Chapter 18 postscript

The Compilation, Study and Translation of Yi Yashi's Works (1) The works of Aristotle (384-322 BC) can be divided into three categories: the first category is "dialogues", most of which were written in the Plato Academy in Athens (366-348 BC) in the early years.At the beginning of the second century BC, Hermippus compiled the "Aristotle's Bibliography". In the first century, when Andronicus reorganized all of Aristotle's remains, he also compiled a "General Catalog". This total is now lost.Later there was the Hesychius bibliography.Early third century AD, Diogenes.Laerxiu wrote "Biographies of Scholars", in which Aristotle's biography also has a bibliography, the content of which is similar to that of "Haier Mipu Bibliography". There are 19 kinds of "dialogues" among the more than 100 titles in "Di Shi Bibliography".The themes, thoughts and style of these "dialogues" are all imitated by Plato, and the narrative sentences are clearer than the existing speeches;

Latin writers around AD often recited these "dialogues" as models for articles.All such books have been lost. In Aristotle's life, he collected a large amount of materials for academic research and made notes.Several anecdotes in the "bibliographies" of the old traditions belong to this category. The "Constitution of Athens" discovered in the pile of reed paper in Egypt in 1890 should be one of the "148 constitutions of Greek city-states" among such manuscripts.Kaushi Yaji covers all departments of natural and social sciences; the loss of such books is a pity.

The third category is the existing "Complete Works of Aristotle". Most of the chapters are lecture notes in Lyceon College, and they are all abbreviated and unfinished.The cases involved, when collated with Greek histories, show that these scholarly speeches were addressed to an audience in 335-323 BC.Later generations often speculate that these posthumous manuscripts may be student notes.However, the existing books are generally consistent in thought, correct in understanding, rich in vocabulary, and most of the chapters are connected with each other. Therefore, recent people infer that most of these books may be written by Aristotle himself.The manuscript has been written for many years, and it has been written or stopped before and after, so duplication and mistakes are unavoidable;

Books often have unfinished chapters that seem to be waiting to be patched up.Based on the content of these lectures and the interpretations of old biography, we can slightly test the sequence of his works: "Famous Studies" six kinds ("Category", "Explanation", "Analysis Before and After", "Proposition", "Sophistry and Correction" ) "Materials", "Shuo Da", "Theory of Cheng and Bad", "Theory of Soul", and "Ethics of Eutime" may have been written in Yasuo, Lisbu, and Bella in the middle age (347-335 BC).

Several volumes of "History of Animals", "Metaphysics" (philosophy) and "Politics" may have been written at this time, and they were completed after Aristotle returned to Athens (335 BC). "Meteorology", "Biology", "Physiology" and other short stories of natural philosophy, as well as "Nicomachean Ethics", "Poetics", "Rhetoric" were also taught or recorded during this period (335-323 BC). of.The current "Complete Works of Aristotle", such as "Becker's Revised Edition", includes "Collected Titles", "Anecdotes", and several short stories on psychology, physiology, and ethics. Strato (Strato) and the essays of the wandering school of later generations.The works of the later generations of the Walking School tend to focus on various departments of natural science; this should be the result of Aristotle's Shangshi thought.In the centuries after AD, the Walking School was regarded as an expert in natural science, which was a branch of Plato's school.

(2) It is said that the first-generation successor of Lyceum Academy, Seuvhrasto, handed over the manuscripts of Aristotle and himself to his disciple Neleus for collection.Naliu later returned to Scepsis in Asia Minor with these scrolls.When the Yataili Dynasty collected books from the people, these manuscripts were hidden in the cellar for 150 years.Around 100 BC, Apellicon of Teos bought these old papers and returned them to Athens.After several ups and downs, Andronicus of Rhode Island, the eleventh generation successor of the college (40 BC in his prime), used these old manuscripts to collate with the handouts handed down in the college, and reorganized the "Complete Works of Aristotle".

Since then, the spread has also increased, and all schools have recited these articles.Aristotle's writing focuses on the analysis of nouns, without embellishment, and rarely uses rhetorical brushstrokes.The world has slowly noticed that there are precious creativity, profound criticism and "dry light of reason" in it. In the second century A.D., Aspasius and other interpreters emerged, and successively compiled Aspasius's classics and completed very detailed annotations.This style of simple learning remained until the beginning of the fourteenth century, and Sophonias was still diligently doing supplementary work.Among them, the greatest achievement was Alexander of Epilodisia (the prime year was about 205 AD).

