Chapter 4 Chapter 04 (1) Buddhism in China

4.1 A Brief Introduction to the Origin Zen is a branch of Buddhism in China. If you want to understand Zen, you must first know a little about Buddhism in China.Middle-earth Buddhism comes from India. Although there have been developments and changes, the branches cannot be separated from the roots. Especially in the early days, it was the reproduction of Indian Buddhism. But this ancestor is too complicated, so I have to talk about a little bit of close relationship.It is said that shortly after Sakyamuni Buddha passed away (the history of Buddhism is almost all unconfirmed legends), just like the disciples of Confucianism sorted out Confucius' words and deeds, the Buddhist disciples also gathered to sort out and write down the teachings of the Buddha.Such gatherings are called Gatherings, and it is said that there are mainly three times: the first time in Rajagha City after the Buddha’s burial, attended by 500 disciples (this is the source of the 500 Arhats); Seven hundred eminent monks participated in the city of Vaishali; the third time, when King Ashoka (reigned around 250 BC) was in the city of Bodalizi, a thousand monks participated.Some classics are written in each collection; as for what kind of classics are handed down, they are not the same, so I will omit them here.

The reason for the gathering is that I am afraid that I may misremember what the Buddha said; or there are differences between what I remember and what I understand.But differences are unavoidable in the end, because when it is passed on again and again, it is inevitable that there will be errors; moreover, people’s hearts are different, just like their faces, and the same sentence, A can get the real meaning from it, and B can understand the mystery from it, not to mention the Buddhist teachings. , Most of them are abstract concepts with uncertain meanings, especially easy to see benevolence and wisdom.It is said that there were already sects when they were assembled, and India was called a ministry.At first, it was divided into two parts, the upper seat and the public.The upper seat refers to the monks of the time-honored brand, which is equivalent to the nobles; the public refers to the monks of the young school, which is equivalent to the common people.The time-honored brand is conservative, strictly abides by tradition, and dare not go one step beyond the threshold; the young and strong faction dares to think and speak, and there was a big day during the Ashoka period, and they said five things (one was tempted, two was ignorant, three was prejudged, and four other orders entered , the sound of the Five Causes) goes farther and farther in teaching.This trend was unstoppable, so the two divisions of the upper class and the public were further divided into eighteen divisions: the upper division was divided into ten divisions, such as Duzi and Jingliang;

In terms of doctrine, the most important difference between the Theravada and the Mass is that the Theravada says there is, and the masses say emptiness;Both existence and emptiness have meanings that are far from common sense: existence refers to the self-substance of all dharmas and the eternal existence of three times; emptiness refers to the birth and death of all dharmas and thoughts, so the past and future have no entity, and only the present instant body and function are existence.The Theravada's theories are basically primitive Buddhist.The Ministry of Public Affairs is more open-minded, and pursues deeply, and has a great tolerance (emphasizing universality), so it has been praised by more people, and later developed into Mahayana Buddhism.When Buddhism was introduced into China, Theravada did not prosper. After the Six Dynasties, the territory was completely occupied by Mahayana, which is closely related to the indecent source of India.

4.2 Early Buddhism The history of Buddhism in China is complex and intricate. For the sake of simplicity, I would like to divide it into three periods: the early period, from the Eastern Han Dynasty to the Western Jin Dynasty; the middle period, from the Northern and Southern Dynasties to the Tang Dynasty;The meaning of zhong is equivalent to Sheng, which is the key point. 4.2.1 Chinese There are different opinions about when Buddhism was first introduced into China.Some, probably intended to exaggerate, to compete with Taoism, said to be before Emperor Ming of the Eastern Han Dynasty (reigned 58-75 AD, reign name Yongping).Quoting scriptures and classics, the closest one is pushed to Emperor Wu of the Han Dynasty, the farther one is pushed to Qin Shihuang, and the farther one is pushed to.It's a pity that there is insufficient evidence and it is difficult to win credibility.

Most people believe that the legend of Yongping, Emperor Ming of the Han Dynasty seeking the Dharma, is believed to be credible, which can be found in Chapter 20 of Mouzi's "Theory of Confusion" at the end of the Eastern Han Dynasty: In the past, Emperor Xiaoming dreamed of a god-man, with sunlight in his body, flying in front of the palace, and was delighted with it.Tomorrow, I will ask all the ministers, why is this god.Fu Yi, an expert, said: "I heard that there is a Taoist in Tianzhu (that is, India), and he is called a Buddha. He flies through the sky and has sunlight in his body. Is he a god?" Twelve people, including Qin Jing and Wang Zun, a doctor's disciple, wrote forty-two chapters of the Buddhist scriptures in Dayuezhi and hid them in the fourteenth room of the Lanhe Stone Room.At that time, a Buddhist temple (called White Horse Temple in other books) was built outside the Xiyong Gate in Luoyang City. In its murals, thousands of rides and ten thousand riders circled the pagoda three times.

At that time, the country was prosperous and the people were peaceful, and the barbarians admired righteousness, and scholars grew up from this. In addition, there are many books that talk about the same content.The records are detailed and clear, but there are also loopholes, so in recent years some people have suspected them to be untrue.However, whether this record is credible or not is one thing, and when Buddhism was introduced is another.Mr. Tang Yongtong's "History of Buddhism in the Han, Wei, Jin, Southern and Northern Dynasties" cites Yicun, the envoy of the Dayue clan in the Western Han Dynasty, who taught the Buddha (Buddha) scriptures. , male layman) set up a feast, Fu Yi knew that Tianzhu had the teachings of the Buddha as a reason, proving that Buddhism must have been introduced before Emperor Ming.It is common sense to speculate that the exchanges between the Han Dynasty and the Western Regions were quite frequent. The countries in the Western Regions believed in Buddhism, and the possibility of it being introduced must be much greater than the possibility of not being introduced.

During the period when Buddhism was first introduced, the most important activity was the translation of scriptures.The translators are all foreigners. For example, An Shigao is from Anxi (a new Buddhist master whose name usually indicates his nationality), Zhilou Jiachen is from Dayuezhi (also written Dayuezhi), Zhu Fulang is from Tianzhu, and Kang Mengxiang is from Kangju. .Among them, the most famous is An Shigao, who has translated about 30 volumes including the "Anpan Shouyi Sutra" (the first to introduce Zen teaching).The second is Zhilou Jiachen, who translated more than a dozen volumes including "Prajna Tao Xingjing".

