Chapter 17 Appendix I Outline (Chapter Analysis)

Volume (A) a philosophy.Summarize the Philosophical Thoughts of the Sages Chapter One It is human nature to seek knowledge. 980a22-980a27 The sequence of intellectual development—from sensation, memory, and experience to technology. -981a13 Technology is better than experience, and the technologist knows how things are. -981b13 Academic growth-oriented theoretical knowledge-wisdom (philosophy). -982a3 Chapter Two The philosopher is more general, profound, and precise than is commonly known. 98a24-982a4 Wisdom is pure knowledge, superior to other knowledge. -982b7 Knowing wisdom is the science of enlightenment and rationality, which is noble but impractical. -983a23

Chapter three All things in the universe have four causes—the physical cause, the formal cause, the moving cause, and the ultimate cause. 983a24-983b7 Early philosophers studied physical causes. 983b19 Thales believes that "water" is the cause of all things --- the cause of things that other families hold. -984a17 Or deduce the cause from the cause of things——Anaxagoras took "reason" as the cause. -984a23 Chapter Four All the sages involved the cause, while Xixote, Parmenides, etc. mainly focused on "love". 984b23-984b31 Empedocles advocates "good and evil" and "love and hate" - Enshi pays equal attention to the four elements. -985b4

The Natural Theory of Liu Mouber and the Democritus School of Atoms [Background]. -985b23 Chapter five The Pythagorean school focuses on "number", using number as an element to make all things - number is the cause of form and also the cause of matter. 985b24-986a22 Or use ten types of pairs to become the principles of all things (all close to physical causes). -986b8 In the Eleatic school, Parmenides recognized the "many" of sensible things based on "oneness".-987a2 Summarize the third, fourth and fifth chapters. -987a28 Chapter Six The origin of Plato's Italian theory: (a) Pythagoras' "number theory", (b) Heraclitus' "passing", (c) Socrates' "definition"——Plato's "Italian" transcends emotional matters. 987a29-987b15

Place mathematical objects between Italian and perceptual things, and use "big and small" as the physical cause of number, "Yuanyi" as the formal cause, or "good and evil" as the formal and physical cause——Italian Formalists always cite only two causes. -988a18 Chapter seven All the arguments of various schools failed to understand the four causes. 988a18-988b22 Chapter eight Criticism of the Sages: Monists - Empedocles - Anaxagoras - Pythagoreans. 988b22-990a33 Chapter Nine (Continued Chapter Eight)——Patto School of Italian Form: 1.Italianism multiplies the number of things: 990a33-990b82.Italian formulas may not be sufficient to explain things, or go beyond the truth of things; whether relative numbers and absolute numbers come first or later, proves that Italian formulas are often self-contradictory. -990b233.Things other than the ontology also have meaning patterns, which is not in line with common practice: -991a84.Italy does not help sensible things - 991b95.If Italian is used as the number, some difficulties arise: -991b266.According to Italian numbers, this requires the second and third types of number systems, which have not been explained; -991b327: The units in Italian numbers also cause some difficulties; -992a108.The same is true for lines, surfaces, and volumes—the nature of points is also unknown. -992a259.The theory of Italian formula does not deal with motives and ultimate causes; -992b110. "Big and small" as physical causes, cannot explain dynamic changes; -992b911.Italianism argues that there is oneness but does not prove how things are one. -992b1812.It is absurd to assume that all existing things have the same elements. 993a10

In Chapter 10, the principles of all things discussed by various schools are not based on the four causes, and philosophy aims to study the four causes. 993a11-993a28 Volume (A) II Introduction to Academic Research Chapter 1 Academic Research—Human intelligence is weak and the truth is difficult to understand, but the accumulation of knowledge is gradual, and even ordinary people have their own contributions. 993a29-993b33 Chapter 2 and 4 cannot be made into an endless series, and the types cannot be endless. 994a1-994b32 Chapter 3 All kinds of research and teaching must have their own methods. 994b33-995a21