(3) In 529, the Byzantine Emperor Justinian I suppressed this research because Aristotle's academics violated different religious doctrines and political systems.Aristotle scholars moved from Constantine to the sphere of influence of the Persian dynasty, scattered in Syria and North Africa.Alexandria was the center of subscience after Constantine.Aristotle's books with narrative commentaries existed in the fifth century; after that, narrative translations prevailed on the southern coast of the Mediterranean until the twelfth century.In the eighth century, Arab Islam flourished, successively occupying various cities in the southern Mediterranean, and even progressing to Spain.Arabic translation and commentary are more prosperous than Syriac.From the tenth to the twelfth centuries, Algazeh, Avicenna and Averro Des successively became the authority on Aristocratic in Arabia.Avires grew up in Spain and was not proficient in Greek, so he interpreted all of Aristotle's complete books in Arabic translated from narrative.Moreover, these interpretations were translated into Hebrew to the east and Latin to the north.

(4) The development of Roman and Latin culture owes much to Greece.However, not many Latin scholars directly read the original Greek works.Aristotle's learning became popular after Boethius sorted out and annotated the Latin translation of "Mingxue" in the sixth century.In the Middle Ages, it was not easy for Western countries to obtain books from the Byzantine region and the Islamic region. Scholars in Paris and other places only went to Spain to collect the Arabic writings of Aviles, from which they learned Greek-Hebrew-Syrian-Arabic literature. A vague product of thought. When the Crusaders entered Constantine in 1204, communication between the East and the West resumed.Greek learning spread rapidly throughout Western Europe.The book of Aristotle is translated directly from Greek, correcting many of the errors of previous translations.Wilhem of Moerbeke completed the Latin translation of the entire book in the thirteenth century.Since then, Latin interpreters have accumulated voluminous annotations like their Greek predecessors.Albertus Magnus of the Dominican Monastery in Cologne is known for his specialization in Asia, and his student was Thomas.Aquinas (Thomas Aquinas, 1225? -1274), combined Aristotle's academics with Catholicism, and became a contemporary authority on theology.

Constantine fell to the Turks in 1453, and Greek scholars moved westward one after another.Thus there are teachers of Greek everywhere in Italy; Padua For a while, it became the new center of Asian studies.In Britain, France, Germany, Italy and other places, Aristotle's studies have generally become textbooks in colleges and universities.In the 14th century, the Law of Culture and Education in Paris stipulated that in schools, except for the Bible, all secular knowledge should be based on Aristotle's books.At the end of the fifteenth century, Columbus' confidence in seeking the New World was actually obtained from the arguments of the circle of the earth in the works of Aristotle ("Shuo Tian" 298a9-15).

(5) At these times, new studies emerged in Europe, which gradually broke through the traditional system of cultural knowledge in thought.Many concepts in Aristotle's natural philosophy were doubted. In 1590, Galileo, an Italian mathematics teacher, performed a shot drop experiment on the Leaning Tower of Bisha, aiming to deny an erroneous law in Aristotle's physics.The average student in Europe no longer takes Aristocratic courses seriously.Oxford scholar Hobbes (Hobbes, 1588-1679) openly denigrated it.Indeed sages live, Rogier.Bacon, Francis.Bacon, Copernicus, Galileo, Newton, Lavoisier, Darwin, etc. all went beyond the boundaries of their predecessors in their thinking methods and practical research, discovered fresher flowers and plants, or climbed higher mountains, So I saw the farther horizon.Aristotle's authority in the natural sciences seems to have ended after the seventeenth century, leaving his writings as rich and valuable material in the history of world academic development. However, many of Aristotle's terms, terms, and concepts have penetrated into various Western academic disciplines and thoughts on life and the universe.In the eighteenth century, many conservatives believed that these classics still had the function of inspiring human thoughts.Modern Germanic philosophers have written many great works, in which it can be seen that the influence of Aristotle's philosophy of names is still significant.The literary and art circles originally maintained respect for "rhetoric", and fragments of "poetics" were particularly popular in this century. "Philosophy" 1053a page 5-14 says that the movement of celestial bodies is uniform and regular, so the units of time and distance that make up the movement should be found in the movement of celestial bodies.Many scientists in the 19th century put this statement into practice and made long and hard efforts; our current standard time and standard measurement are formulated based on modern astronomical records and the measurement of the earth's longitude.In biology, although Aristotle used "teleology" to deny Empedocles' "evolutionary theory", he was actually the forerunner of evolutionary theory in terms of anatomy, classification, and embryology.Therefore, when Darwin (1809-1882) described his life, he said that Cuvier (G. L. C.  