The dissemination of teachings is still relatively superficial, most of which are immortality of the soul, retribution in hell, blessings from sacrifices and so on.Therefore, in the eyes of people at that time, Buddhism was just a kind of method, and monks were also alchemists and Taoists, so they could be called Taoists.However, the color of the Buddhists may also be quite obvious. For example, in the "Book of the Later Han Dynasty: The Biography of Xiangkai", it is recorded that Xiangkai wrote in the ninth year of Emperor Huan's Yanxi (166 AD): I also heard that the temple of the Huang-Lao Buddha was established in the palace.This way is pure and empty, expensive and inactive, likes to live and hates to kill, saves desires and eliminates extravagance.Now Your Majesty is not going to get rid of his desires, and killing and punishing him is unreasonable. If he is obedient, how can he be honored!Or it is said that Laozi entered the barbarians and became a pagoda.The Buddha does not spend three nights under the mulberry trees, does not want to be long, and is born with love, and is extremely refined.The god of heaven left a good girl, Futu said, this is only a leather pouch to hold blood, so he didn't let her go.If you keep it like this, you can become enlightened.

Dealing with lust (absolute) like this is far beyond the reach of Taoism (just few desires).There is a Buddha Temple in the palace. It is presumed that it is only for worshiping the Buddha and not for the monks.There are already temples outside the palace, such as the White Horse Temple which is said to have been built in the reign of Emperor Ming.There are not many monasteries, and they are all for foreign monks to live in.There are two reasons why people in the Middle Earth do not live here: First, according to "Biography of the Eminent Monks·Buddhism of Buddha": "I felt a dream in the Han and Ming Dynasties, and first passed on the Tao, but only heard that the people in the Western Regions had to build temples and cities to worship their gods. Han people are not allowed to become monastics.” Second, there was no regulation on transmission of precepts at that time, so there could not be officially ordained monks and nuns.

4.2.2 Three Kingdoms and Two Jins These two periods together, nearly a hundred years (AD 220-316).The important activity of Buddhism is the translation of scriptures.The important translators are: Kang Sengkai translated four volumes including the "Infinite Life Sutra" in Luoyang, the capital of the Wei Dynasty; Bo Yan translated seven volumes including the "Shoushurangama Sutra" in the same place; More than 80 volumes including the Vimalakirti Sutra; Kang Senghui translated several volumes including the "Liudu Jijing" in the same place; Zhu Fahu translated 1670 volumes including the "Puyao Sutra" in the early years of the Jin Dynasty ; Zhu Shulan translated several volumes such as the "Lighting Prajna Sutra" in Chenliu and other places; Bo Fazu translated more than a dozen volumes including "Bodhisattva Practice Sutra" in Chang'an and other places; Sutra and other five volumes.In the translated scriptures, the teachings are biased towards the Prajna of the Mahayana, which set a precedent for Dao'an's Prajna.

A major event in the translation of the scriptures is that in the later years of the Wei Dynasty of the Three Kingdoms, the Indian monk Tan Kejialuo came to Luoyang and translated "Monk Jie Xin", and shortly thereafter the resting monk Tan Di came to Luoyang and translated "Tan Wude Karma". And according to the provisions of the precepts, the ceremony of passing the precepts was held, which opened up a broad road for the expansion of Buddhist influence. Some people say that the middle-earth monks began with Yan Fodiao (a disciple of An Shigao) at the end of the Eastern Han Dynasty.But there are also people who say that Yan is just a layman and has not become a monk.If the latter is true, then the earliest celebrity who became a monk should be Zhu Shixing of the Wei Dynasty of the Three Kingdoms.Zhu was not only the first to become a monk, but also the first to travel west to seek the Dharma.He studied Prajna, and the classics in China were limited, and the meanings were too difficult to understand, so he went to the Western Regions at the end of Wei Dynasty (260 A.D.).When he arrived in Khotan, he obtained hundreds of thousands of words of "Da Pin Prajna", and ordered his disciples to send him back to Luoyang in the early years of the Western Jin Dynasty, but he did not return. With the provisions of precepts, the number of monks gradually increased. It is said that there were three to four thousand monks and nuns in the Western Jin Dynasty; there were nearly 200 monks and temples in Luoyang and Chang'an alone. 4.3 Middle Buddhism This period includes the Southern Period (Eastern Jin and Song, Qi, Liang, and Chen), the Northern Dynasties (Five Hu and Sixteen Kingdoms, Northern Wei, Eastern Wei, Western Wei, Northern Qi, and Northern Zhou), Sui, and Tang.There are many dynasties, various regions, and Buddhism is the most prosperous, and it is even more complicated.The so-called prosperity means that inside, the teachings are deeply drilled and divided into details (each sect and school); outside, it is lively, from monasteries, monks, statues, popular lectures, etc., it is really diverse; From chanting "Amitabha Buddha" to scholar-bureaucrats' talking about emptiness and silence, they are all-pervasive.The content is too much and too complicated, so I have to choose the big and small, and only talk about a little bit prominent. 