Volume (B) Three Philosophical Themes Chapter 1 doubts and then can learn, and after trial and debate, can solve doubts - lists thirteen types of topics in philosophical research. -995a22-996a18 Chapter 2 1. Things may have four causes or not. Is it possible for one academic to study the four causes? -996a18-996b252.Does the science that studies ontology also study the general principles of various disciplines? -997a143.Does philosophy unify all ontology? ——Is there another academic study of the attributes of things? -997a255.If philosophy does not only study the ontology, should it also involve the main attributes of things? -997a344.Is there any imperceptible substance (such as general formula or intermediate body)?Where is the intermediate?Is there a science of infinity? -998a19

Chapter Three 6.Is the first principle of things a family or a species?If it comes from family and genus, should the highest family and genus be the first principle or should the lowest species be the first principle? 998a20-999a23 Chapter 4 7. Is there an abstract thing that is independent of the individual - can the general formula be separated from the substance? 999a24-999b248.Is the first principle more like one than number? 1000a49.If the basic principles of all things are the same, why is there a difference between perishable and indestructible? -1001a410.Is the unity with Yuan the ontology or the attribute?If both are not substance, all universal nouns are not substance.If it is the essence, all things will become one. -1001b26

Chapter Five 13.Are mathematical objects, such as numbers and graphics, ontology?Early thinkers took objects as their noumenon; modern thinkers took abstractions as their noumenon. 1001b27-1002b12 Chapter Six 14.Should the existence of the general formula be assumed? 1002b12-1003a112.Is first principles potential or actualization? -1003a611.Is the first principle general or specific?If it is universal, it is not the ontology; if it is individual, it cannot be known. -1003a18 Volume 4 Scope of Philosophical Research: Ontology and General Principles, On the Law of Contradiction and the Law of Excluded Middle

The practice of philosophy in chapter one is to study "the reason why the real is the real". 1003a19-1003a32 Chapter 2 The study of reality is the study of the principles and reasons of noumenon——philosophical research of all varieties of reality. 1003a33-1003b23 "Shishi" and "Yuanyi" are often associated and are the predicates of things. -1004a3 Philosophy is branched by categories of ontology. -1004a9 Philosophical studies of varieties of "antithesis" such as "one and many". -1004a32 Philosophy is the study of the essence of all things and their corresponding properties - dialectics and sophists specialize in properties. -1004b27 All things come from pairs, which can be simplified into two basic pairs of "true and wrong" or "single and many". -1005a18

The three general principles (axioms) of the chapter are common to all academic disciplines, and philosophy must study the general principles. 1005a19-1005b6 The surest of all principles: the law of opposites (contradictions). -1005b34 Chapter 4 It is impossible to prove everything in its entirety; denying the law of contradiction, or demanding proof, leads to unhelpful difficulties. 1005b35-1006b12 The law of contradiction can be proved by the opposite. -1006b28 "Being" and "not being" have definite meanings—taking people as a metaphor, this cannot be "both people and not people". -1007a21 The first argument (the theory of "ambiguity" makes all attributes accidental, All accidental attributes become endless series). -1007b19 Second argument (if the contrary statements were true, everything would be confused). -1008a3 Third argument (denying the law of contradiction must also oppose the law of excluded middle). -1008a8 Fourth argument (if the law of contradiction is negated in part, this would allow the "exception" rule). -1008a34 Fifth argument—sixth argument (experience shows that ordinary people have some ability to judge). -1008b31 Seventh argument (deny the law of contradiction and everything will be the same). -1009a5