E.D. Cuvier, 1769-1832) and Linnaeus (Linnaeus, 1707-1778) had their own achievements. It seems to be two gods, but these two people are still schoolchildren compared to Mr. Aristotle. (6) In the 19th century, sub-science research started again.From 1830 to 1870, the Berlin Research Institute spent 40 years proofreading and printing the Greek "Aristotle's Complete Works" (Bekel's version - see Appendix 3) to provide the original version of modern translations in various countries. From 1882 to 1909, it took another 28 years to compile and print Greek and Latin interpretations and Latin translations.The French duben was also proofread and printed in 1847-74.Scholars from other countries also publish revised and new translations of various monographs from time to time. The English translations of "Aristotle's Complete Works" were successively completed between 1908 and 1930.Russian translations of "Rhetoric", "Ethics", "Politics" and part of "Namology" were published in pre-revolutionary Russia. After 1927, he successively translated a part of "Famous Studies", "Poetics", "Metaphysics" (philosophy) and important works on biology and physics. (7) It was not until the end of the Ming Dynasty in China that intellectuals came into contact with the academic works of ancient Greece.Xu Guangqi, Li Zhizao, etc. have recited Aristotle's works after translating Western astronomical books, and are preparing to introduce Western learning on a large scale.But scholars in the early Qing Dynasty returned to the pile of old papers in China.There is no successor in the introduction of Western academics.Aristotle's advocating ideals while being pragmatic, this spirit may have made some criticisms of traditional Chinese culture.If people in the Ming and Qing Dynasties read these books, it would be more beneficial than us modern Chinese. Now we will mainly evaluate these translations as the most important learning cases in cultural history.Aristotle once discussed that ancient myths are inevitably absurd, but they have been passed down for thousands of years. When countless poems and essays have been lost, and such volumes survived the elimination of the times, he regarded them as treasures from the barren valley (1074b13); we in Aristotle The suicide note also has the same feeling. 2. The Theories of Various Greek Schools and Aristotle's Thought System (1) The opinions of each school (8) In "Metaphysics" (Philosophy) Volume A, Aristotle narrates the summaries of the thoughts of the Greek sages, and gives comprehensive and individual comments.Criticisms of various schools are also included here and there in the other volumes.Latin scholars have always regarded Volume A and this book as a summary of Greek philosophical thought.Just as Aristotle said, the ancient philosophy was young and still speaking in the era of stuttering. The words and phrases used by the sages are often simple and simple, or exaggerated;Therefore, here we will introduce the origin and gist of each school of thought; once we understand the arguments of these sages, we can easily understand the context of Aristotle's writing, and understand the origin and true meaning of the academic terms used in this book. (9) Schools of natural philosophers.During the sixth century BC, the coastal cities of Ionia in Greece developed trade in the Mediterranean, and cultural knowledge also prospered along with commerce.Thales the Milesian (about 640-550) began his exploration of all nature.The ancient Greeks originally used mythology to explain the origin of the universe and all things, revealing the dawn of wisdom in the haze: the universe originated from "chaos" (JαHI), and all things were born from "soil" (η).Thales revealed the concealment of the myth, and sought the "primitive" (αρJη) directly from the material aspect. He said that the universe began with "water" (Kδωρ), and all things were made of water; the earth floated on the water.It is natural for a sea-dweller to have such thoughts.It should be noted here that Thales' water includes all wet and deformable liquids.This "primitive", or "the starting point of all things", is the "principle" in philosophy later, and principle and "reason" (αιGιHF) were interchangeable terms at the beginning.His successor, Anaximander, changed Gu Zhe's habit of narrating in rhyme and reasoned in prose, and developed Thales' new thought.He believes that there should be a certain "undetermined thing" (GHHπEρHF) as the foundation of all things;This "unfixed object" is divided into all fixed objects in the world due to the change of warm and cold into dryness and dampness, and water is the first one to appear.The third biography is