4.3.1 Northern and Southern Dynasties (1) This period included the Eastern Jin Dynasty in the Southern Dynasties and the Erzhao, Sanqin, Siyan, Wuliang, Xia, Cheng (or Chenghan) successively established by the five ethnic groups (known as Wuhu in history) of the Huns, Jie, Xianbei, Di, and Qiang in the Northern Dynasties. Sixteen countries, the time is a little more than a hundred years (AD 317-420). The grand occasion of the translation of the scriptures far exceeds that of the previous generation. Not only are there more translators and translations, but also many masters who have important positions in the history of Buddhism have emerged.This includes Sangha Deva, Sangha Bacheng, Sinhala Cha, Buddha Yashe, Buddha Batara, Tanmananti, Zhu Fonian, Pasilimitara (high sitting Taoist), Vrodara, Dove Moros and others. Among them, Kumarajiva is the most famous and contributed the most, and he lived with Xuanzang in the early Tang Dynasty as the first master of scripture translation.The classics translated during this period also cover a wide range of aspects, including "Ahan" (The Hinayana Sutra), "Apitan" (The Theory of All Things), "Vindang", "Esoteric Buddhist Classics", "Mahayana Sutras" and so on.Among them, the most influential ones are the Mahayana sutras, such as "Dapin Prajna", "Diamond Sutra", "Vimalakirti's Sutra", "Shoushurangama Samadhi Sutra", "Great Wisdom Theory", "Middle Theory", "Hundred Treatises", "Twelve Sutras". "Gate Theory" and so on, all came from the hands of Kumarajiva.The research and dissemination of teachings far surpassed the previous generations.Important masters include Fotucheng, Dao'an, Kumarajiva, Huiyuan, Zhu Senglang, Zhuqian, Daosheng, Daorong, Seng Zhao, Faxian, Huiguan, Huiyan, Zhidun, etc.The content of the seminar is too much and too specialized to be introduced.Let me just say that what most people are interested in is the theory of prajna and emptiness.However, they both talk about emptiness but have different views. During the Dao'an period, there were six schools of thought.The so-called six schools refer to one "original non-existence" (everything is born from nothing), two "immediate forms" (forms and dharmas are born due to the combination of conditions and conditions, and have no self-nature), and three "consciousness contains" (everything is changed by the mind). , four "fantasy" (all dharmas in the world are illusions), five "heart-nothing" (the mind does not care about external things, so it is said to be empty), and six "fate meeting" (all dharmas come together due to karma, without substance).Among them, Dao'an's theory of nothing is the most powerful.Later, Kumarajiva developed it further and created the theory of emptiness after all (all active and inactive dharmas are empty), and his disciple Seng Zhao wrote "Not Vacuum (Not True or Empty)" "On" (see "Zhao Lun"), if not more profound, it is always more and more detailed.In fact, the purpose is still simple, it is to prove that there is no love in this world, because it is not true. Not loving this world is a negative aspect, and the negative always serves the positive, that is to say, giving up is for taking.What is taken is, of course, rebirth, or Nirvana.During this period, there was a new trend in Buddhism in terms of attainment, starting from Dao'an (in the north) and carried forward by Huiyuan (in the south). The practice method of pure land.Compared with the Xuanyuan theory of prajna and emptiness, the road to rebirth in the pure land seems to be easy to walk and rewarding, so it played a powerful role in promoting Buddhism to become more popular in the hearts of the people. With the increase of the power of Buddhism, the trend of going west to seek the Dharma also flourished.There were Faxian, Zhiyan, Baoyun, Zhimeng and many others successively.Among them, Faxian made the greatest achievement. He set out from Chang’an in the third year of Emperor Long’an of the Eastern Jin Dynasty (AD 399) and went to more than 30 countries including Tianzhu and Shizi Kingdom (Sri Lanka). He obtained many classics and returned to Jianye more than ten years later. Together with Buddha Bhatra, he translated classics such as the Great Nihuan Sutra. The number of monks and believers at home has increased rapidly.In the north, there are over ten thousand monks and nuns in Chang'an alone.In other places, especially Jianye, the Buddhist center in the south, the number is certainly not small.Temples will naturally increase accordingly.Inherent in belief are various forms of Buddha statues, including statues, portraits (including paintings of Buddhist stories, famous artists include Gu Kaizhi, Cao Buxing, etc.) and statues.Statues also developed into large-scale forms, which are cave statues.It is said that the Dunhuang Thousand Buddha Caves were built during the Fu Qin period. The integration of Taoism and Buddhism has become more and more obvious since this period.Taoism respects Lao Zhuang's inaction, the theory emphasizes inaction, and the deeds emphasize emptiness and indifference, advocating clear talk. Zhi Dun, etc.), many literati and celebrities believe in Buddhism and understand Buddhism (such as Sun Chuo, Zong Bing, etc.), so many famous monks and celebrities have made friends, and their conversations are also straightforward, which is the Zen flavor mentioned later. 4.3.2 Northern and Southern Dynasties (2) During this period, the Southern Dynasties included Song, Qi, Liang, and Chen, about 170 years (420-588 A.D.); —581). Let me talk about the Southern Dynasty first. The work of translating scriptures continues.Famous translators include Buddha Shi, Qiu Naba Mo, Qiu Na Ba Da Luo, Qiu Na Vidi, Dharma Moti, Mandala, Truth, Bao Zhi, etc. Among them, the greatest contribution is the true meaning. About 50 classics, including "Supreme Religion Sutra", "Seventeen Earth Theory" and "Photo Mahayana Theory", were translated between Liang and Chen. The study and interpretation of Buddhism has become more in-depth, and it has changed from talking about a certain subject in general to focusing on one or two scriptures.There are those who specialize in the research and promotion of Abhidhamma, known as the masters of Abhidhamma, such as Faye, Sengyuan, Huiji, Zhizang, etc.Those who specialize in the study and promotion of "Chengshi Lun" are called Chengshi masters, such as Seng Dao, Dao Meng, Hui Ci, Fa Yun, Fa Yan, etc.Those who specialize in the study and promotion of the Three Theories ("Zhonglun", "Hundred Theories", and "Twelve Gate Theories") are called Sanlun masters, such as Senglang, Sengquan, Falang, Zhibian, Huiyong, etc.Those who specialize in the research and promotion of "She Mahayana" are called She Lun masters, such as Zhikai, Fatai, Cao Pi, Seng Rong, and Fa Kan.Those who specialize in researching and promoting the ten-song law are called ten-song lawyers, such as Sengye, Tan Bin, Huixun, Huiyou, Zhishen, Fachao, Zhiwen, etc.Those who specialize in studying and promoting Nirvana are called Nirvana masters, such as Daosheng, Baolin, Huiguan, Huijing, Sengzong, Huijiao, etc.Some of this kind of research deepened and expanded, and as the number of disciples and writings increased, they developed into different sects. During this period, there was a great controversy in Buddhism, that is, whether the gods should die or not.Buddhism advocates that gods (with various interpretations and names, such as mind, self-nature, etc.) are immortal, because if they are extinct, life and death will be nothing to do, and the cycle of the six realms will become nonsense.However, it is difficult to provide evidence for immortality, so some people refuted the theory of immortality based on common sense. The important papers include He Chengtian's "Theory of Daxing" and Fan Zhen's "Theory of God's Extinction". There are more and more classics, so someone organizes them into a catalog.All three times were in the Liang Dynasty: one was the "Catalogue of Hualin Dian Sutras" compiled by Seng Shao, the second was the "Catalogue of All Sutras" compiled by Baochang, and the third was the "Collection of Chu San Zang Ji" compiled by Seng You.Only the last one survives now. During this period, the power of Buddhism expanded even more, and it can be said that it reached its peak.The most obvious manifestation is that it has penetrated into all walks of life and all aspects of life.Almost all the emperors of the four dynasties believed in Buddhism.The most prominent one is Xiao Yan, Emperor Wu of Liang. He not only built many temples, but also went to Tongtai Temple four times to sacrifice himself as a slave.As a result, Hou Jing rebelled.However, the later emperors did not take it as a lesson for the past. For example, Emperor Wu and Emperor Wen of Chen both sacrificed their lives to the temple.If there is something good at the top, there must be something good at the bottom, so bureaucrats, celebrities, etc. are also proud of serving the Buddha and communicating with famous monks.People with low culture are more likely to believe in blessings, and of course there are more Buddhists.It is said that in the Song, Qi, and Chen dynasties, there were more than 30,000 monks and nuns, and one or two thousand monasteries; in the Liang Dynasty, there were more than 80,000 monks and nuns, and there were as many as 3,000 monasteries.There are many monks and temples, so various Dharma meetings (Zhaihui, Shuiluhui, Yulan Basin, etc.) also came into being. Yi) Uncovered (Equal Treatment) Assembly.Statues are also very popular. For the sake of merit, some are carved with wood, some are cast with copper, and some are cast with gold and silver; Taoism and Buddhism were integrated, and celebrities and monks interacted more frequently.In addition to Xuan Tan, poetry can also be used. For example, Xie Lingyun, Yan Yanzhi, Zhikai, and Zhizang are all famous players in this field. Let's talk about the Northern Dynasty. The work of translating scriptures continues.Mainly the Northern Wei Dynasty (it was in Pingcheng in the early stage, and moved from Luoyang to Yedu with the Eastern Wei Dynasty in the late stage).Masters of scripture translation include Tan Yao, Ji Jia Ye, Tan Mo Liu Zhi, Bodhi Liu Zhi, Lenamati, Buddha Shan Duo and so on.Among them, Bodhiliuzhi is especially famous. He devoted half his life to translating 30 volumes, including the "Lotus Sutra", "Ten Ground Sutra", "Langa Sutra", and "Deep Secret Liberation Sutra".During the Northern Qi and Northern Zhou Dynasties, the masters of scripture translation included Nalian Tili Yashe, Damojana, Jana Yashe, Yashejuduo, etc. The study and interpretation of Buddhism is also like the Southern Dynasties, divided into different departments according to specialization. Those who specialize in the study and promotion of Abhitan are called Bitan masters, such as Zhiyou, Huisong, Zhinian, Daoyou, Daoyue, etc.Those who specialize in the study and promotion of "Chengshi Lun" are called Chengshi masters, such as Seng Song, Seng Yuan, Tandu, Daodeng, Daoji, etc.Those who specialize in the research and promotion of "She Mahayana Lun" are called She Lun masters, such as Jing Song and Tan Qian.Those who specialize in the study and promotion of Nirvana are called Nirvana masters, such as Tanzhun, Tanwuzui, Baoyan, Tanyan, etc.Those who specialize in the study and promotion of the "Ten Places Sutras" are called Earth Therapists, such as Dao Chong, Seng Xiu, Hui Guang, Fa Shang, Seng Fan, etc.Those who specialize in the research and promotion of the Four Theories (the Three Theories plus "The Theory of Great Wisdom") are called Four Theory Masters, such as Daochang, Tanluan, Jing'ai, Daopan, Huiying, etc.There are those who specialize in the research and promotion of the "Four Fen Law", such as Fa Cong, Hui Guang, Dao Yun, Dao Hui, Hong Dao and so on.Those who specialize in the study and promotion of the method of reciting Buddha in the Pure Land are called Pure Land Masters, such as Tanluan, Huihai, Lingyu, etc.Those who specialize in the study and promotion of Lenga's Zen method are called Lenga masters, such as Bodhidharma (the first ancestor of Zen in the East), Daoyu, Huike, Huiman, Sengfu, etc. Like the Southern Dynasties, the power of Buddhism reached its peak in the Northern Dynasties.Most of the emperors of several dynasties believed in Buddhism and respected famous monks.Ordinary civilians are of course less exceptions.The Dharma is prosperous and there are many believers, which can be manifested in many ways.First, there were many monks and nuns. Before the Northern