Chapter 3 Chapter 03 The General Meaning of Buddhism

3.1 Interpretation of chapter titles Buddhism, or the teachings of Buddhism, is a big topic, so I have to write it in a small way; even in a small book, there are many difficulties.Therefore, the word "tong" is added before "righteousness", in order to turn the big into the small, the complicated into the simple, and thus the difficult into the easy. "Tong" has three meanings here.One is "commonly", which is to try to take what is easy for ordinary people (non-religion or Buddhist studies), or in other words, it is not very professional even though it is an internal matter of the religion.The second is "universal".The teachings of Buddhism had great differences not long after the Buddha passed away, and became even more severe after it was introduced to China.The same "thus I hear" but the hearing is different, or the experience is different, according to the law of logic, they cannot all be correct.But if you delve deeper into right and wrong, you will fall into the sea of ​​righteousness and reason. Not only is there no such energy, but there is no need for it.Taking general terms only involves the basic viewpoints that almost all schools and schools agree on, such as life is suffering, and all dharmas are empty. up.The third is "accessibility".Teaching Buddhism is a preparation for teaching Zen. Without such preparation, people who have never been in touch with Buddhism will find it strange or incomprehensible to mention the thoughts and actions of the Zen family.How much to prepare should be based on whether you can further understand Zen or not.That is to say, as long as the road to Zen can be paved, the introduction of teachings can be as shallow as possible, and as few as possible.The following is not easy to introduce.

3.2.1 Too Much Content There are many Buddhist teachings, as can be seen from the feat of collecting various classics as a great collection.In this regard, scholars who call themselves Confucianism lag far behind the monks. First, they are enthusiastic about compiling essentials, such as the "Huang Lan" in the Three Kingdoms period and the "Taiping Yulan" in the Song Dynasty.The more decent ones are the "Yongle Dadian" of the Ming Dynasty and the "Siku Quanshu" of the Qing Dynasty, but they were only copied without engraving.This is not the case with Buddhism. Collecting Buddhist classics is a big job, not only collecting more, but also engraving them all.The inventory of Buddhist classics is called "Tibetan", which includes three parts: "Sutra" (said by the Buddha), "Law" (set by the Buddha), and "Lun" (explained by disciples), also known as "Tripitaka".In Middle-earth, the earliest engraved collection is the Kaibao Collection in the early Northern Song Dynasty, which contains more than 6,000 volumes of Buddhist classics.After that, there were Qisha Zang, Nanbei Zang, Long Zang, etc., which were engraved a total of 14 times.The collection of classics is increasing. For example, the Dragon Collection in the Qing Dynasty collected more than 7,000 volumes, and the Yin Taisho Collection in Japan collected more than 10,000 volumes.There are more than 10,000 volumes, and the volumes have complicated content. This cannot be as lamented in "Historical Records Tai Shi Gong's Preface": "The Six Art Classics have been handed down to tens of millions, and they have not been able to master their studies for many generations, and they could not study their rituals back then." I just want to introduce it briefly. It was too difficult.

3.2.2 Content too specific Buddhist teachings are imported goods. Compared with the ideas of Middle Earth, they come from a different cultural system and come from different languages ​​(Buddhist classics were introduced, and languages ​​other than Sanskrit, such as Pali, Tibetan and various Hu language) expressed.Want to enter, understand for China, want to translate.Translation is difficult, because the meaning of a word must be based on the cultural system to which the word belongs; leaving this base, the meaning will change, at least the charm will change.For example, "conservative", our understanding or experience must be different from that of the British, because they still have the Conservative Party.This is generalization.Buddhist teachings are much more than the general situation, because, first, there are many that are not owned by China; second, there are many meanings that are too profound.We don't, it's too esoteric, and it makes translation even more difficult.In order to overcome the difficult difficulties, one way is to quit when faced with difficulties, that is, not free translation.This was already the case during the Six Dynasties. By the Tang Dynasty, Xuanzang synthesized five untranslated: one is secret, such as Dharani, which cannot be translated; , such as Yan Fushu, which cannot be turned over; the fourth is to follow the ancient times, such as A Nu Bodhi (it has been called like this since the Han Dynasty), and not to be turned over; ), do not flip.But this is a minority after all.Most still have to turn over.It is impossible to express the thoughts of a sect in India without using the language of Middle Earth (many of which need to be modified).And this kind of sect just likes to meditate deeply, so it has become countless unfamiliar names and appearances in the Buddhist classics of China (the name can be called by the ear, and the appearance can be seen by the eyes, which is roughly equivalent to the current saying terms of).There are many names, one reason is that the same text (or synonym) can be translated differently, such as Alaya Consciousness, there are eighteen different names, and Nirvana, there are sixty-six different names.The translations are different, and the meanings may be similar. For example, Alaya Consciousness, the Southern Dynasties Zhenyi was translated as "No Consciousness", which also refers to the Pure Dharma;These can be ignored.Just talk about the name and appearance, and let go of a lot; even if you take out one at random, if you want to understand it thoroughly, you will be dizzy.That is to say, in terms of the "Dharma" of Buddhism, we ordinary people can understand it as "Tao", which seems to be correct, but "All dharmas are empty" also uses "Dharma", which seems to refer to everything. What's the matter?Drilling deeper and looking at the explanation of Consciousness-Only Science, it contains two meanings: one is "self-restraint", and the other is "orbital biological solution".From the perspective of ordinary people, if you don't say it, I will still understand it, but if you say it, you will become confused.Buddhist names are almost all of this kind.There is a further source of incomprehension, which is that one name and form cannot be related to another name and form. For example, the alaya consciousness is the eighth consciousness, so it will naturally have a relationship with the seventh consciousness, mana consciousness, and sixth consciousness.This is like the Eight Diagrams, where the three lines become the six lines, and one multiplication becomes the sixty-four hexagrams.And Buddhist names and appearances are repeated more than once, so the number is much larger than sixty-four.The incomprehensibility of Buddhist teachings also comes from a speculative way that deviates from the normal.For example:

"Neither born nor destroyed, neither dirty nor clean, neither increasing nor decreasing." "The Theory of China" said: "Neither born nor extinguished, neither permanent nor continuous, neither one nor different, neither coming nor coming out." Blatantly violated The law of excluded middle is ignored.When we look at Buddhist classics, we can see this way of thinking almost everywhere.For example, the Three Discourses focus on destroying all wrong views, saying that holding on to this is a side view, holding on to that is also a side view, and not holding on to this or that is still a side view.In short, to reverse the theory of knowledge, we must admit the theorem of knowledge and deny all knowledge.This is even more so in Zen Buddhism. Here it says "the mind is the Buddha", and there it says "the non-mind is not the Buddha". If you ask which one is right, he will say neither.In this way, most of the Buddhist teachings are far away from ordinary people's understanding and are always too specialized.