Anaximenes, who permeated the thoughts of the previous two generations, and believed that "Qi" (αEρ) is the original "undetermined object". The change of density produces clouds, rain, water, soil and all things: this gas includes all gases such as air and steam.The Milesians were the founders of western astrophysics and other practical studies. Later generations called them "naturalists" (ψKσEωI) to distinguish them from "mythologists" (μKθιJωI). (10) Yixiong School.The city of Miletus was destroyed by Bingxian in 494.The study of natural philosophy spread to other cities of Ithonia.Heraclitus of Ephesus (c. 530-470) went a step further with the idea of ​​the mutual transformation of all things.He believes that cold, warm, dry and humid are relative and opposite changes, and they are also generating and interchanging each other; everything in the universe contains opposites and opposites.He suspends that these interchanging objects should be "fire" (πKρ); it has heat, is dynamic, and is fickle.This kind of "fire" has two meanings, one refers to the seen fire, and the other refers to a kind of impetus that can lead to the birth and death of all things and even the birth and death of the whole universe.Hershey's objects are both abstract and real objects. They are the constituent materials of the universe and the genes of the evolution of the universe.Hearst developed the concept of the evolution of all things into the saying of "everything disappears" (παKGαρEι): "One cannot step in the same river twice" is his famous saying.In this way, Hearst's "fire" is still the tradition of the original and unique theory of Miletus's natural philosophy; but on the point of "moving" of all things, he opened up a new way of thinking, leading to the opposite dialectics of the Elea school.At that time, abstract nouns were very scarce, and Hearst used contemporary grammar and examples to express his complex thoughts, which was often vague, so everyone called him "Ambiguous School" (σJHGEιF) at that time; Eclectic" (EJMEJGJHI). (11) The Eleatic School.Contrary to the change theory of the Yixiong school, the Elias school established the unchanging "truth" (GHHF).Aristotle said that monism originated from the composer Zinofani of Colophon. Although he was a singer and swimmer, he was able to make a theoretical analysis. He advocated the unity of the universe principle and ridiculed the contemporary polytheistic customs. , claiming to belong to one God (θEHI).Parmenides of Elia (in his prime around 485 B.C.) was familiar with natural philosophy and number theory, and introduced Qi's dialectics of names.He thought that if people think about something, there must be something that actually refers to it, and "nothing" is unrecognizable and unthinkable; therefore, there should be no "non-being" (μηHF) in the universe, and the existence of all things What is what it is must return to what it is.Pashto got rid of the mystical atmosphere of ancient Greece, and also went beyond the material world of the natural school. He explored the dynamic concept of the Ephesian school, and also denied some pluralistic ideas, advocating that the universe is permanent (eternal), and always static (unchanged). move), limited.All things originate from "Yuanyi" (EF［JαιπαF］), begin with one and end with one;These are the "True Words" (MHHI) explained in Parmenides' Psalms.Although Bassett's philosophical thinking leads to the non-material realm, his description of the physical objects in nature still admits the differences in the perceptual world and the multitude of all things.Zeno, his disciple, only focused on abstract thinking, ignored things, specialized in pure theory, and made detailed analysis on conceptual topics such as emptiness, movement and stillness, infinity and finiteness, time, and movement; Zeno can indeed be called a dialectician ( δEMEJGιJHI).The monism school is from Qi's one in "God", Bashi's in "name" (Tao), and Zeno's in "real" (πMEHF).These three changes are similar to the three changes of water, air and fire identified by naturalists in matter. (12) Empedocles.Empedocles of Agrigen (c. 500-430) created a new theory later on in Papyrus. He took the world as a dynamic of the four "roots" (ριIωμαGα) of earth, water, air, and fire. Change collective, and love and hate (ψιMHGηI, FEιJHI) is the main cause of change.He thinks that the universe is a complete sphere (σψαιρHI), which is Elia's unity or god, but he also admits that there are four kinds of things, which can also be regarded as a school of reconciliation and compromise.He said that the separation of all things comes from hatred and struggle; their synthesis is due to friendship.Love and hate coexist in the universe, so all things ebb and flow, one or more, and the cycle is endless.This is similar to Heraclitus' balance principle of two instruments, and Ernst more clearly expressed the two basic functions of "matter" and "force" in the universe.Enshi called the four elements of earth, water, air, and fire "the roots of matter", which are homogeneous and