Wei Dynasty moved the capital from Pingcheng to Luoyang, there were more than 80,000 monks and nuns in urban and rural areas; by the end of the Wei Dynasty, it had increased to more than 2 million.The second is that there are many monks and temples. In the Pingcheng period of the Northern Wei Dynasty, there were more than 6,000 temples; More than ten thousand.At that time, the custom of building pagodas also flourished, and many monks and temples also had pagodas.The third is that there are many statues, the most famous ones are the Wuzhou Mountain Grottoes (now Datong Yungang Grottoes) in the Pingcheng Period of the Northern Wei Dynasty, the Longmen Grottoes in the Luoyang Period, and the grottoes in Maiji Mountain, Tianlong Mountain, Xiangtang Mountain and other places.The fourth is carved stone scriptures, the famous ones are Xiangtang Mountain Stone Scripture, Taishan Stone Scripture and Shiyu Stone Scripture.Fifth, because of the large number of believers, there is also an organization that believes in Buddhism among the people, named Yiyi, the leaders are named Yizhu, Yichang, etc., and the members are named Yizi, Yiren, etc. During this period, there was also the matter of traveling westward to seek the Dharma.The famous ones are Song Yun and Huisheng, who traveled to many countries in the Western Regions, obtained a lot of scriptures, and wrote a record of their journey to the west (Volume 5 of "Luoyang Jialan Ji" specifically records this matter). During this period, a major event in Buddhism was the emergence of two emperors who "destroyed the law" with both temple names "Wu".One is Emperor Taiwu (reigned 424-452 A.D.) before the capital was moved to Luoyang in the Northern Wei Dynasty.He believed in the words of Kou Qianzhi and Situ Cui Jie, saying that Buddhism is "Xi Rong's imaginary birth, and its deceitful birth." First, monks under the age of 50 were forced to return to the vulgar and serve in the military; , property and women, etc., so he ordered to kill all monks, destroy temples, scriptures, etc.Fortunately, at that time, the crown prince was in charge of the country and deliberately slowed down the announcement of the imperial edict. Many monks fled after hearing the news, and many people kept secret scriptures and images, so Buddhism was not completely extinct.The other is Emperor Wu of the Northern Zhou Dynasty (reigned 560-578 AD).He emphasized Confucianism and despised Taoism and Buddhism. He had repeatedly initiated debates about the superiority of Taoism and Buddhism. He also listened to the opinions of monk Wei Yuansong and Taoist Zhang Bin. The Second Religion ordered monks and Taoists to return to vulgarity, and their property was confiscated and distributed to ministers.After the Northern Qi Dynasty was conquered, the same method was used to force monks to return to secular life, burn scriptures and statues, and confiscate their property and return it to officials.It is said that there are more than 2 million Taoists and Buddhas in the Zhou state and three million monks and monks in the Qi state. 4.3.3 Sui The Sui Dynasty only lasted thirty-seven or eight years, but the situation of long-term division became unified, and the situation of Buddhism became a mixture of north and south, inheriting the past and opening up the future. The translation of the scriptures has not stopped.The important translators include Narenti Yashe, Pinidolyuzhi, Janaburita, Bodhidharma Gupta and so on.Among them, Jana Judo achieved the greatest achievement. He translated scriptures in Daxingshan Temple in Chang'an for 20 years, and translated more than 30 volumes, including "Buddha Benxing Collection" and "Dafang et al. Daji Hujing". In terms of Buddhism, there have been some masters with profound attainments and great influence.For example, Huiyuan (not Lushan Huiyuan in the Eastern Jin Dynasty) was familiar with various sects and sects, and wrote "Mahayana Yizhang", which generally explained the names and appearances of Mahayana and Mahayana, and opened the way for the later Huayan sect.Based on the Lotus Sutra, Zhiqi created the theory of three thousand in one thought, and became the founder of Tiantai School.Jizang inherited the ideological system of Kumarajiva and Seng Zhao, studied the Three Theories, and became the founder of the Three Theories.In addition, following the tradition of Shelun masters in the Northern Dynasties, there are also many people who have studied "She Mahayana", among which Tanqian is the most famous. During this period, a major event in Buddhism was the emergence of the three-level religion founded by monk Xinxing.There are teachings in the third-order religion, saying that it has come to the end of the Dharma period, and we should adapt to this period and adopt practices close to ascetic practices, such as eating food from begging only once a day, worshiping people when we see them (all living beings are true Buddhas), and dying Afterwards, the corpses are eaten by birds and beasts (giving), and so on.The so-called three stages are divided into three stages: time, place, and people. According to time, five hundred years after the Buddha's extinction (there are different opinions) is the first stage, and the second five hundred years is the second stage. The next thousand years will be the third stage, which will be the Dharma-ending period.This religion was quite powerful from the Sui Dynasty to the early Tang Dynasty.However, because many people (including some emperors) regarded it as heresy, it gradually became extinct in the late Tang Dynasty. There are more classics accumulated, so there is a need to continue compiling the catalog.Important ones include "Catalogue of All Classics" compiled by Fajing, etc., "Three Treasures of Past Dynasties" compiled by Fei Changfang, and "Catalogue of All Classics" compiled by Yan Cong and others. Buddhism is still very strong.The reason is the same as in the past. It is advocated by the superiors and accepted by the common people.Emperor Wen of the Sui Dynasty was enthusiastic about