3.2.3 Too much content The ancient Indians were probably the least troubled.They are used to being tedious, and they like to repeat similar meanings; an ordinary name, after meditation, will discover the mystery that ordinary people do not see; a kind of thing, after analysis, will be divided into two, and two into four , four into eight, no end.Give an example of each.One, repeat what I said.For example, in "The Sutras of Vimalakirti", it is said that the elder Vimalakirti fell ill, and the Buddha sent his disciples to inquire about the illness.Starting from Shariputra, the Buddha said: "You go to Vimalakirti to inquire about diseases." Shariputra said to the Buddha: "World Honored One! I can't bear to let him inquire about diseases." Here are the reasons why I dare not go.Then he sent Maha Moggallana, Maha Kasyapa, Subhuti, Puluma Mitharani, Mahakajayan, Anaru, Upali, Rahula, Ananda, They all said that they dare not go and the reasons why they dare not go.Although the reasons are slightly different, the format and words of the description are the same. It is difficult to find such a style of writing in Chinese classics.Second, it is mysterious.For example, "sleep", everyone has this experience, it seems that there is no need to explain.But Buddhists want to explain.Shallow is the difference between sleep and sleep: sleep is unconsciousness; sleep is the five consciousness (eye consciousness, ear consciousness, nose consciousness, tongue consciousness, body consciousness) dark and immobile.You can go deeper and say that it is one of the five hindrances (greed, hatred, sleep, regret, and doubt), and one of the five desires (money, sex, food, fame, and sleep). one.Three, analyze the nuances.For example, "life and death" is a big matter, but it is very simple. Birth means life, and death means loss of life. It seems that there is no need to classify.But Buddhism just wants to classify, and there is more than one way to classify.What is missing is two points: one is life and death in stages, and the other is life and death with unimaginable changes.There are three more points, four points, seven points.Until the "Twelve Grades of Life and Death Sutra", death is divided into twelve types: death without surviving death, surviving death, surviving death, imitating death, countless deaths, joyous death, counting deaths, regretting death, violent death, bondage to death, burning to death Die, die of hunger and thirst.In fact, these twelve are still a small number. For example, there are thirty-three in the sky, and there are sixty-two in the sky. Especially because of the faults of the three branches, they are roughly divided into nine categories. There are thousands of types in total, not to mention Wang Lantian-like characters, even ordinary people would feel headaches.

3.3 Teaching foreign language Difficult, it needs to be introduced, and it needs to be accepted by ordinary people, so it has to be limited to "general meaning".To find out, there must be a method, or a principle.This is mainly the following three. One is not to follow the old path.The old way includes two meanings.One, the "Lun" of Dazang, as well as many articles on Buddhism that have not entered Tibet, even late to modern times, are all about explaining and developing what Buddha and his disciples have repeatedly taught, that is, restating Buddhist teachings .The narration and analysis all use traditional forms to compare names and figures, which is the old way.The old road can be understood by insiders but not by laymen.It is inappropriate to follow the old path if you ask laymen to understand.On the other hand, Buddhism is far away from common sense, so almost all of the commentators are insiders.People inside the door make comments, often commenting and explaining, instead of going outside the door to see if there is any problem in it.The people outside the door may want to know whether there is any problem with a certain idea, and what problems there are.In order to satisfy the wishes of outsiders, it is not appropriate to follow the old path.

The second is not asking for a deep understanding.Seeking profound understanding means that no matter what you talk about, you need to be clear to the bottom.This takes a lot of effort, and the results are not necessarily as expected, and often it is not necessary.There are many reasons, and here are just a few prominent ones.First, some terms, such as "heart", have too complicated meanings. Moreover, according to this sutra, what is said is so, and what is said according to that sutra, if you want to understand it, you have to go astray.Second, in history, including Western and Central China, there were many Buddhist masters. People have their own views on many big and small things. If you want to distinguish right from wrong, you have to go astray.Third, some terms, such as "knowledge", are mostly explained based on one's own psychological feelings, and it is even more difficult to judge right from wrong.Fourth, the focus here is to introduce Buddhist teachings, not to criticize Buddhist teachings. We may not agree with them. In order not to shift the focus, it is best not to seek a deep understanding for the time being.

The third is not to depart from common sense.The meaning of this is very simple. It is to speak with ordinary people's knowledge and insights, and to tell ordinary people.The Dharma is supernatural, and it is ridiculous to use ordinary people's knowledge and views to strengthen it. From the perspective of insiders, it is ridiculous; but what you get is too superficial if it is light, or too crude if it is serious, or even too absurd.To be fair, it is always difficult to open your mouth no matter what kind of religion it involves.But since he opened his mouth, he had no choice but to talk about what he saw.

3.4 Essentials of Buddhism Buddhism, as mentioned above, is too complicated; I would like to introduce that the less labor-intensive way is to take what you need.What is needed here is preparation for teaching Zen.Zen is a way of life, so when introducing Buddhism, it is appropriate to use the way of life as the main clue. 3.4.1 Life and death matters Let's start with the basics. "Life and death are important matters" is a saying often said by Zen monks.It is also often said that "the Buddha was born in the world due to a major event". This major event is life and death.This sentence also talks about life and death, but the focus is actually on "life".This is just as Song Confucianism criticized: Life and death are big things, but you are afraid of death.To be afraid of death is to live happily, and even to say death is to be reluctant to die.This is human nature, and even the sages can do nothing about it; it can even be said that the sages talk about the Tao, thousands of words, endless chapters, chasing down to the root, but they are just imagining how to live a better life.There are all kinds of things here, all kinds of strange things.Above all is the pursuit of virtue, meritorious service or immortality.After that, practicing qigong, taking anti-aging drugs, boarding a tour bus, eating in restaurants, and buying tickets until the jam is squeezed. To put it bluntly, it’s all about life, and I want to have a richer and more interesting life.It is best not to die, and to ask for a late death as a last resort.On this point, we might as well say that throughout the ages, countless people, including Schopenhauer-style pessimists, have belonged to one party and cling to life as long as they have life.There are small differences, or quantitative differences.One extreme is "I don't know what I don't know, follow the rules of the emperor", I also eat and pass on seeds, but I just don't want to know what is going on, and how to live a better life, that is, some people think it is pitiful and ridiculous, and spend a lifetime in a daze .But in fact, running to the other extreme, thinking hard, hurting the spring and the autumn, isn't it pitiful and ridiculous?Compared with the people of Middle Earth, especially those with old-fashioned temperament, the ancient Indians always tended to the other extreme of contemplation. With the capital of "life", they were not willing to be confused for a lifetime, or in other words, in their hearts Always pretend that life and death are a big deal.This mental state is expressed in various teachings and philosophies in terms of speculation, and in various forms that are not required for daily life in terms of behavior, such as meditation, worship, and various ascetic practices.It is said that Sakyamuni also practiced asceticism for six years before becoming enlightened, and because he could not be freed, he changed to another so-called middle path.Groping in different ways is because I always think that life and death are big things in my heart.The spread of this tradition to Middle-earth shows that it is quite different from the spirit of Huaxia.Confucianism accepts the norm, eats and drinks men and women, and tries to mend any disagreements.Although Taoists are not active, they are willing to end their lives with inadequacies.Buddhists think a lot, think deeply, and always think that eating and drinking, men and women, is not enough for an ordinary life, because life and death are important matters.Feeling that it is not enough, so I have to think over and over again in order to establish a new understanding, and then act according to the new understanding.