Chapter 5 To deny the law of contradiction is to admit that all opinions are true. 1009a5-1009a23 Where do doubts arise about the law of contradiction?Why do people believe that sensory phenomena are real. -1010a15 Criticism of phenomenalists (such as Protagoras) generalizes the truth of the universe with partial phenomena, which is unreasonable-we must declare that there are indeed things in the world that do not exist. -1010b1 The error is in our impression, not in feeling. -1011a2 Chapter 6 Impossible to prove everything. 1011a3-1011a17 Phenomena are "relationship" language, if you want to prove all relations, you will go back to endless relations. -1011b23 The argument of Chapter 7 Paizhong Law——"Definition" is the basis for eliminating sophistry and eclecticism. 1011b23-1012a24 Chapter Eight "everything is true" and "everything is false" are paradoxical. 1012a24-1012b23 "Everything is in motion" and "Everything is at rest" are also paradoxical. -1012b33 Volume 5 Parts of Speech Annotation Chapter 1: The Six Meanings of "Original". 1012b33-1013a23 Chapter Two "Causes"——Four categories: Formal Causes, Material Causes, Motivational Causes, and Board Causes. 1013a23-1014a25 Chapter Three "Elements" (elements) Five Explanations. 1014a26-1014b15 Chapter 4 "nature" six explanations. 1014b16-1014a19 Chapter Five: Four Explanations of "Necessary". 1015b20-1015b16 Chapter 6 The various meanings of "one": the name of one of the attributes. 1015b16-1015b36 The various meanings of one nature. -1017a3 In the name of "many". -1017a7 Chapter 7 "is" (actually): the essence of attribute and nature. 1017a8-1017b9 Chapter 8 "Ontology". 1017b9-1017b26 Chapter Nine "same", "different", "different"; "similar", "not similar".1017b27-1018a19 Chapter 10 "Contrary", "Relative"; "Different species", "Same species". 1018a20-1018b9 Chapter 11 "Before", "After", 1018b9-1019a14 Chapter 12 "Potential" (Potential). 1019a15-1019a32 "Capable".-1019b16 "Incompetent". "Possible" - "Impossible".-1020a6 Chapter 13 "Quantity". 1020a7-1020a33 Chapter 14 "Quality". 1020a33-1020b25 Chapter 15 "Relationship" (correlation): (A) numerical relationship, (B) active and passive relationship, (C) knowing and being known or measuring and measured. 1020b26-1021b12 Chapter sixteen "complete" three meanings. 1021b12-1022a3 Chapter 17 "Limited" 1022a4-1022a13 Chapter 18 "You He" (You He), "You You". 1022a13-1022a36 Chapter 19 "Arrangements". 1022b1-3 Chapter 20 has three meanings of "you" (holding process). 1022b4-1022b14 Chapter 21 "Bingfu" four meanings. 1022b15-1022b22 Chapter 22 "Que lost" four meanings. 1022b22-1023a7 Chapter 23 "Holding"; "Existing in". 1023a8-1023a25 Chapter 24 "From" six different. 1023a26-1023b11 Chapter 25 "parts" four meanings. 1023b12-1024b25 Chapter 26 "Complete"; "Total" and "Total".1023b26-1024a11 Chapter 27 "Tailoring". 1024a11-1024a29 Chapter 28 "Family and Genus"; "The Genus is Different". 1024a29-1024b14 Chapter 29 "False". 1024b17-1025a13 Chapter Thirty "Properties" (Accidental). 1025a14-1025a34 Volume (E) six academic classification, factual Chapter 1 Academic Classification——Academic disciplines and their specialties——Three categories of theoretical academics: Physics, Mathematics, and Philosophy——Philosophy is an advanced theoretical academic, and it studies objects that do not change and exist independently. 1025b1-1026a32 Chapter 2 is actually one of the four categories, (1) The accidental attribute is that it is impossible to establish a specialized academic (take architecture as an example)-sophistry. 1026a33-1026b27 on "accidental" - the debate between "accidental", "normal" and "necessary". -1027a28 The continuation of Chapter 3 "Accidental"—an example of tracing the accidental cause, ending at an undetermined event. 1027a29-1027b16 Chapter 4 (2) "True" refers to the branch of the real, not the "basic real". 1027b17-1028a6 volume seven body Chapter 1 Ontology is the original reality among all categories, and it is prior to other categories in terms of definition, cognition, and time—ontology is the subject of academic research from ancient to modern times. 1028a7-1028b7 Chapter 2: The different viewpoints of each school on ontology—enumerating various types of ontology—proposes the topic about ontology. 1028b8-1028b33 The four objects of chapter three ontology research: what is, universal, family, and bottom. ——Material, general formula and synthetic individual can all be the bottom layer of things——If matter is the noumenon, it is better to use the general formula as the noumenon. 1028b33-1029a34 Chapter 4 is the learning procedure [involvement]. 1029a34-1029b12 The real meaning of "how is". -1029b24 examines how compound words are. -1030b3 Definitions and hows basically belong to ontology. -1030b14 In Chapter 5, the dichotomy of theme and attribute cannot be determined, nor can it have a strict definition—categories other than ontology cannot be independently defined. 1030b14-1031a14 Chapter 6 Are things the same as how?In terms of the accidental attribute cloud, this is not the same. 1031a15-1031a28 Yuji noun (noumenon) is the same as how it is, taking Shan and Yuanyi as examples——negating the objection held by the Sophists. 