uniform, not born, not extinguished, and unchanged.These four materials that create all things are hereafter called "elements" (σGHJEια).As a chemical analyst, the theory of the "Big Four" is arbitrary. As a theorist, the concept of "elements" should be regarded as the guiding ideology of chemistry for more than two thousand years. (13) Yixiong New School.Anaxagoras (approximately 500-428) of Kela Zuomene was slightly older than Eng's, while Li said later.He originally called "species" (σGEρμαGα) for the objects that the sages have tracked for hundreds of years.These species are like the hairs of the feathers of animals that are aggregated by the same particles; after the death of an animal, the hairs are still separated. It is broken down into particles, and other animals gather and absorb these particles, and each becomes its hair. The same is true for flesh and blood or other things.There are not just one or four such "species", but many or even infinite numbers.These are the "similar differentials" (HμHHμJρHI) mentioned by Aristotle.According to this method of analysis, the substance is not a simple substance but a mixture (μιμα).Anaxagoras deduced from the phenomenon that the soul or the heart and brain dominate the activities of the whole body, and infers that the whole universe must also have a big heart. He said that all things are mixed, and "reason" (FHKI) rises to arrange them, and the universe is established. order.In this way, taking "similarity and differentiation" as the principle of matter and "reason" as the principle of mind, Anaxagoras carefully cited the two causes of the universe, and he should be the first clear dualist. (14) The Italian School of Sanya.The life of Pythagoras of Samoa (532 BC in his prime) was obscured by various legends, and it was difficult for later generations to understand the truth.About 530 BC, he left his hometown to Italy, where he lived in the city of Croton, where he established a religious fellowship, practiced Orpheus, observed certain fasts, and conducted astronomical observations, records, and calculations.Bi is the pioneer teacher of mathematics and science in the West, and his disciples have always passed on mathematics and science.Summary of Bi's thoughts: (1) The theory of soul reincarnation (μEGEμψKJωσιI), every soul is born from the world of gods due to ignorance of karma, whether it is a human being or a mullet. After reincarnation, the purified soul can return to the gods. sky.The rise and fall of the world should be due to changes in the sky, and the two realms of man and nature are related organic combinations. (2) All things are originally in one (EFHI), all things are also in one, one is whole and limited.One and many, odd and even, finite and infinite are correspondences, all things are from one, from odd, from finite, and each becomes its own thing. (3) The composition of objects is based on the ratio of numbers, and the ratio of numbers is the secret of creation: creatures get their lives from this; strings form their harmony from this.The ratio of octaves has always been said to have been invented by Pythagoras (gong tune C2:1, sign G3:2, change signE4:3).The celestial bodies have regular movements, and all things have the rhythm of ups and downs, and there are numbers (αριθμHI) in them, and there must be natural secrets to get the numbers. The number theory school lists pebbles as "four arrays" (Figure 1). This figure has ten points, three sides, and four bases each; from the three sides, it is all four lines.The four array diagrams show that the number starts from one to two, progresses to three and four, and ends at ten, and ten is the number limit; the ratio of line by line is: 1:2, 2:3, 3:4, which is the rhythm (αρμHFια).The virtues of number are completeness, symmetry, and harmony. The three are shown by the mind of heaven and desired by people's hearts.The number theory school applies such numbers to various academic disciplines.antiquity . . . . . . . . . . . In Figure 1, there is no sign, no 0, and no calculation formula for counting. If there are transactions and discussions, pebbles are listed to illustrate the number.The number theory school connects numbers with geometric figures, and 1, 2, 3, and 4 respectively represent points, lines, surfaces, and volumes (1090b23) (Figure 2).That is, the minimum number of pebbles required to determine these shapes.The so-called "Pythagorean Theorem" that the Pythagorean square is equal to the square of the chord is a great success in linking arithmetic and geometry.At that time, the concept of odd and even as limited and infinite numbers was also performed by pebbles: odd numbers are added in sequence to form a square; 1+3=4. . . . 1+3+5=9 The rest and so on.When even numbers are added in sequence, they form a rectangle with an indeterminate shape; 2+4=6. . . . . . 