3.4.2 Life is suffering As mentioned earlier, in terms of rebirth, Buddhism and Confucianism have similarities and minor differences: they both value life, but the difference is that the desire of Buddhism is much more extravagant.Some people have seen this situation in the Six Dynasties period. For example, it is recorded in "Shishuoxinyu Paidiao": "He Cidao went to Waguan Temple and worshiped very frequently. Ruan Sikuang said: 'Qing Zhi Da Universe, bravely marching through the ages .'He said: "Why did you suddenly see the tweet today?" Ruan said: "I can't get it with thousands of households, but Qing is trying to become a Buddha. Isn't it too big?" '" The reason for choosing the big and the small is that not only do you think that life and death are big, but you also have a unique view on the phenomenon of life. This view is "life is suffering". So far, Buddhism and Confucianism have a big difference. The life of Confucianism The attitude is refined by ordinary people, but it is basically ordinary people, so it does not deviate from the normal state. Ordinary people admit that there is suffering, but what they pay attention to, or what they say their hearts are looking for is happiness. Joy, riding in a fat horse and light fur is still a joy, until you have family relationships at home, mountains and rivers when you go out, and "friends come from afar". Minnows travel leisurely, which is the joy of fish. "("Zhuangzi·Autumn Water") the life philosophy of ordinary people (if there is one) is: one should try one's best to seek happiness. Seeking is because one believes in happiness, and there are many types and quantities. Buddhism is just the opposite. To use a metaphor, Wearing a special kind of filter glasses, they can only see suffering but not worldly happiness (what they seek can also be called happiness, but it is not of a worldly nature). This strange view is probably related to the ancient Indian It has something to do with social conditions, ethnic habits and cultural traditions, and it doesn’t matter. In short, the life they saw was nothing but suffering. It is said that Sakyamuni once traveled around the city when he was the prince. One door sees the suffering of life, the other sees the suffering of old age, the other sees the suffering of illness, and the other sees the suffering of death. This is obviously seen through special glasses. Moreover, the so-called suffering in Buddhism is not just what you see, because There is also the "imaginary" reincarnation. It is the six reincarnations, that is, the human soul (or mind) is immortal. Due to different karma, after death, it must be reincarnated in six ways, namely hell and hungry ghosts. , the way of animals, the way of Asura, the way of the human world, and the way of heaven, the cycle is endless. In this way, the suffering in this world will change from a period of suffering in this world to endless suffering, the so-called sea of ​​suffering is boundless.

From what we see now, it is one-sided to say that life is suffering, and it is not only one-sided to say that suffering is endless, but also fantasy.Illusions are seen through the glasses of modern science; without scientific glasses, it is not easy to see illusions, except for a few special characters such as Fan Zhen.For two thousand years, the Six Paths of Reincarnation has been a strong pillar of Buddhist teachings because it is believed to be true.Today, this pillar is in danger of being knocked down by scientific knowledge.But the greater danger does not come from assumptions or fantasies, but from reality. Human beings, more or less, strong or weak, here or there, always have the actual feeling of "excitement"; And such feelings are often irresistible.If you do not resist, or resist but fail to succeed, obviously, the starting point of Buddhism is in danger of being destroyed or at least blurred.The remedy is to find a way to prove that the real sense of happiness is illusory, and the real happiness can only be obtained after breaking the illusory.This is not easy, so all kinds of extraordinary knowledge and actions appear. 3.4.3 Four Noble Truths This is the earliest and most basic (naturally rough) theory.Legend has it that Sakyamuni was the son of King Jingfan, the lord of a small city in northern India, about the same time as Confucius.As a child, he was taught by Brahmin scholars and accepted many world-weary views.At the age of sixteen, he married a wife and gave birth to a son.Because he felt the pain of birth, old age, sickness and death, and wanted to be free, at the age of twenty-nine, he left his wife and became a monk.If you first learn the way of "nothing place", and then learn the way of "neither thought nor non-thought place", you are not satisfied.So I went to the ascetic heretics to practice asceticism. After six years, I was only skin and bones.Determined to change, I sat under the pippala tree and swore: If I don't realize the Supreme Bodhi now, I would rather break my body than sit here. "("Fang Guangzhuang's Adornment Sutra") Sit quietly and think about the causes of suffering and the way to get rid of suffering, and observe the twelve causes and conditions. After seventy-seven forty-nine days, you finally become enlightened, that is, you find the way to liberation. Tao is a whole set of understanding or theory of life, divided into suffering, origin, extinction, and Tao, collectively called the Four Noble