1031a28-1032a11 Chapter 7 [Various forms of creation: (1) natural creation, (2) artificial production (two steps: thought and construction), (3) spontaneous generation (no preface to thought). 1032a12-1032b26 Matter exists before creation, and creation is made of matter.But it can also be said that creation is carried out by ques. -1033a24 Chapter 8 Production is neither material nor form, but a combination of both to form a whole. 1033a24-1033b20 The form does not exist independently, and the creative function of the form rests with the same individual. -1034a8 Chapter 9: A Comparative Study of the Three Types of Creation——Spontaneous Generation. 1034a9-1034b7 On ontology there is only individual begets individual—the generation of categories other than ontology. ]-1034b19 Chapter 10 deals with parts and wholes in "Definitions"—angles, circles, and souls are examples. 1034b20-1036a12 The parts and the whole are either prior or subsequent in different cases. -1036a26 Chapter 11 The material elements and form parts in the composite entity—taking the circle and the soul as an example, continue to discuss the formula and form parts of the composite entity. 1036a26-1036b21 completely eliminate matter, and it is useless to talk about things in general formulas. -1037a20 A brief summary of the themes of the above chapters. -1037b7 Chapter 12 Revisiting the definition—how does the definition fit into the theme? 1037b8-1037b28 are made of "taxonomy" and "definitions"—"families and genus" as substances, and species as formal differences to synthesize individuals—definitions include final differences including step-by-step differences. -1038a35 Chapter 13 "Universal" is similar to "how is", but as a common predicate of many things, it cannot become the ontology of any thing—however, apart from "universal", how can things be defined. 1038b1-1039a24 Chapter Fourteen discusses that forms are not ontology and cannot exist independently; it is absurd to regard forms as independent entities and forms that can be combined by other forms——take animals as an example. 1039a24-1039b19 Chapter 15 Certain things, whether perceptual or rational (ruyi), cannot be defined—take the sun as an example. 1039b20-1040b4 Chapter Sixteen The parts of sensuous things are only potentialities.Universal things, such as unity and reality, are not the substance of things. 1040b5-1040b28 As far as indestructible things are concerned, if the substance is not the one that feels things as desired, it is better to take the stars as the substance. -1041a5 Chapter 17 starts from another starting point to study "what is noumenon?" 1041a6-1041b11 Form is noumenon—form is the primary cause that makes the material elements compose synthetic entities. -1041b33 Volume 8 Substances and Formulas Chapter 1 summarizes the various arguments of what is called ontology in the previous volume, and briefly describes its categories. 1042a1-1042a25 The material substratum of sensible things is itself noumenon. -1042b8 Chapter 2 Matter is potential substance, and form is realization substance—the main category of form or realization.Analyzing the definition of matter, form, and synthetic entity. 1042b9-1043a29 Chapter 3 The difference between form and synthetic substance—the difference between form and material elements [return to the topic of Chapter 2]—Antireni suspects that the nature of things cannot be explained and defined thinly. 10343a29-1043b33 "Definition" is compared with "Number". -1044a14 Chapter 4 Distant causal matter and immediate matter—every natural body has its own immediate matter and motivation—taking human beings as an example. 1044a15-1044b3—Eternal body uses lunar eclipse to discuss the four causes—in the case of sleep, the four causes have not yet been fully understood. -1044b20 Chapter 5 Matter's role in evolution and counter-evolution. 1044b21-1045a7 The unity of the definition in Chapter 6: Realization of material potential and form to explain various difficulties; family and genus for potential, species (difference) for realization. 1045a7-1045b25 Volume 9 Potential and Realization Chapter One Potential is and Realized is. - The strict meaning of potential is limited to active and passive dynamic potential. 1045b26-1046a35 Chapter 2 Intellectual Potential and Irrational Intellectual Potential. 