2+4+6=12 The rest and so on.Also, the double row and column points can be extended to infinite E by even numbers, and the odd numbers stop at the last remainder point. E, no longer extendable.In this way, the pairs of "odd and even", "one and many", and "limited and infinite" can be compared. Or even say that they can communicate. The number theory is connected to things with geometric figures. For example, the basic form of fire is tetrahedron, air is octahedron, water is icosahedron, earth is hexahedron, that is, cube, and the super four elements "ether" (αηθηρ) are ten dihedron.These may be regarded as ancient crystallography, but this is imaginary crystallography.The Sankhya school applied these mysterious numbers to real objects or common things, which often had obstacles and was a bit weird. After counting the dots, lines, and planes, they used 5 to represent quality, 6 to represent soul, and 7 to represent rationality... In another series of things, 1 is the brain, 2 is the heart, and 3 is the navel....If there are things of the same number, there should be corresponding virtues among them.One of the units is the basic unit of the number of columns, and all things are composed of numbers, and the basic unit of the number of columns is transformed into the basic unit of matter.One of such units and the number of columns are not only arithmetic numbers, but actually have special qualities or endowments.The basic difficulty in number theory is whether there is a pair or no pair of one: if the absoluteness of one is admitted, it cannot be matched by "two" or "many"; A process of many lifetimes.On the other hand, the monists cannot erase the existing variety in the universe. In contemporary arithmetic, geometry, astronomy and all natural sciences, the Sankhya school often has outstanding original ideas, and also includes many fantasies and superstitions.The ancient Chinese "Hetu Luoshu" is similar to.Aristotle used many chapters in "Philosophy" (such as the MN volume, etc.) to dispel these superstitions, explaining that the number of columns should be limited to calculation purposes, and "one" is only a unit of measurement, eliminating hundreds of years. The mystery attached to the unit and number (such as chapters I1 and N1) shows that infinity is only an attribute of things such as number and time, and falls into the category of relations (K10).The rationality shown by Aristotle in this respect is conducive to the healthy development of mathematics.However, until two thousand years later, astrologers such as Kepler still firmly believed in the ratios, rhythms, and geometric patterns among celestial bodies. He discovered that the three laws of the solar system that laid the foundation for modern celestial mechanics were just the Pythagorean formula he had spent decades. A few truths touched upon in a multitude of fantasies. (15) ATOMICS.The atomic theory of Leucippus of Miletus (460 BC in his prime) and his disciple Democritus of Abdera (460-320) can be said to be a synthesis of the Italian and Eleatic schools of thought.Leucippus applied the mathematical primitives to matter, and established the indistinguishable "atoms" (αGHμα) with measurements as the physical primitives that compose all things. "Atoms" can be dismantled and things can be reorganized, but each of them is eternal and unchanged. In this way, "atoms" basically conform to the nature of Parmenides' "monadic"; The metaphysical one, or Zeno's conceptual substantive one, has attracted a new destination.The atomists are also familiar with the paired dialectics of "emptiness and reality", "one and many", "right and wrong" and so on by Zeno, but their dialectical research has turned to the material world.Democritus made a more specific explanation on "atoms": Atoms each contain the ability to move, and when composing all things, due to the three differences in shape, order, and position (Volume A, Chapter IV, and 1042b12), various types of everything. The name "atom" was adopted again by the British chemist Dalton in the 18th century AD, which shows that the way of modern science to explore matter is the way that Democritus had already traveled.Atomism was the last and highest achievement of Greek natural philosophy. (16) Socrates and Platonism.Greek thought originally focused on natural philosophy, that is, physical science.Afterwards, rhetoric and dialectics flourished, and scholars' topics gradually shifted from cosmology to social and ethical issues.Socrates (468-399 BC) can be called the leader in this field.Aristotle once said that "universal definition" and "inductive reasoning" are two important inventions in academic advancement (1078b29) Credit goes to Socrates.Socrates established the "definition" (HρισμHI) to deal with the confused rhetoric of the sophists (sages), thus overcoming the miscellaneous theories of a hundred schools of thought.However, his moral concepts and social thoughts did not conform to the traditional habits of the Greeks, and his fashion did not conform to the contemporary political atmosphere. At the age of seventy, he was regarded as a representative of sophistry and gossip, and was sentenced for the crime of confusing youth.After the death of the Su family, many young people who followed