Truths. Truth is the true meaning, roughly equivalent to the so-called truth now. The Four Noble Truths can be divided into two types according to their nature. Major categories: suffering and collection belong to "knowledge", that is, to understand that the world is nothing more than this, and it is a mundane law; extinction and Tao belong to "action", that is, doing so can solve problems, and it is a transcendental law. The two categories can also Divided according to the causal relationship: Suffering is the result of accumulation, and accumulation is the cause of suffering; cessation is the result of Tao, and Tao is the cause of cessation. Let’s talk about it in turn. (1) The Truth of Suffering.This is what I said before that life is suffering.However, as a kind of truth, it is more detailed and far-reaching.Like life, here it expands to "the world".Buddhism talks about the world, just like other terms, and it cannot be simplified.It includes three realms: the first is the realm of desire, which, in today's words, is obsessed with "food, sex, and sex."The second is the realm of form. In today's words, it is a matter without life.The third is the formless realm, which is a non-material spirit. It is difficult to say clearly what it refers to.In short, the three realms cannot but undergo birth, death and change, and they are all suffering.There are many kinds of suffering, usually in addition to birth, old age, sickness and death, plus the suffering of parting from love (the suffering of parting from the one you love), the suffering of resentment and hatred (the suffering of meeting with the hated person), and the suffering of not being able to get what you want (the suffering of wanting to have something but not having it). ), Five Shengyin Suffering (suffering due to flaming body and mind).There is another division.First divided into two categories: internal and external.Internal pain can be further divided into two categories: various diseases are physical pain, and sorrow, jealousy, etc. are mental pain.External suffering can be further divided into two categories: the one category of suffering from tigers, wolves, thieves, etc., and the category of suffering from wind, rain, cold, heat, etc.In this way, life becomes very unbearable, so we have to think of ways.The solution is to seek the cause of suffering first. (2) Collecting Noble Truth.This truth talks about the cause of suffering, and the set is the combination of causes and conditions. In today's words, it is the combination of various conditions, or the result of related causes.The reasons are divided into two categories: one is called the positive cause, which is "karma" (the accumulated accumulation of thoughts in the past (including before the present world)); entanglement, leakage, etc., refer to various unpleasant emotions).Karma comes from thinking: Thinking is manifested as body activity, which becomes body karma, manifested as speech, which becomes verbal karma, not manifested externally, but only thinking in the heart, which becomes mental karma.Karma can also be divided according to time: the past tense is past karma, and the present tense is present karma.Afflictions are usually divided into six types: greed, hatred, ignorance, arrogance (arrogance bullying others), doubt, and view (referring to prejudice, that is, unreasonable thoughts).Each can be further divided, the most important of which is view, which is usually divided into five types: body view (that is, one’s own body is real), side view (one side, not the middle way), and wrong view (that is, there is no cause and effect) , Views and views (always think that you are wise), and prohibition to obtain views (using prohibition as the cause of liberation).The above are collectively referred to as fundamental afflictions or primary confusions.The root affliction will also cause many afflictions, such as resentment, jealousy, miserliness, indulgence, etc., as many as twenty kinds, which are called follow-up afflictions or branch-end confusion.All the above-mentioned various karma and various afflictions come from ignorance (see the section "Twelve Causes" below), and the result is suffering. (3) The truth of extinction.Once the cause of suffering is found, the problem is naturally easy to solve (at least in theory, maybe at most in theory).The way is to make karma and troubles go away forever.To be more specific, it is to get rid of lust.Buddhists know that desire is the root of suffering, and analyze desire in detail, among which the most powerful ones are desire for love, desire for existence (attachment to survival) and desire for prosperity (struggle for power and wealth).Cut off the desire, no longer create karma, no longer have afflictions, and what you get is liberation.This state of liberation is called nirvana by Buddhists, and its free translation is quiescence, extinction, death, inaction, liberation, peace and so on.Nirvana is the highest state of residence (not necessarily life) that Buddhism seeks to prove, but it is difficult to explain it.The Buddhists themselves also admit that the reality of Nirvana cannot be touched by thinking and words, and the true meaning of Nirvana cannot be explained by thinking and words.But since a certificate is required, it is always a pity to see the truth without seeing it.Reluctantly, it is usually said from the opposite side, such as: "Eternal greed, hatred, ignorance, and