protecting the Dharma, built temples, built pagodas, taught monks and nuns, built Buddha statues, and advocated public and private writing of scriptures (opening up the atmosphere of writing scriptures in the Tang Dynasty); .Grotto statues and inscribed stone scriptures continued, and the famous Fangshan Stone Scriptures began to be carved during this period. During this period, Buddhism also spread from the Middle East to Korea, Baekje, Silla and Japan. Many monks from these countries came to Chang'an to study Buddhism.During the reign of Emperor Wen, Goryeo, Baekje, and Silla shared the relics and brought them back to the country to build a pagoda to make offerings to. 4.3.4 Don From the founding of the Tang Dynasty to its demise (AD 618-907), it took nearly three hundred years. At least in the early and middle periods, Buddhism was still at its peak.Not only prosperous, but also can come up with several firsts.Xuanzang came out in the early years, whether it is translating scriptures, traveling west to seek the Dharma, or knowing the teachings, he should be the first monk among the monks.In terms of Buddhist studies, various sects and sects compete for excellence, and it can be said that a hundred flowers are blooming.Among them, Zen Buddhism, in particular, blossoms and bears fruit during this period.The way of propagating the Dharma has also developed greatly. Because of the need for popularization, popular teachings have arisen, and thus Bianwen has emerged.The number of believers is larger, the degree of faith is deeper, and there are various tricks to make merit, such as writing scriptures, which were discovered in Dunhuang Thousand Buddha Caves in recent years, and most of them were written during this period.The relationship between famous monks and famous scholars became closer, so many poems with Buddhist atmosphere came out of monks and laymen. The translation of the scriptures is already at the end of the climax, but the achievements are great.There are many great masters of scripture translation, such as Xuanzang, Zhitong, Buddha Boli, Bodhi Ruzhi, Shiyi Nanda, Yijing, Zhiyan, Shan Wuwei, Vajra Wisdom, Bukong, and Sheradharma.Among them, Xuanzang made the greatest contribution. With nearly 20 years of energy, he translated a total of 75 scriptures and 1335 volumes, of which the "Maha Prajna Paramita Sutra" has 600 volumes. many.The quality of the translation far surpassed that of the previous generation, because there was already a strict translation field system and precise translation regulations at that time, and, such as Xuanzang, Yijing, Bukong, etc., were proficient in both Sanskrit and Chinese, and no longer There is a language barrier. The study of teachings, inheriting the lingering threads of the past, goes deeper, so that the system is more rigorous and the features are more distinct, and different sects are formed.There is Tiantai School, the important masters are Zhiwei, Xuanlang, Zhanran and so on.There are three schools of thought, the important masters are Jizang, Huiyuan, Zhiba, Huijun and so on.There is Ci'enzong (that is, Faxiangzong), and the important masters are Xuanzang, Kuiji, Huizhao, Zhizhou and so on.There is Luzong (the main school is Nanshanzong), and the important masters are Daoxuan, Daci, Rongji, Wengang and so on.There is Xianshouzong (also known as Huayanzong), and the important masters are Du Shun, Zhiyan, Fazang (word Xianshou), Chengguan, Zongmi and so on.There is Tantra, the important masters are goodness and fearlessness, Vajra wisdom, one line, not empty and so on.There is the Pure Land School, the important masters are Dao Chuo, Shan Dao, Huai Gan, Hui Ri and so on.There is Zen (more on that in the next chapter). There are also important works in this period, such as "Catalogue of All Scriptures" compiled by Xuan Wan, "Datang Neidian Lu" compiled by Dao Xuan, "Continued Datang Neidian Lu" and "Kaiyuan Shijiao Lu" compiled by Zhisheng.Among them, "Kaiyuan Shijiaolu" is very carefully reviewed in content and style, and it is still an important reference book for studying Buddhist classics. Various sects promote teachings, most of which focus on distinguishing names and appearances, which are inevitably profound and cumbersome, and are difficult for ordinary people to accept.In order to popularize, a popular propaganda method called vulgar talk emerged during this period, which is to explain the teachings in the form of telling and singing stories.This kind of talk and singing book is called Bianwen, which became the ancestor of popular novels in the future (we will talk about it at the end of this chapter). Most of the emperors of the Tang Dynasty defended Buddhism.Scholar-officials and ordinary people, accepting traditional living habits, have regarded Buddhism as an integral part of local culture, and are not only used to believing, but also used to practice.What is manifested outside, or what can still be seen or inferred now, are the remains of various religious activities.The first is poetry, followed by a large number of temples, pagodas, scripture buildings, statues (including grotto statues), carved stone scriptures, and written scriptures (stereotyped classics began to appear after the middle period), etc. There were also many people who went westward to seek the Dharma. According to Yijing's "Biography of the Great Tang Monks Seeking the Dharma", there were sixty people in the early years of the Tang Dynasty alone.The most famous one is of course Xuanzang, who set off in the third year of Emperor Taizong's Zhenguan, passed through the Western Regions to India, and went back and forth for 17 years. He retrieved 150 Buddhist relics, 657 scriptures, and seven golden sandalwood Buddha statues.In addition, Yijing, Huichao, Xuanzhao, Daolin, etc. are also well-known among the Westerners seeking Dharma. Anti-Buddhist incidents also occurred during this period.There are two important things.One is the so-called Huichang Fa Difficulty.Wu Zong was a Taoist and had a bad feeling for Buddhism. From the second