each other became famous for their academics and opened up many new schools, among which Plato was particularly outstanding. (17) In dialectics, Socrates derived some "formulas" from certain examples, added them one by one, and summed up new examples to expand or revise these formulas. The "definition" created by the formulas can be used as the standard of right and wrong. .This can be said to be the forerunner of "Italian" (ιδEα).Regarding Plato's (427-347 B.C.) Italian theory, how much of it is said by the teacher and how much of it is his own thought is still inconclusive.Plato had received a wealth of mathematical knowledge from the Italian School, and also learned Heraclitus' "vanishing" theory from Cratylus in detail.His Italian formula can be regarded as the "definition" of Socrates, and it can also be regarded as the "number ratio" of the Italian school. Find the immutable and unchanging reality in non-sensual things.Extract their common properties from a number of things and set up a general name for them, which represents the eternal reality of this type of thing.In this way, people who could not know the ever-changing myriad things before can obtain their true knowledge from these permanent realities.Parmenides monism insists on the one and rejects the many, insists on the right and rejects the wrong; Plato's Italian form "unifies the many with one" (GHEFEπιπHMMωF); the abstract and universal "idea" thus overrides the material individual. However, it is impossible for us to fully determine the meaning of Italianism from Plato's "dialogues".These "dialogues" are a half-literary and half-philosophical genre, and the terms used are difficult to be strictly defined by later generations.Plato's thoughts are advancing with the years, and the early and late thoughts are not completely consistent.Most of the Italian theory that Aristotle slandered in "Philosophy" was the theory that was popular in Akatemi after Plato's death.For example, when the MN volume repeatedly discusses the questions of numbers and Italian forms, the "one-many" (GHEFJαιπMηθHI) is repeatedly cited to form various types: (1) "one" and "big and small", (2) "unit" and "undecided two" ", (3) "equal" and "unequal", and question the absurdity between them, these aliases developed from the pairing of "finite" and "infinite" (or undecided) in the Italian school are actually Si The focus of Pan Xuepu et al.In the early stages of mathematics growth, these should be important problems; in today's mathematics, there are many definite terms and generally accepted theorems, and most of these confusions no longer exist.In the absence of a complete mathematical language, it is always very difficult to explain mathematical problems precisely.Some notes in the translation of this book somewhat express the experience of growing up in the language of mathematics. Plato believed that the number of counting things can be separated from the pile of things and become Italian numbers (image numbers) such as base 2 and base 3. If these image numbers are used as natural numbers, there is no need to argue.Schematicists sometimes go beyond these ideas and try to find qualities in numbers that it does not actually possess, which often leads to delusions.They set up a series of intermediate numbers between Italian numbers and the counting numbers of sensible things, which is also an excessive virtual.From the perspective of sensible objects, Plato rarely has accurate geometric figures, but geometry is dealing with those ideal "pictograms". By comparison, he deduces that there should be similar "pictograms" in terms of numbers. These pictograms Both have independent existence, and those image numbers should also exist independently.These are difficult to make a definite answer.Mathematicians pay too much attention to the role of numbers, which is the same in the history of cultural development of various nations.The successors of Plato's academy emphasized mathematics more than philosophy, and almost forgot the "idea" of their predecessors, and took "image and number" as "basic truth". Aristotle therefore took the trouble to repeatedly state the scope of philosophical research, carefully Point out that the noumenon that everyone wants to investigate should be stars, living things, and all things in nature, not numbers, graphics and ideas; numbers and graphics are only specialized materials in various branches of mathematics and science. (2) Aristotle's system of thought (18) As a thinker, Aristotle’s main achievement lies in the analysis of names; he uses geometrical argumentation or reductio absurdum to make people see the paradoxes of various arguments or assumptions, often concisely and sharply; All the sages can often see the weaknesses of their predecessors.Some debates may seem cumbersome to people today, but in ancient times these were all issues that were taken seriously.We already know that the compilation of "philosophy" is a collection of dissertations, lectures, or notes that have been intermittent for many years; there are many