all afflictions." ("Miscellaneous Agama Sutra") can also be described more delicately, saying that the state of Nirvana has Eight Flavors: Persistence, Quietness, Immortality, Immortality, Tranquility, Emptiness, Motionlessness, Happiness.In short, there is no more suffering.However, immortality and immortality have never been seen by ordinary people.Even those who practice the Sutra-World Dharma and enter the Nirvana Hall (closer to the secular mortuary) when they are critically ill, this Nirvana obviously does not mean immortality.Therefore, although in theory Nirvana cannot be explained by words, in fact, it must be explained by words in order to get rid of confusion and trance.This has to use the usual method, analysis.It is generally divided into two types: the primary one is Nirvana with remaining attachments, and the advanced one is Nirvana without residual attachments.The difference between the two is that the former only cuts off the cause of life and death, while the latter also cuts off the fruit of life and death.It can also be divided into more detailed ones, such as Dharma Xiangzong, which is divided into four types: Nirvana with pure self-nature, Nirvana with remaining attachments, Nirvana without attachments, and Nirvana without abode.Judging from the name and appearance, it is clear and logical, but the problem here is that it cannot be like the Shang Yi Zhou Ding. If you have never seen it, if you want to see it, you can point it out to you and say that this is it.Nirvana, I can't show it to you.Not only that, for example, if you ask a very simple question, is it one or two with death?The answer is not easy.But as far as this book is concerned, what you want in Zen meditation is exactly this. Even if you can’t explain it clearly, you must explain why you can’t explain it clearly.This issue is very complicated, and we will leave it to the frontal Zen lectures for further analysis. (4) The truth of the Tao.This truth is best interpreted literally as the path to cessation (liberation or nirvana).This is of course difficult.The reasons are: first, the goal is not clear; second, it is too difficult to cut off greed, even for a sage.It is too difficult to overcome, and we have to redouble our efforts, so the methods of practice are becoming more and more complicated.When the Buddha first turned the wheel of Dharma (shaking the weapon of Dharma, that is, preaching), he was the Noble Eightfold Path, also known as the Noble Eightfold Path. It is: first, right view, which is to clearly understand the principle of the Four Noble Truths as the absolute truth; second, right thinking, which is Persist in contemplating the Four Noble Truths and avoid other delusions; Three, Right Speech, which means to say the right thing, and don’t speak out of righteousness; Fourth, Right Action, which means not doing bad things that violate the precepts; Fifth, Right Livelihood, which means living an indifferent life according to the rules and not coveting enjoyment Sixth, Righteous Diligence means practicing diligently without slacking off; Seventh, Righteous Mindfulness means always thinking about the Tao and the Dharma without giving birth to evil thoughts;Later, maybe I felt that this was not enough, so I expanded it into seven subjects and thirty-seven virtues: the first subject is the four foundations of mindfulness, including four kinds of body meditation; There are four kinds of perseverance, diligence and diligence; the third category is four kinds of supernatural powers, including four kinds of desires and gods; the fourth category is five faculties, including five kinds of faith roots; the fifth category is five powers, including five kinds of trustworthiness; the sixth category The seven factors of enlightenment include the seven factors of mindfulness and enlightenment; the seventh branch of the Noble Eightfold Path includes the eight factors of right view (same as above).From the perspective of ordinary people, this is really too much trouble.In fact, it is far from enough. This is like going to the sky in a spaceship. Because it is difficult, the equipment must be complicated.After Buddhism was introduced into China, the scope of this aspect has been continuously enlarged, and the program has been refined. Therefore, there are such things as consciousness-only in the aspect of reason, tranquility and vision in the aspect of action, and more and more details in the aspect of precepts, until the machine of Southern Chan. There are so many tricks, but the purpose can be summed up in one word, and it's just that the road can be opened. 3.4.4 Impermanence Buddhists often say that all actions are impermanent, and all dharmas have no self.Anatta, the problem is too complicated, the meaning is too profound, here we only talk about impermanence.Impermanence is a common phenomenon in our world, and there are probably no exceptions, unless it is said that "impermanence is permanence." This situation has long been seen by ancient sages, so ancient Greek Heraclitus said, "A man cannot step into the same river twice." , Confucius said, "The dead are like a husband, never giving up day and night."Ordinary people are also like this, such as saying: "I haven't gone out for a few days, and the peonies have all thanked me." But when Buddhism talks about impermanence, it has an intention other than describing phenomena.This can have two aspects: one is as a proof that life