year of Huichang (842 AD), he used various methods to suppress monks and nuns, until he ordered the demolition of temples and ordered monks and nuns to return to lay life.According to records, more than 4,600 large temples were demolished, more than 40,000 small temples were demolished, more than 200,000 monks and nuns returned to lay life, and even the copper and iron Buddha statues were melted down.The other time was Han Yu's Pai Buddha. He wrote "Original Dao" and "On the Buddha's Bone Table" and other articles, advocating that "people should be their own people (forcing monks to return to the vulgar as ordinary people), fire their books (burn Buddhist classics), and house their own." Habitat (changing temples into private houses)".However, this Han Wengong is an unarmed literati after all. Although he tried his best to hoarse, his influence was difficult to reach the bottom of the custom. Between China and Eastern Korea, Japan and other countries, monks and monks came and went more frequently (mainly came to study in the Tang Dynasty).So Buddhism spread to the East, and also carried forward, and established various sects. 4.4 Late Buddhism This period is long, from the end of Tang Dynasty to the end of Qing Dynasty, about a thousand years.Dynasties include many.Among them, there is unity, namely Yuan, Ming, and Qing; there are divisions, such as Northern Song and Liao, Southern Song and Jin, and split, such as Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms.The situation of Buddhism generally maintains the old tradition. Although a certain time, a certain place, a certain sect, and a certain movement are slightly prosperous, in general, just like the red sun is westward, the light and heat are relatively weak. 4.4.1 Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms The Five Dynasties are Hou Liang, Later Tang, Later Jin, Later Han, and Later Zhou in the north; the Ten Kingdoms are the former Shu, Wu, Wuyue, Min, Southern Han, Jingnan, Chu, Later Shu, Southern Tang in the south and Northern Han in the north.The time is counted from the founding of the Later Liang Dynasty (AD 907) to the end of the Later Zhou Dynasty (AD 960) (the Southern Tang, Northern Han, etc. among the Ten Kingdoms were destroyed more than ten years after the founding of the Northern Song Dynasty), but more than 50 years. The political situation is complicated, so the rise and fall of Buddhism is also complicated.Generally speaking, the rulers in the north did not believe in Buddhism as deeply as in the south.For example, for monks to become monks, there are more restrictions in the north, and a so-called test method of examination is promoted.In southern countries such as Wuyue, Fujian, and Southern Tang, the monarchs were all enthusiastic about Buddhism, so activities such as building temples, pagodas, statues, and scriptures were all large-scale. Doctrine also tends to decline.Only Tiantai Sect and Luzong still maintain considerable power: the masters of Tiantai Sect include Yiji, Yitong, Zhili, etc.; the masters of Luzong include Zhenjun, Chengchu, Yuanbiao, Shouyan, Zanning, etc.The situation of Zen is special, because after the mid-Tang Dynasty, it gradually became dominant, so it was still flourishing during this period (see the next chapter for details). The number of monks composing poems was even more numerous in this period, and it became a fashion, such as Qi Ji's "White Lotus Collection" and Guanxiu's "Zen Moon Collection", which are also very famous in the history of literature.During this period, there was also an emperor who exterminated the law, Shizong of the Later Zhou Dynasty (reigned from 954 to 959 AD).Since the second year of Xiande (AD 955), he has turned against Buddhism and abolished more than 3,000 monasteries that had not been granted monasteries by the state; he strictly restricted the qualifications for becoming a monk and did not allow private degrees.And because of the lack of currency, the copper Buddha statues were confiscated and the coins were melted down.According to the history of Chinese Buddhism, there are three martial arts and one sect to destroy the Dharma. The three martial arts are Emperor Taiwu of the Northern Wei Dynasty, Emperor Wudi of the Northern Zhou Dynasty, and Emperor Wuzong of Tang Dynasty, and the first sect is this Zhou Shizong. 4.4.2 Song Dynasty (with Liao and Jin Dynasties) The Song Dynasty included the Northern Song Dynasty and the Southern Song Dynasty. The territory was not very wide, but the time was long, more than three hundred years (960-1279 AD).Generally speaking, the situation of Buddhism is prosperous. The business of translating scriptures, which came to a halt in the late Tang Dynasty, resumed during this period.Like the Tang Dynasty, translation has strict organization and regulations.Most of the translators are foreign monks, such as Fatian, Faxian, Fahu, Risheng, Zhijixiang, Jin Zongchi, etc.A total of more than 200 scriptures and treatises were translated, covering more than 700 volumes.The results are far behind the Tang Dynasty, because most of the important scriptures have already been translated. In terms of promoting Buddhism, Zen is the most influential (discussed in the next chapter).In addition, there is the Lu School, or the Nanshan School of Taoxuan, whose important masters are Zan Ning, Yun Kan, Yuan Zhao, etc.There are virtuous first sects, and the important masters are Zixuan, Jingyuan, Shihui, Xidi and so on.There is Ci Enzong, the important masters are Mi Gong, Tong Hui, Fu Zhang, Ji Lun, Shou Qian and so on.There is Tiantai sect, the important masters are Yiji, Yitong, Zhili, Wenen, Guangzhi and so on.There is the Pure Land sect, and the important masters are Shengchang, Zongji, Zhipan and so on. The emperors of the Song Dynasty generally defended Buddhism (only Huizong believed in Taoism, who forced monks and Taoists to merge together, made monks change their clothes, changed the name of the temple to the palace, and called Bodhisattvas Dashi, monks Deshi, and nuns Deshi). Buddhism