveness.In every respect, the "moments" that determine behavior are in the person himself and nothing else. The way of loyalty and forgiveness is also the way of benevolence, so practicing loyalty and forgiveness is practicing benevolence.To practice benevolence is to fulfill the responsibilities and obligations in society, which includes the nature of righteousness.Therefore, the way of loyalty and forgiveness is the beginning and end of a person's moral life.There is a chapter that says: "The Master said: 'Shenhu! My way is consistent.' Zeng Zi said: 'Wei.' When Zi went out, the disciples asked: 'What is that?" "("Liren") Everyone has a "moment" of behavior in his mind, and he can use it at any time.Since the method of practicing benevolence is so simple, Confucius said: "How far is benevolence? I want benevolence, and benevolence is the best." ("The Analects of Confucius Shuer") From the concept of righteousness, Confucius deduced the concept of "doing nothing but doing it".A man does what he ought to do purely because it is morally right to do so, not out of any considerations other than this moral compulsion.According to records, Confucius was ridiculed by a hermit as "the one who knows what is impossible and does it" ("Xianwen").It is also recorded that a disciple of Confucius told another hermit: "A gentleman is an official, and he does what is right. If the way is not good, you know it." ("Wei Zi") As we will see later, Taoism teaches the theory of "inaction".And Confucianism talks about the theory of "doing nothing but doing nothing".According to Confucianism, it is impossible for a person to do nothing, because everyone has something he should do.However, when he does these things, he is "doing nothing", because the value of doing these things lies in the doing itself, not in the external results. The life of Confucius himself is a good example of this doctrine.He lived in a time of great social and political turmoil, and he did his best to reform the world.He traveled around, and like Socrates, he talked with everyone.Although all his efforts were in vain, he was never discouraged.He knew that he would not succeed, but he continued to work hard. Confucius said of himself: "Whether the Tao will be done? Fate. And the Tao will be abolished? Fate." ("The Analects of Confucius Xianwen") He tried his best, but he returned to fate.Life is destiny.Confucius refers to Tianming, the order or will of heaven; in other words, it is seen as a purposeful force.But later Confucianism regarded ming only as the condition and power of all existence in the entire universe.To achieve external success in our activities, we always need the cooperation of these conditions.But this coordination, taken as a whole, is beyond our control.So all we can do is to do what we know we should do with all our heart and soul, regardless of success or failure.Doing so is "knowing fate".To be a gentleman as Confucianism calls it, knowledge of destiny is an important and necessary condition.So Confucius said: "If you don't know your fate, you can't think of yourself as a gentleman." ("The Analects of Confucius Yaoyue") From this point of view, knowing one's destiny means acknowledging the inevitability of the original existence of the world. In this way, one has no worries about external success or failure.If we do this, in a sense, we never fail.For if we do our duty, then, by the act in which we do it, that duty is also fulfilled morally, independent of the external success or failure of our action. As a result of doing so, we will never worry about gains and losses, so we will always be happy.So Confucius said: "Those who know do not confuse, those who are benevolent do not worry, and those who are brave do not fear." In Taoist writings, it can be seen that Taoists often laughed at Confucius, saying that he limited himself to benevolence, righteousness and morality, and only knew moral values, but did not know super-moral values.On the surface, they are right, but in fact they are wrong.Please read what Confucius said when he talked about his spiritual cultivation and development process. He said: "I have five out of ten, and my ambition is to learn. At thirty, I stand. At forty, I don't get confused. At fifty, I know the destiny. At sixty, my ears are compliant. At seventy, do what you want. Do not exceed the rules." ("The Analects of Confucius") The "learning" that Confucius mentioned here is not what we are talking about now.Confucius said: "Aspire to the Tao." ("Shuer") also said: "If you hear the Tao in the morning, you can die in the evening."The learning we are talking about now refers to increasing knowledge; but "Tao" is the truth we use to improve our spiritual realm. Confucius also said: "Stand by the propriety." ("The Analects of Confucius Taber") He also said: "If you don't know the propriety, you can't stand." At this time, I understand etiquette, and my words and deeds are very appropriate. He