is suffering; the other is as a proof that all dharmas are empty.Regarding the latter, we will discuss it later, and here we only mention the former, as an argument for rejecting the worldly life.Is impermanence worth detesting?This is obviously not the case in many human situations.If it is hot in summer, it is easy to survive until the beginning of autumn, and the westerly wind suddenly blows up, making it a bit chilly. Perhaps the monks also welcome this change?In the same way, if you eat a few meals of rice and cook cabbage in a row, thanks to the chef's kindness, you can change it to pie porridge, no one will object, right?It can be seen that the reason for aversion to impermanence is not that we do not welcome all changes, but that we do not welcome certain changes, which are aging and death.It seems to say, what is the meaning of eating men and women, daily necessities, rice, oil and salt?If you can't keep it, you will inevitably die in the end.This means that the above mentioned life and death matters.Because of impermanence, the big issue of life and death arises.Conversely, because I feel that life and death are important, I have to shout impermanence.Not only yelling, but also analyzing it, which becomes the four conditioned signs.Being predestined means the creation of a combination of karma and fate.From the point of view of Buddhism, all man-made things are impermanent, just as it is proved in the theory of Yinming: the sound is impermanent (zong), and the nature of the creation (cause), such as bottles and so on (metaphor).One of the four phases is birth, that is, existing or has appeared; the second is dwelling, that is, having a specific nature; the third is variation, that is, continuous change; the fourth is extinction, that is, disappearing.Impermanence can be further analyzed in detail, and it becomes momentary birth and death. Not to mention Xuanyuan, there are still big differences in the understanding of different schools, so I have to omit it.Here we only need to know that this is an important view of Buddhism on the present world; because of this view, there is the desire for the truth (constant and unchanging), and there are various methods of practice, among which One important one is Zen. 3.4.5 All five aggregates are empty It is not enough to prove that the present world is not worthy of nostalgia, because it is true after all.From the point of view of Buddhism, there is probably a very strong obstinacy in this world, which is not only visible with eyes open, but also contemplative with eyes closed.what to do?It is best to find a way to prove that it is not real, until the "I" who perceives is real is not real either.This is what Prajna studies strive to do.It claims that Xuanzang's translation can be a typical representative.The first half said: Avalokitesvara Bodhisattva practices deep Prajna Paramita for a long time, sees all five aggregates are empty, and endures all hardships.Relic!Form is not different from emptiness, emptiness is not different from form, form is emptiness, emptiness is form;Sariko!It is the empty phase of all dharmas, neither born nor destroyed, neither dirty nor clean, neither increasing nor decreasing.It is colorless in the air, no thoughts, no eyes, ears, nose, tongue, body and mind, colorless sound, fragrance and touch.There is no vision, even the unconscious world.There is no ignorance, nor the end of ignorance, nor even old age and death, nor the end of old age and death.There is no suffering to destroy the way, no wisdom and no gain. All nothingness becomes all emptiness, which also proves that everything is unreal, so it is not worth clinging to.This knowledge of emptiness comes from the analysis of the perceived phenomenal world (including mental states).It is divided into five kinds in total, form, feeling, thought, action, and consciousness, which are collectively called the five aggregates, or the five yin, or the five aggregates.Aggregate means accumulation, in modern terms, is a state of perceived phenomena in the flow of time.What Buddhism wants to break is the belief in non-action in the aspect of cognition, and the belief in emptiness as reality, so the analysis focuses on perception.One of the aggregates is form, which refers to things that appear in the outside world; the second is feeling, which is roughly equal to the so-called feeling now; the third is thinking, which is roughly equal to the so-called speculation (including memory); The fifth is consciousness, which refers to the unity of consciousness (including the feeling of self).These five aggregates, with mind and matter as the core, can be divided into two categories: form is the object of mental activities and belongs to things; feeling, perception, formation, and consciousness are different mental activities and belongs to mind.Based on the ability to know (I) and what I know (what I know), it can also be divided into two categories: form, feeling, thought, and action can all be recognized by consciousness, and they are objects of recognition and belong to what I know; Yes, belong to me.No matter how it is classified, it can be seen that it focuses on the nature of mental activities.So far, the Buddhist theory is similar to that of the Bishop of Berkeley in England. Regardless of whether the outside world exists or not, the outside world we know is always what we perceive.But the Buddhists don't stop there. They want