1046a36-1046b28 Chapter 3 corrects the erroneous concept of potentiality of the Megara school——distinguishing potentiality from the essentials of realization——the real meaning of "Endrecht". 1046b29-1047b2 Chapter 4. What is possible will come true. 1047b2-1047b31 Chapter 5: How to obtain and realize the potential; the condition of realization—will. 1047b31-1048a24 Chapter 6. The Nature of Realization; Realization as Different from Potentiality. 1048a25-1048b9 "Infinity" and "emptiness" are activities that can never be realized. -1048b18 Difference between activity and realization. -1048b36 Chapter 7 How the material material is the potential of the individual, how the individual is the bottom of the attribute; how things are called because of their substance or attribute. 1048b37-1049b3 Chapter 8 Fulfillment over Potentiality—First in Definition or in Formula. 1049b4-1049b18—either earlier or later in time—explains the sophistry of art. -1050a3——ontology comes first (instances first, then knowledge). -1050a23 Functional activities are realized by actions, and intellectual activities are realized by products. -1050b1 The basic things and the eternal things (celestial bodies) are both realized rather than potential, so they are permanent and not perishable; perishable things contain opposite elements, so they cannot be permanent. -1051a3 Chapter 9 A good realization is better than a corresponding potential, and a bad one is worse. 1051a4-1051a22 Illustrate the relationship between potentiality and realization with geometric illustrations. 1051a23-1051a33 Chapter 10 Three categories of right and wrong: (1) right and wrong of each category, (2) potentiality and realization, (3) truth and falsehood—the right and wrong of combined things lies in the truth and falsehood of rational judgments; . 1051a34-1052a12 Volume 10 Yuan 1, Antithesis, Intermediate Chapter 11 Four meanings: continuation, completeness, individuality, universality—the general meaning and the actual purpose. The essence of 1052a13-1052b15 is indistinguishable-mainly a unit of measurement-unit of measurement for precision-physical, astronomical, musical units, etc. -1053b9 Chapter 21 is not a noumenon but a general statement, attached to the reality of each category and co-extensive with it—the individual one and the universal one. 1053b9-1054a19 Chapter Three "Single and Many". 1054a20-1054a33 The three meanings of "same"; the meanings of "similar", "different" and "different". -1055a3 Chapter Four discusses opposites with the greatest difference. 1055a3-1055a19 A thing has only one pair. 1055a20-1055a33 The four formulas of opposites and opposites—discuss in detail the two types of "contrary" and "missing" in the four formulas. -1055b29 Chapter Five Concerning Contrasting Issues——Analyzing the antithesis of "equal" and "big and small". 1055b30-1056b2 Chapter 6 analyzes the antithesis of "one and many"——explains the related ambiguity, because "single and many" are used as "relative" as a distinction between whether they can be distinguished, and "one and many" are used as measurement and measured The other is "related". 1056b3-1057a17 Chapter 7. The intermediates—the intermediates and the pairs are included in the same family and genus; they stand between the pairs; they are the compound of the pairs. 1057a18-1057b34 Interpretation of Chapter 8 "Different species". 1057b35-1058a29 Chapter 9 The difference of species is not in material difference but in form. 1058a29-1058b26 Chapter 10 Perishables and indestructibles are different from each other—ideas cannot be independent of perishables and indestructibles. 1058b27-1059a15 Volume 11 A brief description of each volume of the book ΒΓΕ.A Brief Introduction to the Volumes of Physics Chapter 1, Volume B, Chapters 2 and 3 are the main issues in philosophy. 1059a16-1060a3 Chapter 2, Volume B, Chapters 4-6, Main Issues in Philosophy (Continued). 1060a3-1060b30 Chapter 3, Volume A, Chapters 1-2, the main material of philosophy.Explain the different scopes involved in philosophy, physics and dialectics, etc., and determine the philosophical theme as simple and common reality and basic antithesis. 1060b31-1061b18 Chapter 4, Volume A, Chapters 3 and 4, Physics and Mathematics are branches of philosophy. 1061a18-1061b34 Chapter 5, Volume A, Chapters 3 and 4, the general principles are the basis for all demonstrations; briefly describe the arguments for maintaining the law of contradiction. 