is still believed by people of all walks of life. Just talking about monks, there are 300,000 to 400,000 monks and nuns in the whole country.Belief in activities, in addition to building temples, pagodas, statues, writing scriptures, fasting monks, holding various pujas, etc., also adds scripture engraving (carving woodblocks and printing the whole collection).The earliest and most important is the Shu version of the Tibetan scriptures engraved in Sichuan during the Kaibao period in the early Song Dynasty. It took 12 years to collect more than 6,600 volumes of scriptures.Since then, many times in China, as well as in Koryo, Japan and other places, almost all of them are based on this version.In addition to the Shu version, there are four other engraved Dazang in the Song Dynasty: One is the Dongchan Temple version in Fuzhou, the second is the Kaiyuan Temple version in Fuzhou, the third is the Sixi version in Huzhou, and the fourth is the Pingjiang moraine sand version. During this period, Buddhism and Confucianism influenced each other, approaching or even blending more profoundly.There are those that are obviously harmonious, such as Qi Song's "Fujiao Pian", Zhang Shangying's "Protection of the Dharma" and "Zong Chan Bian", all preaching that Buddhism and Confucianism can help each other, and it is not appropriate to neglect them.There are not obvious manifestations, such as Zen's understanding of the mind and nature, and Confucianism's natural principles and human desires, all of which take the neighbor's material partition wall and mix it with their own material. During this period, there were quite a few people who went westward to seek the Dharma, among whom Daoyuan, Jiye (a group of three hundred people), and Xing Qin (a group of one hundred and fifty-seven people) were all well-known.There are still many exchanges between monks and disciples between China and the eastern countries of Koryo and Japan.外国僧人来中国，绝大部分是学禅法的，如日本的奝然、寂昭、觉阿、荣西等，对日本禅学的发达都起了不小的作用。 附带说说占据北方的辽、金两朝。那是契丹和女真建立的国家，就文化说，低于中原的两宋，知解少就更需要宗教，所以对佛教就更加尊崇。如辽兴宗曾归依受戒，金世宗的生母贞懿太后出家为尼。最高统治者如此信奉，佛教当然要受到特殊的照顾。建寺、建塔、造像、写经、斋僧、行香等等活动不算，还增加了大量的布施。如辽的兰陵郡夫人萧氏，施给中京静安寺土地三千顷，谷一万石，钱二千贯，民户五十家，牛五十头，马四十匹；金世宗生母贞懿太后出家后住清水禅寺，施给田二百顷，钱百万。这样一来，寺院成为特殊的富户，僧徒成为特殊的阶级，站在佛教的立场，有好的一面，是道场兴隆；但也有坏的一面，是出家后养尊处优，生活世俗化，不久就会把苦、集、灭、道的教义忘了。 佛理方面，势力比较大的是禅宗（下一章谈）。其他各宗也出了些有名的法师，如华严宗，辽有鲜演，金有宝严、义柔等；密宗，辽有觉苑、道硕等，金有法冲、知玲等；律宗，辽有守道、等伟等，金有悟铢、智深等；净土宗，辽有非浊、论晓等，金有祖朗、广思等。 这两朝都重视刻经的事。辽刻的大藏，与宋刻蜀版藏经相比，内容增多，通称契丹藏。金刻的大藏过去不见记载，公元1934年在山西赵城广胜寺发现一部（有残缺），是比丘尼崔法珍发愿所刻，现在通称为赵城藏。 辽、金时代的佛教艺术品，留到现在的还有不少。主要是建筑，如天津市属蓟县的独乐寺山门和观音阁，山西的应县木塔，北京的天宁寺塔等，都是辽代建筑；山西大同普恩寺的大雄宝殿，山西五台延庆寺的大殿，河北正定隆兴寺的山门等，都是金代建筑。 4．4．3元 元朝时间不很长，只是一百年多一点（公元1260—1368）。皇帝都是信奉佛教的，尤其是属于密教的喇嘛教。元世祖忽必烈奉西藏喇嘛教名僧帕思巴为帝师；以后各朝皇帝即位前先要从帝师受戒。帝师是掌管佛教的僧官。元朝还出了不少有学问的喇嘛，如胆巴、沙罗巴、达益巴、迦鲁纳答思等。 对于一般佛教，帝室也是维护的，如建立寺院，举行法会，刻印藏经，费用都由国库负担。其结果是寺院增多，全国有两万几千所；僧尼增多，全国有二十几万。此外，朝廷还惯于以田地施给寺院，少则几十顷，多则几百顷。寺院成为富户，于是兼营工商业。财货增多，显然，戒定慧必致相应地减少，出家成为特殊的行业，也追求享乐，就佛教教义说，是爱之反而害之了。 在教理方面，有较大成就的仍然是禅宗（下一章谈）。此外，天台宗的名僧有性澄、允若等；华严宗的名僧有文才、了性等；法相宗的名僧有英辩、志德等；律宗的名僧有法闻。不过与前一时代相比，总是强驽之末了。 这时期新兴起两个教派：白云宗和白莲宗。两宗都着重念佛，提倡菜食。因为是新兴的，当时被人视为异端，受到阻止和打击。在教理方面没有什么大建树。 元代刻经事业不很发达。值得注意的有弘法寺大藏，是利用金代大藏的经版，校订刻印的；有普宁寺大藏，是杭州余杭县南山大普宁寺僧徒募化刻印的。 僧徒作诗的风气仍然很盛，如明本、行端、栯堂、清珙、圆至、本诚、大圭、善住等，诗文都有集行世。 佛教艺术，成就最高的是造像。有汉人刘元，得佛像工艺大师阿尼哥（尼泊尔人）的真传，精于塑像，元朝名刹的塑像有不少是他塑的，据说北京东岳庙的塑像也出于他之手。铜铸佛像，北京西山卧佛寺的卧佛，现在还是很有名的。 4．4．4明 明朝时间比较长，由建国到灭亡，经历了二百七十多年（公元1368—1644）。关于佛教，重要的变动是：一，由尊崇喇嘛教改为以中土的各宗为主体；喇嘛虽然仍有帝师、国师等称号，但那是出于对外族宗派的笼络。二，明太祖朱元璋在凤阳皇觉寺当过和尚，对寺院和僧徒的情况有较多的了解，于是针对他心目中的弊端，由过去的单纯扶持改为着重整顿。 办法有多种，如设置各级僧官管理佛教事务，包括任免寺院的住持；分学佛的专业为禅（以禅定求悟）、讲（研习各种教义）、教（依各种仪法活动）三类，要求僧徒要各有所专；定期考试，经典不通者淘汰；严格度牒制度，男四十以下、女五十以下不得出家；减少寺院数目，出家者必须集中居住，过集体生活；等等。不过对于流传已久、深入人心的佛教，政治力量终归是有限的，又因为后来推行度牒收费办法，出家容易了，从而寺院的数目大量增加，僧尼的数目也大量增加。 在教理方面，仍然以禅宗最为兴盛（下一章谈）。其次是净土宗，以念佛求解脱，几乎成为各宗派的共同法门，弘法的大师有道衍（姚广孝）、宗本、袾宏、成时等。其他各宗也还保留一些流风余韵。弘扬华严宗的有普泰、洪恩、慧浸、通润等。弘扬天台宗的有慧日、士璋、力金、无尽等。弘扬法相宗的有巢松、真可、明显、广承等。弘扬律宗的有朴原、如馨、三昧、弘赞等。 明朝后期还出了一些著名的佛学大师，其中最重要的是： 云栖大师袾宏，紫柏大师真可，憨山大师德清，蕅益大师智旭。他们都学识渊博，著述很多。其中德清著《中庸直指》《老子解》等书，智旭著《四书解》《周易禅解》等书，沟通儒、道、释三教，可以代表一时的风气。 明代刻经事业很盛，刻全藏计有五次：一是洪武年间在南京刻的，称为南藏；二是永乐年间在南京刻的，也称为南藏；三是永乐年间在北京刻的，称为北藏；（以上三种是官刻）四是其后刻于杭州的，称为武林藏；五是明末在山西五台山开刻，完成于清初浙江径山的，称为嘉兴藏（由嘉兴楞严寺发行）或径山藏。 因佛教而有的中外交往也不少。主要是中国和西域，中国和尼泊尔，中国和日本。 文人学者，不出家而研究佛学的风气，这时期也很盛。如宋濂、李贽、袁宏道弟兄、瞿汝稷、焦竑、屠隆等，都是很有名的佛学家和护法者。 4．4．5清 这个阶段比明朝略短一些，将近二百七十年（公元1644—1911）。清朝是满族入主中华，宗教信仰带有边地民族的色彩，就是比较重视喇嘛教。但是在文化方面，由皇室到八旗子弟，都倾向汉化，所以中土各宗也受到维持旧传统的待遇。所谓旧传统，是采用明朝的制度，设置僧官，佛教事业如建寺、造像、度僧尼等都有限制。但限制总是越来越松懈，原因，除了历代共同的由励精图治必致渐变为得过且过之外，还有建国一开始就出了几位好佛的皇帝。顺治皇帝好参禅，尊通琇为玉林国师。康熙皇帝也视佛门为风雅之地，外出喜欢游名山，住名刹，并赋诗题字。雍正皇帝更进一步，不只喜欢禅学，并以通禅自负，因而自号为圆明居士，还编了《御选语录》。上层人物喜爱，一般人民循旧轨走，因而佛教就仍是繁荣昌盛，据统计，早年大小寺院有八万左右，僧尼有十几万；晚年，寺院几乎遍布全国各村镇，僧尼据说有八十万，不出家而拜佛、菩萨的，就难以数计了。 这时期也有译经事业。但与过去不同：过去是由外面的西土文字译成内部的中土文字；这时期只是满、汉、蒙、藏文字互译，目的限于内部流通。 在教理方面，比较兴旺的仍然是禅宗（下一章谈）。其次是净土宗，因为方法简便而收获大，所以几乎成为各宗的共同信仰。专弘扬此宗的大师有行策、省庵、彻悟、瑞安、印光等。此外，弘扬天台宗的大师有受登、灵耀、观竺、广昱、妙空等。弘扬华严宗的大师有续法、印颗、圆亮、通理、显珠等。弘扬律宗的大师有海华、戒润、福聚、弘赞、长松等。弘扬法相宗的大师有大惠、大贤、智旭、果仁、道阶等。居士研究佛学，弘扬佛法（包括流通经典），这时期成为风气。早年有宋文森、毕奇、周梦颜、彭绍升等。中年有钱伊庵、江沅、裕恩、张师诚等。晚年有杨文会、沈善登等。清朝的刻经事业，官刻汉文的只有雍正、乾隆间的龙藏一种，是根据明刻北藏予以增补的。此外还刻有藏文、蒙文、满文的藏经。私人刻经，晚年成为风气，如郑学川（后出家，名妙空）成立江北、苏州、杭州等刻经处，杨文会成立金陵刻经处，所刻经典都在三千卷上下。清朝末年，金山和尚宗仰和罗迦陵、黎端甫等，根据日本弘教书院藏经，在上海校印成频伽精舍藏经，成为我国刻印大藏的殿军。 文学艺术方面，这时期出了不少诗僧，如苍雪、天然、借庵、笠云、奇禅（皆别号）等；其中寄禅又号八指头陀，在清末尤其有名。初年还出了几位有大名的画僧：朱耷（俗驴字），通称八大山人；道济，通称石涛；髡残，通称石溪；弘仁，通称渐江。 4．5宗派 以上是泛说中土佛教。还可以分说，或应该分说，是介绍不同的宗派。这相当麻烦，原因主要有两种：一，传承的统系很繁杂，其中有些只是传说，甚至有意编造，未必靠得住。二，宗派之分，主要是由于对教理的认识有分歧，或修持方法有差异。教理的分歧，有不少是很细碎的，或者很玄奥的，讲，就要陷入名相的大海，这对于一般读者，以及这样一本常识性的书，都是不适宜的。不得已，只得以简要易解为原则，可以不说的不说，难于浅近易解的也尽量不说。宗派，主要是宗，有广狭两种意义：广义是兼指学派和教派；狭义是只指教派。南北朝时期，教理的研究趋于深而专，于是有着重研究、弘扬某种经典的大师，如毗昙师、成实师、摄论师等。这样专精某种经典的学问，有人也称之为宗，这宗的意义是学派。隋唐以来，有些学派发扬光大，成为有祖师、有传承、有大量信徒、有教义教规的宗教团体，这样的佛教组织称为宗，这宗的意义是教派。 因为宗的意义不定，佛教史籍举宗的数目，有或多或少的差异。多的是十三宗，名目是：一，毗昙宗（小乘有宗，通于俱舍宗），二，成实宗（小乘空宗），三，律宗（通称南山宗），四，三论宗（大乘空宗，也称性宗），五，涅槃宗，六，地论宗，七，净土宗（也称莲宗），八，禅宗（也称心宗），九，摄论宗，十，天台宗（也称法华宗），十一，华严宗（也称贤首宗），十二，法相宗（大乘有宗，也称慈恩宗、唯识宗、相宗），十三，真言宗（也称密宗）。（日本凝然《三国传通缘起》）其次是十宗，名目是：一，律宗，二，俱舍宗，三，成实宗，四，三论宗，五，天台宗，六，贤首宗，七，慈恩宗，八，禅宗，九，密宗，十，净土宗。（杨文会《十宗略说》）汤用彤先生《隋唐佛教史稿》只介绍八宗，名目是：一，三论宗，二，天台宗，三，法相宗，四，华严宗，五，律宗（原标题为戒律），六，禅宗，七，净土宗，八，真言宗。宗还有等级之别，如同是律宗，其下又有所谓相部宗和东塔宗；同是禅宗，其下又有所谓临济宗、曹洞宗等。以下依次介绍一下（禅宗下一章介绍）。