to further prove that the five aggregates are empty and unreal.The method of proof is very cumbersome.Take color as an example, saying that it is unreliable and will change.There are two kinds of change: one is touch and change, which refers to objects that can be pointed to, ranging from mountains and rivers to small vegetation, which can be changed, damaged or even destroyed by external force.The second is Fang Zhixian, which means that there are images that can be seen and imagined, all of which have this pseudonym due to subjective knowledge, and have no objective truth. According to the second division, consciousness becomes a category by itself, and the theories related to it are of course more complicated.First analyze it into six types, which are eyes, ears, nose, tongue, body, and mind.Every kind of consciousness has a mirror, just like the mirror of an eye is form, and seeing form gives birth to eye consciousness.Because it can grow, it is also called root.The object of the root is dust, which can also be called the environment.In this way, twelve are derived from the one aggregate of consciousness: six roots (eyes, ears, nose, tongue, body and mind) and six dusts (color, sound, fragrance, touch).In today's words, this is the origin of knowledge.From the perspective of function, the first five of the six roots belong to the same category. Buddhists believe that they belong to the form method, while the mind belongs to the mind method.The first five skills are small, and can only intuitively perceive the present, and are limited to the external and tangible; the mind is not the case, but can permeate everything.Because consciousness has such a great ability, it has to be analyzed in detail, and later it developed into Consciousness-Only Science (discussed in the next section).It is only said here that just like form, feeling, thought and action, the aggregate of consciousness must also be broken.The method of destruction, in a nutshell, is: because it arises and ceases with thought, and is continuous in sequence, that is, it is formed by accumulation or combination, so there is no reality. In this way, the five aggregates are all emptied, that is to say, knowing and knowing are annihilated, and of course all desires and attachments lose their basis.The Buddhist way of thinking is often optimistic in this way.Naturally, when it comes to facts, that's another matter.It is difficult to break the color, because you can see it when you open your eyes; there are many things that are not in front of you and you have to pay for them.It is especially difficult to break me, because only with me, Prajna Paramita (to the other shore) is needed to overcome all hardships (including the suffering of "I").It can be seen that it is completely empty or completely nothing, and it is not so easy to speak fluently and impeccably. 3.4.6 Ten Thousand Dharmas Consciousness Only The emptiness of Buddhist teachings, even if it is not a muddled account, should be said to be an account that will never be settled.There are sectarian antagonisms here, for example, the Dazhong Department is more empty, while Theravada is more existent; the Mahayana is more empty, and the Hinayana is more existent;Regarding the degree of emptiness, different sects have different opinions. For example, Hinayana Chengshi advocates that all aspects are empty but nature is not empty, and Mahayana Madhyamaka maintains that all aspects of nature are empty.Also, regarding the essence of Kong, Kong’s proofs are not only different, but also mysterious, at least for outsiders, they always feel baffled.The previous section talked about emptiness, in order to "communicate" and not be one-sided. Here I will talk about the "existence" of consciousness-only learning.The principle of only consciousness has already been expounded quite far-reaching by the Indian Buddhist master Wu Zang and his brothers and sisters. When it comes to the Dharma Xiangzong of China, it is like a seedling growing into a big tree. Even an insider, if he doesn't have superhuman endurance, will be upset.Therefore, here we have to be superficial and superficial, and only talk about the six consciousnesses (eyes, ears, nose, tongue, body and mind) mentioned in the previous section, plus two kinds of consciousness: the seventh kind of nona consciousness, and the eighth kind of alaya. knowledge.The meaning of Mana is thinking, and the meaning of Alaya is Tibetan.Why are there two kinds added in addition to the sixth consciousness (consciousness)?最简要的解释是：第六识是了别外来的，所以变灭无常；第七识是思量心内的，所以恒而不断；第八识是摄持诸法（万有，包括前七识）种子（能生诸法而自己恒存）的心，是生长一切的根。所谓万法唯识，就是主张，人人（还扩大到包括一切有情）都有这八种识，万法是这八种识所变现；尤其第八种识，万法都是从它蕴藏的种子中生出来的。这样，虽然佛教教义不能离开空，照唯识学的讲法，最后却要承认这第八识为有。显然，这个有与执外界万物为有的有不同，因为与外界万物比，它终归是不可见的，不可见，也就不会成为可欲，使心乱。 3．4．7十二因缘 说空说有，目的都是建立出世间法，得解脱。这还有更直接的理论，是十二因缘。十二因缘，又名十二缘起、十二支等，是对苦的人生的更加深入、更富于实用性的一种讲法，或对四圣谛中苦集二谛的另一种讲法。说它更加深入，更富于实用性，是因为讲苦的人生，它不停止于感知，而追到因果关系，求其所以然。目的很明显，是想找苦因，以便容易灭苦果。理论还是由感到生死事大而深思冥想来的。这感（感到老死等苦恼）是出发点。感到老死之苦，于是问：为什么会有“老死”？思索后得到解答，是因为有“生”（生命，生活）。再问再答，是因为有“有”（存在，包括各种行事和各种现象）；有“取”（追求，执着，计较）；有“爱”（因欲而求得、求避免）；有“受”（感觉苦、乐、不苦不乐）；有“触”（见、闻、嗅、尝、觉、知）；有“六入”（或六处：眼、耳、鼻、舌、身、意）；有“名色”（心理、物质）；有“识”（认识、了别的功能）；有“行”（意念和行为）；有“无明”（混沌，迷惑，近于叔本华的盲目意志）。以上是“往观”，由果推因。也可以反过来，“还观”，由因推果，成为：因为有一“无明”，所以有二“行”，三“识”，四“名色”，五“六入”，六“触”，七“受”，八“爱”，九“取”，十“有”，十一“生”，十二“老死”。还有顺观和逆观的讲法：“顺观”是无明缘（致成之义）行，行缘识，识缘名色，名色缘六入，六入缘触，触缘受，受缘爱，爱缘取，取缘有，有缘生，生缘老死。“逆观”是无明尽则行尽，行尽则识尽，识尽则名色尽，名色尽则六入尽，六入尽则触尽，触尽则受尽，受尽则爱尽，爱尽则取尽，取尽则有尽，有尽则生尽，生尽则老死尽。