1061b34-1062b11 Chapter 6, Volume A, Chapters 5-8 criticize the theories of various schools for violating the law of contradiction——Illusions of naturalists and ordinary people——Heraclitus' theory of "constant change" is not true——Protagoras "man made everything The word "measure" is not true——Anaxagoras' statement that "things mix together" is also wrong. 1062b12-1063b35 Chapter 7, Volume A, Chapter 1, The difference between philosophy, physics and mathematics; philosophy is the first of all studies. 1063b36-1064b14 Chapter 8, Volume A, Chapters 2-4, The Being of Nature and the Being of Attributes. 1064b15-1065a27 Chapters 5 and 6 of Volume II of "Physics" discuss opportunities. 1065a27-1065b4 Chapter 9 "Physical Science" Volume 3, Chapters 1-3 discuss the realization and movement of potential; movement becomes the process of potential realization—taking statues as metaphors and buildings as metaphors. 1065b5-1066a34 Chapter 10 "Physics" Volume 3, Chapters 4, 5, and 7 discuss the first limit—infinity cannot be practiced, and it is not an independent reality. 1066a35-1066b21 Prove that sensible objects cannot be infinite—only in distance, motion, and time because of certain "correlations" that can be said to be infinite. 1066b21-1067a37 Chapter 11 "Physics" Volume 5, Chapter 1 On Change and Movement——Analysis of various forms of movement. 1067b1-1068a7 Chapter 12 "Physical Science" Volume 5, among the seven categories listed in Chapter 2, "ontology" and "relationship" regardless of movement, "active" and "passive" categories cannot have dynamic changes, so movement only belongs to " The three categories of "quality", "quantity" and "place". 1068a9-1068a33 There is no change of motion or change of motion—first argument, second argument, third argument, third argument. 1068a33-1068b25 "Physics" Volume 5, Chapter 3 Some meanings of words: "coexistence", "separation", "opposite", "contact", "between", "connection", "appropriate", "continuation". 1068b26-1069a15 Volume 12 discusses the total cause of the universe.Prime mover.perfection Chapter 1 Noumenon is the original reality—three types of noumenon: (1) perishable sensory noumenon, (2) eternal sensory noumenon, and (3) immutable non-sensing noumenon. 1069a16-1069b8 Chapter 2 Changes into four categories: noumenon, quality, quantity, place—all changeable things have different substances. 1069b8-1069b26 Three principles of change: general formula, missing, and substance. -1069b34 Chapter 3: All bodies are born of the same kind; physical matter and forms are not created. 1069b35-1070a5 Four modes of creation: technology, nature, chance, spontaneity. -1070a9 There are three types of noumenon: (1) matter, (2) nature, and (3) the composite individual of the two. -1070a30 Chapter 4 Different things have different causes: 1070a31-1070b10 But in comparison, the principle or cause of all things is the same, or four (form, absence, matter, cause) or three (form and cause are one)— There are near and far causes of motivation, and the remote cause is the total cause of all things—there are internal and external causes, natural products come from external causes, and thought products do not come from external causes. -1070b35 Chapter 5 Realization and potential are common principles of all things, but the examples of application are different. ——The principles of all things can be compared but each is different (human beings are all the same in form, substance, and motive, but I and I are different; the people who inquire in the world are individual individuals, not "universal people"). ——Those who can be understood: (1) Each has four principles, (2) It is based on the book, (3) It all comes from the original total cause. 1070b36-1071b3 Chapter 6 Since there is eternal movement in the universe, there must be an eternal active and unchanging ontology, how it is realized, prior to all things. 1071b3-1071b23 If potentiality comes first, then the truth of the universe cannot be known—the origin of the eternal movement of the universe, the sages have already seen some clues, so there are "rationality" and "love and hatred". -1072a7 The cycle of fortune, sticking to common sense, proves that the first cause is the realization of existence, and it is the total cause of all causes. -1072a18 Chapter Seven quotes the eternal prime mover from the stars; the prime mover initiates movement with its "reason". 1072a19-1072b14 The prime mover is eternal, all good, independent of the world of senses, whose life is pure thought. -1073a3 Chapter 8 In addition to the first active body, there are also actuating bodies equal in number to the orbits of the stars—according to the calculations of Eudoxo and Galipu, the number is 55 or 47. 