said forty without confusion, which means that he has become a knower at this time.Because, as quoted earlier, "the one who knows does not confuse". Confucius' life, so far, may have only recognized moral values.But at fifty, sixty.He will recognize the destiny and be able to obey it.In other words, he also recognizes supermoral values ​​by this time.In this respect Confucius is very much like Socrates.Socrates felt that he was sent by divine command to awaken the Greeks.Confucius also felt that he accepted the mission of God.Records: "Zi was afraid of Kuang, and said: '...Heaven will lose its gentleness, and the deceased will not be able to share it with Yusiwen; if the sky has not lost its gentleness, what should Kuang people do!'" ("Zihan") A man who was at the same time as Confucius said: "There has been no way in the world for a long time, and the sky will regard the master as Muduo." ("The Analects of Confucius·Bayi") So when Confucius did what he did, he was convinced that he was In carrying out the order of heaven, he is supported by heaven; the value he recognizes is higher than moral value. However, as we shall see, the super-moral values ​​experienced by Confucius were not exactly the same as those experienced by Taoism.Taoism completely discarded the idea of ​​a rational, purposeful heaven, and instead sought a mystical oneness with the chaotic whole.Therefore, the super-moral value recognized and experienced by Taoism is farther away from the daily use of human relations. As mentioned above, when Confucius reached seventy, he could do whatever he wanted, and everything he did was naturally correct.His actions need no conscious direction.His actions require no conscious effort.This represents the highest stage of the sage's development. The West probably knows more about Confucius than any other Chinese.However, in China, although Confucius has always been famous, his historical status has been evaluated very differently in different eras.According to the order of history, he was originally an ordinary teacher, but one of many teachers.But after his death, he came to be regarded as the most holy teacher, above all other teachers.By the second century BC, his status was even higher.At that time, many Confucians believed that Confucius had really accepted the mandate of heaven and succeeded Zhou as king.Although he didn't really ascend to the throne, ideally speaking, he is the king of the whole country.This is obviously a contradiction, but what is the basis?These Confucianists said that the basis can be found in the subtle words and great meanings of "Spring and Autumn".They described "Spring and Autumn" as the most important political work written by Confucius expressing his ethical and political views, rather than the chronicle of Confucius' hometown of Lu.In the first century BC, Confucius' status was raised to be higher than that of the king.According to many people at the time, Confucius was a living god among the crowd. This god knew that there would be a Han Dynasty (206 BC to 220 AD) after him, so he set up a political ideal in "Spring and Autumn", It was so complete that it was more than enough for the people of the Han Dynasty to implement.This deification can be said to be the culmination of Confucius' glory. In the middle of the Han Dynasty, Confucianism could indeed be called a religion. But this period of apotheosis did not last long.At the beginning of the first century AD, Confucianists with more rationalistic features began to gain the upper hand.From then on, Confucius was no longer regarded as a god, but his status as "the most holy teacher" was still extremely high.Until the end of the nineteenth century, the saying that Confucius was appointed king by heaven was revived briefly, but soon after, with the establishment of the Republic of China, his reputation gradually declined below that of "the most holy teacher".Now, most Chinese would think that he was a teacher, a great teacher indeed, but far from the only one. Furthermore, Confucius was considered a learned man during his lifetime.For example, one of his contemporaries said: "Confucius is great! He is learned but not famous." ("The Analects of Confucius·Zihan") From the previous quotations, we can also see that he thought he was inheriting ancient culture and making use of it. The man who hangs down forever, and some of his contemporaries thought so too.His work was narrative, which allowed his school to reinterpret the culture of previous generations.He insisted on what he believed to be the best in ancient times, and created a powerful tradition that has been passed down to the recent era. This era is like the era of Confucius himself, and China is facing huge and serious economic and social changes.Finally, he was the first teacher in China.Although historically speaking, he was just an ordinary teacher at the beginning, it may be reasonable for some eras to regard him as the most holy teacher.