顺观偏于知，逆观偏于行；也可以说，知是行之因，行是知之果。用这种因果观讲人生，由我们现在看，主观成分未免太多。但这是就枝节说，至于总括的求因，我们似乎就不能不多闻阙疑，因为时至今日，我们还是不知道。 同其他名相一样，十二因缘也有各种阐微的讲法。最常见的是三世的讲法，说一无明、二行是“过去”的两种“因”，即受生以前就有的因，三识、四名色、五六入、六触、七受是“现在”的五种“果”，即受生以后才有的果；八爱、九取、十有是“现在”的三种“因”，即造业，十一生、十二老死是“未来”的两种“果”，即轮回。这样，由十二因缘所解释的人生就由现世延长到无尽的过去和无尽的未来，成为真正的苦海无边。情况过于严重。但办法却明确而简单（假定十二因缘的分析是对的），是砍断十二因缘的因果环。断坚实的环要用工具，这工具是修行。 3．4．8戒定慧 修行，总的精神是对佛法的信受奉行；办法，也是总的，是戒、定、慧，合称三学。《翻译名义集》解释说：“防非止恶曰戒，息虑静缘曰定，破恶证真曰慧。”三者相辅相成，是通往证涅槃、得解脱的路。以下依次说一说。 （一）戒。这是大藏三分之一的律藏所讲，当然很复杂。 复杂，是出于不得已。前面说，佛教处理人生的办法是以逆为顺；逆是反“率性之谓道”，谈何容易！饮食男女，且不说更难抗的男女，只说饮食，烤鸭与清水煮白菜之间，舍烤鸭而吃清水煮白菜，至少就一般人说，也大不易。手伸向烤鸭，用现在流行的说法，提高到原则上，是爱恋世间法；爱而不舍，佛教教义就落了空。为了防止甚至杜绝这种危险，不只要有理论，论证烤鸭是空，不可取，而且要有规定，判定向烤鸭伸手是不应有的错误。这规定就是戒，或戒律。又因为世间可欲之物，力量超过烤鸭的，无限之多，所以戒的条目就不能不陆续增加，一直加到，比丘（和尚）是二百五十，比丘尼（尼姑）是三百四十八（泛称五百）。戒因重轻不同而分为几类。比丘戒是八类：一，四波罗夷（不共住，即开除），二，十三僧残（许忏悔赎罪，相当于缓刑），三，二不定（因情况而量刑），四，三十舍堕（没收财物兼入地狱），五，九十单提（入地狱），六，四提舍尼（向其他比丘忏悔以求免罪），七，百众学（应注意做到），八，六灭诤（禁止争论）。比丘尼戒是七类：一，八波罗夷，二，十七僧残，三，三十舍堕，四，百七十八单提，五，八提舍尼，六，百众学，七，七灭诤。比丘尼条目多，是因为男尊女卑，如比丘尼修行，要先转为男身始能成佛；又依照比丘尼八敬法，第一是“虽百腊比丘尼见初受戒比丘，应起迎礼拜问讯，请令坐”；第三是“不得举比丘罪，说其过失，比丘得说尼过”。也许还有更深隐的原因，是女性常常是破戒（因而不能解脱）的最有力的原因。 依照行为性质的不同，或过错重轻的不同，戒分为两类。 一类对付严重的出于本性的世俗也禁止的恶，是“性戒”，包括杀、盗、邪淫（不正当的男女关系）、两舌（播弄是非）、恶口（骂人）、妄言（说假话）、绮语（说香艳秽亵话）、贪、瞋、痴十种。前三种造成身业，中间四种造成口业，后三种造成意业，合称十恶；守戒而不犯是十善。另一类是佛所定的“制戒”，比喻说是设在通往解脱的大路两旁的屏障，因为路很长，惟恐某时某地会步入歧途，所以屏障不能不长不密，就是说，条目非常多，对付的情况非常琐细。如比丘戒规定： “不得塔下嚼杨枝（刷牙）”，“不得向塔嚼杨枝”，“不得绕塔四边嚼杨枝”，“不得塔下涕唾”，“不得向塔涕唾”，“不得绕塔四边涕唾”（《四分僧戒本·百众学法》第七十八至第八十三）；比丘尼戒规定：“若比丘尼入村内，与男子在屏处共立共语，波逸提（堕地狱）”，“若比丘尼与男子共入屏障处者，波逸提”，“若比丘尼入村内巷陌中，遣伴远去，在屏处与男子共立耳语者，波逸提”（《四分比丘尼戒本·单提法》第八十至第八十二）：即使有必要，也总是太费心了。 信奉教义的人有深入和浅尝的分别，所以戒也要因人的身分不同而有别。由适用范围方面着眼，戒有六种：三归，八戒，五戒，十戒，具足戒，菩萨戒。三归是归依佛，归依法，归依僧，是信奉教义的根本，所以一切佛教徒都要信受。八戒和五戒是在家佛教徒（居士，梵名男为优婆塞，女为优婆夷）应当遵守的。八戒是杀、盗、淫、妄、酒加不香华盖身（不打扮）、不歌舞伎乐故往观听、不高广大床（不贪图享受），限制多，可是一个月只有晦望等六天。五戒的杀、盗、淫、妄、酒要终身遵守，所以“淫”加了限制，改为“邪淫”，这样，男女居士就得到较之比丘和比丘尼远为宽大的待遇。十戒、具足戒是出家佛教徒应当遵守的。十戒是上面八戒加不食非时食和不畜金银宝，适用于沙弥（小和尚）。具足戒，比丘二百多条目，比丘尼三百多条目，适用于升级之后的出家人。菩萨戒，一般指《梵网经》的十重四十八轻戒，是一切佛教徒都应当遵守的。不管哪一种戒，传与受都要经过一定的仪式，以示信受的事非同寻常。 戒，条目多，性质却单纯，都是禁止求可欲，以期心不乱。这自然不容易。佛家也深知这种情况，所以特别提倡忍（多到十四种）；又，为了防止万一，还开了个后门，或说采用了愿者上钩的原则，即出家人还俗，只须对一个精神正常的成年人说：“我还俗了。”就算生效。 （二）定。就是禅定，也称止或止观，目的在于息杂念，生信心。在戒、定、慧的修持方法中，它居中，所以说，由戒生定，因定发慧。戒，作用偏于消极，只是不做不宜于做的；定则可以转向积极，生慧，慧是得度的决定性力量。禅定是印度多种教派共用的修持方法，因为要走与“不识不知，顺帝之则”不同的或说非世俗的路，所以不能不深思冥想，以求最终能够确信，自己的设想比世俗的高明得多。不深思冥想就不能获得这种高明得多的信心，也就不能生慧。没有慧，不只解脱落了空，还不可避免地要随世俗的波，逐世间的流，太危险了。也就因此，就佛教说，不管什么宗派，都特别重视定功。 定功，用现在的话说是改造思想，只是改的幅度大，是面对世俗的客观而建立迥异于世俗的主观。这自然很难。难而仍想求成，就要有理论，有办法。这都很复杂，只说一点点浅易的，以期门外汉可以略知梗概。 戒、定、慧的定，不是一般的定，是禅定。照佛家的分析，定是止心于一境的心理状态，常人也有。这很对，如低的，专想哈密瓜，高的，专想方程式，都是。佛家说这类情况是“生得之散定”，散是乱的意思，与戒、定、慧的定不同。戒、定、慧的定指“修得之禅定”，简单说是不想世间法，只想出世间法。 因级别有浅深的不同，禅定（的境）分为四种：初禅定，二禅定，三禅定，四禅定。每一种有各自的心理状态，内容太复杂，只得从略。果也不同，初禅定生初禅天，二禅定生二禅天，三禅定生三禅天，四禅定生四禅天，这也太玄远，只得从略。 还是说通常的办法，那就比较浅易、实际。程序是先发心，小的是信受佛法，求悟以得解脱，大的是兼普度众生。然后是具体做，顺序是五调。一是“调食”，就是吃得不过多过少，不吃不适于吃的食物。二是“调睡眠”，就是不要贪睡而忽略定功。三是“调身”，这包括多种内容，如坐相、手相、正身、正颈、轻闭眼、择坐地等都是。四是“调息”。息有四种相，风（有声），喘（不通畅），气（不细），息（微弱而顺适），要避免前三种相，用息相。五是“调心”，就是既不乱想教义以外的事，又不堕入浮（心不定）沉（昏沉不思）二相。这样经过五调，安心修定（据传入定时间很长，如数日甚至数月，其心理状态如何，难知难说，从略），结果就会逐渐领悟佛法的大道理，也就是发慧。 （三）慧。定是求知，慧是知（断惑证理）。不知不能行，就不能得解脱，所以慧在佛法中处于绝顶重要的地位。大藏中连篇累牍，各宗派力竭声嘶，讲“般若”（慧），就因为有了“般若”才能“波罗蜜多（得度）”，“般若者，秦言智慧，一切诸智慧中最为第一，无上无比无等，更无胜者。”（《大智度论》卷四十三）说一切诸智慧，因为照佛家的看法，智慧不只一种。主要有两种，分别称为智和慧：智是认识世间事的明察力，慧是证悟出世间法的明察力。两者的性质迥然不同，如前者可以包括求取利禄，后者就绝不可以。这样限定，慧（或般若）就成为见佛法而笃信而笃行的一种心理力量，用前面的说法，是真正能看逆为顺，行逆如顺，如见外界实物而以为空，见美女而以为可厌，见断气而以为证涅槃，等等。这样的慧，纵使常人会认为只是自造的一种主观的境，站在佛教的立场却不能不叹为“无上无比无等”，因为离开这个，佛法就必致成为皆空。 同其他名相一样，对于慧或般若，也有繁琐的分析。少的分为两种，共般若（声闻、缘觉、菩萨通用），不共般若（只适用于菩萨）；或三种：实相般若（船若之体）观照般若（般若之用），文字般若（解说般若之经论）。多的分为五种，是三种之外加境界般若（般若所观照之对境）和眷属般若（与般若有关的诸名相）。 总之，慧是一种心理状态，包括“能”“所”两个方面： 能是有洞见佛法之力，所是所见的境确如佛法所讲。这力，这境，究竟是怎么回事，留待讲“悟”的时候再谈。 3．4．9解脱 以上谈的多种看法，多种办法，目的只有一个，是求解脱。解是解除惑业的系缚，脱是去掉三界的苦果，或简单说，是永离苦海。解脱后所得之境为涅槃，义为灭。《大乘义章》解释说：“外国涅槃，此翻为灭。灭烦恼故，灭生死故，名之为灭。离众相故，大寂静故，名之为灭。”说浅易些，是因为修行有道，得了不再有苦的果。 依照佛教教义，得这种果，还有等级之别。较低的是声闻，指听到佛的言教，明四圣谛之理，断了惑，而得解脱的。较高的是缘觉（又称辟支佛），指因某种因缘，或悟十二因缘之理，而得解脱的。再高是菩萨，指勇猛求道，得大觉，并有觉有情的弘愿，而得解脱的。最高是佛，指具一切种智，得无上遍正觉，并能觉他，而得解脱的。还有小乘大乘的分法：己解脱而不度人的是罗汉，己解脱而兼度人的是菩萨。 以上也许应该算作“文字般若”，甚至画饼充饥。常人想知道的大概是，所谓解脱，身与心究竟是什么状态？依教义说是涅槃。可是涅槃的性相很难捉摸，如《中论》说： 无得亦无至，不断亦不常，不生亦不灭，是说名涅槃。无得者，于行于果无所得。无至者，无处可至。不断者，五阴先来毕竟空，故得道入无余涅槃时，亦无所断。不常者，若有法可得分别者则名为常，涅槃寂灭，无法可分别，故不名为常。生灭亦尔。如是相者名为涅槃。复次，经说涅槃，非有，非无，非有无，非非有，非非无，一切法不受，内寂灭，名涅槃。 总之，是用世间的话，怎么说都错。可是，想认识，至少是门外的常人，又非用世间的话不可。不得已，只好离开玄理，考察事实。涅槃是灭，是否触及身心？像是触及了，远的如各种涅槃经中所说，释迦牟尼佛也灭度了，其后，各种高僧传中所说的高僧，也灭度了。也许是往生净土？可惜这比涅槃更渺茫。客观是不可抗的，因而所谓解脱，恐怕不能不指一种因观空制欲而得到的不执着因而无苦或少苦的主观的意境。这意境，正是禅悟所追求的，后面还要详谈。 3．4．10慈悲喜舍 慈，悲，喜，舍，合称四无量心，是乐于利他的四种心理状态。慈是想与人以乐，悲是想使人离苦，喜是见人离苦得乐而喜，舍是平等对待一切，不偏执。依四无量心而行，可以得生色界梵天的果，所以四无量心又称四梵行。 利他的心和行是世间的常事，可是想由理论方面找到根据却不容易。孔子说：“夫仁者，己欲立而立人，己欲达而达人。”（《论语·雍也》）只是说事实这样，没有说理由。孟子往深处走一步，说：“人皆有不忍人之心。”（《孟子·公孙丑上》）这是《中庸》说的“天命之谓性，率性之谓道”。讲道德哲学的人几乎都推重道德规律，这规律何自来？不管说良知还是说义务，都可以算作孟子一路。委诸天，问题离开自己，就可以轻松愉快。难点来自人己有大别：己，苦乐都是实感；人，自己不能实感，即使可以类推，“能近取譬”，也总不能推论为必须推己及人。理论方面找不到根据而仍须这样做，恐怕来源是以社会为基础的生活习惯；所以能养成，是不这样，自己的所求也就落了空。这样说，佛教教义不安于小乘的自了，要发大誓愿，普度众生，实际是接受了常识。因为无论由四圣谛，还是由十二因缘，都只能推论出须度苦，而不能推论出必须普度众生。 不过佛家接受常识，却没有停留于常识。利他，他的范围大，不是只对人，而是包括诸有情（有情识的，大致相当于动物）。大戒的第一戒不杀就是贯彻这种主张的。不杀还不限于人和牛羊等，如具足戒规定“知水有虫饮用者，波逸提”，就扩大到连蚊子的幼虫也放过了。还有，利他，利的做法要求高，不只不利己的事要做，损己以至于杀身的事也要做。投身饲虎，割肉饲鹰，是佛教常说的故事；不只是故事，大乘戒并把这两项列为十忍的第一、二两个条目。其实，就是不规定，教史中所记，如释迦成道后的转法轮，达磨祖师西来意，等等，所显示的都是利他的弘愿和行为，也等于明说了。 3．4．11神通和福报 作为宗教，宣扬教义，不只要论证所想和所说都是独一无二的真理，而且要指明，照此而行一定能获得非一般人所能获得的酬报。了生死，得解脱，证涅槃，是信士弟子的所求，也是理所应得，可以不在话下。这里说的是近于世俗的甚至可以说是近于迷信的两种获得：出家修行可以获得神通，在家布施可以获得福报。 神通，一般说有五种：一是神境智证通，即能变化外界，往来自由；二是天眼智证通，即能照见一切；三是天耳智证通，即能听闻一切；四是他心智证通，即能知他人所想；五是宿命智证通，即能知过去未来。有的还加上无漏智证通，即断尽一切烦恼，成为六通。还有加到十种的。这自然都出于