1073a24-1074a31 [Universe There is only one, and there is only one prime mover. ]-1074a38 Ancient philosophy and mythology had first recognized the divine nature of the eternal substance of nature. 1074b1-1074b14 Chapter 9 discusses rationality (mind).Due to the differences in the objects of thought, the human mind cannot always be pure and perfect. The mind of God takes the sacred things (that is, God himself) as the object of thought, so it is always pure without losing its ultimate goodness. 1074b15-1074b35 In understanding things, the object of thought and thought are not different but one. -1075a11 Chapter 10 "Goodness" is independent of all things in the universe and makes arrangements for all things. 10745a11-1075a25 Difficulties contained in various philosophical thoughts - Plato and Pythagorean school - Empedocles - Anaxagoras - general comments on each school. -1076a5 Volume 13 Mathematical Objects and Expressions Chapter 1 Two types of non-sensory ontology: Mathematical objects and Italian forms——The objections of various scholars on the theory of number and Italian forms. 1076a6-1076a37 Chapter 2 (1) Mathematical and physical objects cannot form an independent ontology within sensible things—the first argument (the indistinguishability of sensible reality). 1076a38-1076b39——The second argument (the overlapping development of abstract points, lines, planes and numbers is unrealistic). -1077a9—Third Argument (Astronomical reality should not exist otherwise as an abstraction). -1077a14——The fourth argument (it is uncommon to say that there are more intermediates besides intermediates). -1077a20—The Fifth Argument (The multiplicity of mathematical measures cannot be unified). -1077a25——Sixth Argument (solids can become real, but abstract lines, planes and points cannot). -1077a31—Seventh Argument (which precedes the definition, not necessarily the ontology)—Conclusion. -1077b17 Chapter 3 Each branch of mathematics separately studies mathematical objects with certain characteristics—mathematical objects cannot exist independently in terms of realization, but can be regarded as separate in thought. 1078a17-1078a31 Mathematics also involves aesthetics. -1078b6 Chapter 4 (2) The origin of Italian theory. 1078b7-1078b30 opposed the Italian-style Connaught argument (similar to Volume A Chapter IX). 1078b30-1079b11 Chapter 5 Arguments Against Italian Forms (continued from the previous chapter)——Plato stated that Italian forms make things become real, and their meaning is not true. 1079b12-1080a12 Chapter 6 (3) Try to use number as the ontology to verify its theoretical method: (A) all units in all numbers are incommunicable; The three types of number systems coexist but are not connected with each other. 1080a12-1080a37 Numbers as noumenon must exist independently or be embedded in things—to list the concepts of numbers held by Plato, Spankeppu, Pythagoras, some Platonic schools, and Zenocrates. -1080b23 The idea of ​​geometric objects is similar to the idea of ​​number. -1080b37 Chapter 7 criticizes Plato's concept of "number": (1) If all units can be connected, there can only be arithmetic numbers, and Italian numbers cannot be established. 1080b37-1081a17 (2) Arithmetic numbers and Italian numbers cannot be established if they are incommunicable. —Numbers cannot be created in the manner maintained by the Platonists; they must be made by successive additions of Ones. -1081b34 (3) Just as the units in the same number can be connected, but the units in each number cannot be connected with each other, the result is also absurd——Take 10, 4, 2, and 3 as examples——Summary, the units There should be no distinction of type. -1082b38 Chapter 8 How can the unit cause seven differences in quality and quantity? 1083a1-1083a17 Criticism of Spam Xuepu - Criticism of Zenocrates. -1083b8 The traditional concept of the Pythagorean school also has its confusion. -1083b19 Therefore, the number is not independent and real——if it is a number that exists independently, (1) ask how each unit is derived from the undetermined two, (2) ask whether this number is infinite or finite: (a) infinite is not real; ( (b) If finite, what is the limit?A limit of ten is ridiculous. -1084b2 Difficulties concerning the nature of units. -1085a3 Chapter 9 Difficulties in creating geometric objects with "big and small" varieties as material principles. 