sets of words in the text, which retains the atmosphere of the lecture hall.Philosophical discussion requires careful examination and wide coverage, so sentence making is very complicated.Using the ancient vocabulary that is not rich in the analysis and elucidation, the elite conclusions and repeated exhortations often meet each other.In his "Philosophical Notes", Lenin praised Aristotle's thought system as capable of destroying Plato's idealism and all idealism, but he also fell into simple confusion in the dialectics of many issues.If we find some inconsistent prose and obscure sentences in this book, it should not be a big difference.On the whole, the whole book runs through roughly and has the meticulousness that should be found in philosophical papers. (19) The law of contradiction.After listing the philosophical thoughts of the predecessors and enumerating the themes of philosophy, he talked about the mythologist's "chaos" legend, Heraclitus' "eternal fading", Anaxagoras' "all things mixed", Prota Gorah's theory of "man-made things" and other famous theories are all investigated by the law of opposites (contradiction). The fifth and sixth chapters of Volume A and Volume F negate the theory of "ambiguous opinions" and "ambiguous phenomena" of eclecticists and sophists, and completely eliminate the theoretical ambiguity ("yes and no") and ambiguity. The ambiguous attitude of not being able to ("neither is nor is not") makes the world understand that although these theories seem to have their own meanings, they are trivial, but they are actually not conducive to the study of things and knowledge.His arguments sometimes seem to be facile, without giving sufficient reasons; but judging from the proofs of establishing the law of contradiction, his desire to clarify right and wrong for the world and maintain justice is strong and sincere. (20) Category and ontology.Everything must have a "is", whether it is a person or a horse; whether it is white or black, whether it is long or short.Daily speech or academic theories only describe their "is". In this way, Aristotle once defined ten "categories" (σJημαGαGηIJαGηHριαI) in his earlier famous works (see "Index" "Category", see page 338) (1) Noumenon - person, (2) quality - white, (3) quantity - six feet long, (4) relationship - times, (5) time - present, (6) Place—indoor, (7) Active—stroking, (8) Passive—being stroked, (9) State—healthy, (10) Position—sitting.In "philosophy", he deals with various things according to these categories (or "Yunwei Zhuge"); among them, categories 9 and 10 are often deleted, and categories 4-8 are sometimes ignored.In the first three categories, philosophy pays special attention to ontology.In noumenon, Aristotle distinguishes the sensible noumenon and the non-sensible noumenon.他所论述的非感觉本体仍有所实指，在卷Ａ中提示了（甲）原动者，（乙）寄托在群星的精灵，（丙）灵魂在身死后可以独立存在的理性部分，这三项为非感觉本体。意式论者所重的理知对象如"意式"、"意式数"、"假想直线"、"本圆"等、以及通名如"普遍"、"科属"与"底层"等他都认为不能脱离个别事物而独立存在，也就不能确乎为"本体". （２１）是非、真假、主从之辩。在"实是"上，他又析出了三类重要分别：（１）诸范畴之是非出于感觉，其为"是"为"非"与"有无"相同。（２）而"真假"之为是非则为理知或判断上的或确或误；前者就一单纯事物认明其是非，后者则因两事物之"离合"以求其是非。（３）另一类如"某某是人"，其所是者为"本性之是"；"某某是有文化的"，则其所是者为"属性之是".哲学所尚为"由己"之是；"偶然"从属的事情不能确立专门的学术。这些分别好象是通俗常谈，实际则往往贤哲还不免弄错。大家懂得"事有轻重、物有本末"，但在现世的纷纭中，事物却常被颠倒了本末轻重。 （２２）物质与通式。亚氏的基本思想"物质与形式"（器与理）（KMηJαιEισHI）类似毕达哥拉斯学派的"无定限与有定限物"，也类似柏拉图的"未完之两"与"一".亚氏于数百年来各家所立诸对成（GαFαFGια）研究有素（参看索引三，"对成"、"对反"条），于对反的性质也作出了说明，并确言"不能在一科属或一底层上同时出现者方为真对反"，他把"形式与物质"作为每一个体所通有的原理或原因，并不完全当作对成看待。他所用名词与所引事例比其前人为切实而通达。 虽近代各国翻译都用ｍａｔｔｅｒ这字为之代替，他所谓KMη并不限于可感觉物质；例如"科属"并不是能由官感认取的实物，亚氏却也将"科属"作为"品种之物质". 他的"物质"，其基本涵义为未定形的材料。可感觉事物有好些等级； （甲）那些仅有空间运动的如星辰，（乙）那些能改换的（具有质），（丙）那些能增减的（具有量），（丁）那些能生灭的（本体）。后一等级逐级包涵前各等级。感性事物可以包涵理性材料。物质与通式常相联结，永不分离，各不作独立存在。物质又有各级差异，每一差异都有相应的通式；差异由原始物质演进至于最后切身物质，相应地也就由原始形式演进至于是后特殊形式；最后的形式（理）与物质（气）之结合就是一个个别本体。例如：土水火气为原始物质，凭某种形式（比例）结合而成肌肉、血液；肌肉、血液等物质，又凭某种形式结合成手足五官等；手足五官等，作最后的切身物质（即躯体），与灵魂相结合，就成为一个活人。这可算在诸先哲分歧的一元论与各式各样的对成观念上获得了最后的综结。 （２３）四因。亚氏在"物学"中曾标举了四因（KιGια）也就是四理或四原（αJη）：（１）物因（底因），（２）式因（本因），（３）动因（效因），（４）极因（善因）（KMη，EιδHｓ，KψHF，KψHF，GEMI）。他把"动变渊源"与"终极目的"两项加之于上述"物质"与"形式"两项，凭这四项，解释一切事物与其演变。卷Ａ对于诸先哲批评的要点就在说自然哲学家们只见到"物因"，后期的思想家如柏拉图则又见到了"式因"，而忽于阐明动变渊源；阿那克萨哥拉的理性类似"动因"，但他生平未曾把"理性"交代清楚；其他各家也都没有省识到宇宙有止于至善的终极目的。亚氏在本书各卷中随处列示四因，于Ａ卷中又特举了宇宙的总动因，也论到了"善"这重要题目。但旧书目中所记亚氏"论善"的专篇现已失传。四因在应用上有时将式因、动因、极因三者合并为一类，以与物因相并称，这样，四理仍又还原为"物质与通式"两理。 （２４）潜能与实现。在把一切独立本体分析成一个通涵的理器综合之后，亚氏再以相比拟的平衡分析阐明了"潜能与实现"（δKFαμιIJαιEFEρFα）。这是从研究动变与生灭过程中所得的新观念。倘一事物成为Ｘ，则原来必非Ｘ。但演变或创生不能出于绝对不存在的事物；这必须先有一个能变成为Ｘ的事物存在。这"潜在"事物与完全"实现"的事物，作为一个动态对论，相应于上述那个"物质"与"形式"的静态对论。一元论者的"执一拒多"总难否定世上形形色色的万有之创生与其存在；二元论或多元论的症结，在难于说明"由无成有"或"由一化多"的机缘。亚氏以这些对成两端之一为潜在，另一为实现，大理石潜在地是一个艺神雕象，这样来解答希腊哲学史上传统的迷惑。 （２５）原动者。亚氏追求万物动因而想到必需有一个自身不动而致动于万物的永恒实是，这在Ａ卷中作了详细论述。他以当代的天文学为依据，从日月星辰来推论"原动者"（JFHKFπραιGHF）的存在与其性质，是纯理知的产物，并无宗教感情。他说这原动者就是理性，也就是神；这神已不同于希腊神话中人神相拟的诸神，也不是后世圣经中所崇拜的上帝。若说毕达哥拉斯是迷信与智慧的混合，亚里士多德该是理知的化身。但在他建立这宇宙"最高实是"时，他又显露了柏拉图纯意式的平息。先师殁后，他行遍了当代文化学术的旷野，毕竟还常出入于柏拉图的篱落。只是在他自己的历程中，发现了许多实事实物，找到好些认识万物、分析万物的方法，开辟了不少学术研究的门径。这些方法嘉惠了后学。希腊晚出的思想家们丰富的想象力超越了感性事物而群务以抽象观念为本体；这些抽象事物往往将人们引出现实世界，使之自囿于这些抽象事物所点缀的迷园。亚氏嘱附后学：可感觉世界的万物正是学术研究的主题（１０９０ａ２８）；他硁硁然以自然本体为重，坚持着"理知要符于对象"，"普遍不离个别"，"通式不自外于万有". ------------------ <全文完>