1085a3-1085a23 General Difficulties of Schematic Theory [Background]. -1085a31 creates geometric objects with the principle similar to "single and many", and the difficulty is the same. -1085b4 is also inappropriate to use the "single and many" system.Is everyone finite or infinite? How to create -1085b21 point? -1085b34 A summary of criticisms of number theory. -1086a27 Criticism on Italianism——Socrates' definition is generally inseparable from the individual, but Italianism makes it separate and independent. -1086b14 Chapter 10 The first principle of ontology is individuality or universality?Answer: Potential is inseparable from realization, and the universal is inseparable from the individual. 1086b14-1087a25 Volume Fourteen Continues to Criticize Schematic Theory and Number Theory Chapter 1 uses antithesis as the first principle; but antithesis cannot be the first principle. 1087a26-1087b5 The Platonist school uses "one and many" as the first principle of opposite varieties, which is quite confusing. -1087b33 "Yuanyi" or "unit" is a measurement and contains the underlying things, not a noumenon; similarly, "unequal" and "big and small", which enter the category of relations from quantification, also Not an ontology. -1088b14 Chapter Two Eternal ontology cannot be composed of elements. 1088b14-1088b35 The Platonist school uses "falseness" to discuss "it is", and uses "non-truth" to signify "many". -1089a32 But they have not been able to explain clearly the difficulty between the category of reality and the category of quantity. ——"Non-being" can become a material element only when it is considered as potential. -1090a2 Criticism of number theory: Why should numbers exist independently? -1090a16 Chapter Three continues to criticize the Pythagorean school's theory that numbers are independent realities. 1090a16-1090b2 points, lines and surfaces cannot be independent bodies. -1090b14.The theory of Spanxampo is really impenetrable—the theory of Chinocrates cannot explain the sensible universe. -１０９０ｂ３１柏拉图并未说明算术数的独立存在。 ——如数为永恒事物，便不应为之设立创造过程。 -１０９１ａ２２ 章四有些人认为善是自然进化之产物；另有人以善为第一原理；古诗人与麦琪多主于善；善确为第一原理。以善为"元一"与以善为列数均属荒谬。１０９１ａ２２-１０９２ａ５柏拉图学派理论体系的四个基本错误。-１０９２ａ８ 章五对于斯泮雪浦的反对意见。１０９２ａ９-１０９２ａ２１数怎能由其要素制成？-１０９２ｂ８数何得为事物之因？-１０９２ｂ２６章六检查数的附会而予以说明。１０９２ｂ２６-１０９３ｂ７事物之有数每可相比拟，但可比拟的事物间并无因果关系。-１０９３ｂ２１意式数甚至于不能表示事物间的比拟。所以柏拉图学派之哲理多谬。-１０９３ｂ３０ 译者附志 （一）形而上学（哲学）的编次 （１）"形而上学"（哲学）是"亚氏全集"中的重要著作。 在早期希腊诠疏中，这书名有两种解释。其一，叙明安得洛尼可（盛年约公元前４０）在编纂亚历遗稿时，把这若干草纸卷汇次在"物学"之后，他于书名有所迟疑，姑尔签为GαμEGαGαψKσιJα"次于物学之后若于卷".拉丁编者省去冠词就成为Ｍｅｔａｐｈｙｓｉｃａ，此字一直为西方各国译文所沿用。另一解释出于克来孟。亚历山大里诺，他把这一个书签题词肯定为一门学术专名。亚氏在本书内称物学为"第二哲学"（１０３７ａ４），克来孟就解释这里所讲"第一哲学"为"超物学".中国旧译据此作为"形而上学".亚氏在这书内反复提示彼所论述为"第一原理"（πρωGηαρJαι），为"智慧"（σHψια），为"哲学"（φιMHσHψια），为"神学"（θEHMHιJη）［亚氏所谓神学类似天文哲学（１０２６ａ２０），异于宗教上的神学］。安得洛尼可当初倘就标举"哲学"为题名，实际上是允当的。 （２）古希腊思想的发展渊源于"神话"（μKθHI），故常含混地称神话学家为哲学家（９８２ｂ１９），含混地称"神话"为"哲学"（１０００ａ９）。使哲学脱离诗与神话而具有明晰的内容，成为庄严的名词，正是苏格拉底——柏拉图——亚里士多德所从事于学术研究的方向。亚氏把学术分为（一）理论，（二） 实用，（三）生产三类。理论学术指（甲）物学、（乙）数学、（丙）哲学。实用之学指政治、经济、伦理等。生产之学指各种技艺如建筑、医院、体育、音乐、雕塑、图画以及缝衣制鞋等。他所谓"物学"包括一切有生与无生物，包括生理与心理、地质与气象，也就是"自然哲学".技术上的理论部分，如建筑用力学，他抽象为"运动"；音乐用声学，他抽象为"数"；图画用光学，他抽象为"线"（１０７８ａ１６）；这些就分别归之于物学、算术与几何。他把天文列在数理之内（有时也在物学著作中讨论），而称之为最接近于哲学的一门学术。希腊当时于这些学术都已相当发达。 （３）柏拉图在"理想国"中曾设想要有一门学术来贯通各门学术。亚氏既博习古今，兼综百家，对于这样一门学术重加思考，毕竟把"哲学"的轮廓规划了起来。我们现在看本书卷Ｂ中所提十三类哲学问题也许觉得无可矜尚，但想到当时人类抽象与综合能力方在萌芽，要从混噩的事例中，开始分析出条理，确属困难。亚氏的学术分类在西方实际上沿用到近代；他把哲学列于三种理论学术之先，称道这门学术为最高尚精确的智慧，为学术研究树立基本原理（卷Ａ第二章，卷Ｅ第一章）。他说哲学家尽知一切事理（１００４ａ３４），而各门学术各研究它自己所划定范围内的实是（１０２５ｂ７）。于是他标志了哲学研究的对象为"通则"与"本体".通则（αξKKμα）为一切学术所应共同遵循的"公理"，本体（HKσια） 为一切事物与其演变所不能须臾离的"实是"（GHHF）所寄托。 （４）希茜溪"亚氏书目"中列有"物学后编"十卷，这可能是现行十四卷本"哲学"中YrAAnCCVUB这十卷。其余四卷，（一）ａ卷象是后来插入的，其内容易于Ａ零之为哲学导言，而是一般理论学术的序引。（二）B卷在希茜溪"书目"中另作单篇，称为"词类集释".（三）Ｋ卷，上半是ＢΓＥ的缩本，或为这三卷先草拟的纲要，下半为"物学"卷二、卷三、卷五的简编。Ｋ卷文理不是亚氏式的，象是门弟子的剳记。（四）D卷与它卷不相关联；可以作为论"宇宙总因"，或"原动者"，或"邦感觉本体"的一个专篇。 十卷中，Ａ是完整的专篇。ＢAＥ可能是一组。ＺＨC为本体之学的正文。另一组，Ｍ卷似乎初意在改订Ｎ卷，写成后，因内容有异，遂一并存录。Ⅰ卷象导一单独的补编。其各卷内文句分析，写作的先后并不与卷次相符；Ａ、B、Ｋ上半，Ａ（除第八章外），Ｎ当先草成；全书各卷时间相隔盖二十年。Ａ卷与Ｍ卷批评柏拉图学派意式（理念）论颇多重复；Ａ卷行文亚氏犹自侪于柏拉图学派之间，Ｍ卷则已是亚氏晚年自外于柏拉图学派的语气了。希腊诠疏家如亚历山大（Ａｌｅｘａｎｄｅｒ）与阿斯克来比（Ａｓｃｌｅｐｉｕｓ）都认为"哲学"这本书是欧台谟（Ｅｕｄｅｍｕｓ）汇合他老师有关上述各主题的若干专著与讲稿所辑成。各卷间每互有关照的文句；这些可能是亚氏生前自行添补的，也许是后世编纂者加入的。 （二）本书注释 （５）汉文译者凭形而上学（哲学）的希英对照本及英译本（参看附录"参考书目"Ⅱ，３）与积累的诠疏，得以厘订章句与错简，校读异文与异释，求取全书的通解，考订了学术名词，翻出这本二千三百年前的著作。译文所附注释大别为四类：（甲）依据陈规，凡辞旨（子）与原书它章，（丑）与亚氏其它著作，（寅）与柏拉图各书，（卯）及诸先哲诗歌、戏剧或残篇有关者，为之记明出处。（乙）有关史迹、事例、以及名物度数，其旧传诠疏加以简释；间亦取用近人新解。 （丙）亚氏及诸先哲学术名词大抵由两方式铸成：（一）由日常用语分离出来，作为专用名词，如"实是""元一"等，或如"如何"等于"原因"，"如此"同于"素质"（有时同于"普遍"）；（二）用普通名词或动字加以变化或组合，造作新名词，例如"除去物质"成为"抽象"，"划定界限"成为"定义".译者希望在译文中力求辞义正确外，仍保留着学术用语初创时的浑朴，繁衍中的脉络；但这很难做到。因汉、希文字原始构造的差异与以后蕃殖方式的不同，同一希腊字，常得用不同的几个汉文字来翻译，以适应各章节的文理；关于这些，读者也可于各页脚注及"索引三"中窥见一斑。（丁） 二千三百年前的古文当然可于许多句读发生异解，而历经传抄，错字异文也是到处有的。这些，经过近百余年的校订功夫，都已有人勘定，我们只在脚注中偶尔举些例示。 translator １９５８年９月形而上学