Chapter 6 Chapter Five Features of Classical Chinese (2)

5.5.4 Most of the writing methods have clear specifications Writing, the content of the same nature, in what form to express, it is inevitable to imitate the predecessors.However, there are differences in the ways of imitation, which can follow suit or change flexibly.Many styles of classical Chinese seem to be binding, requiring later authors to follow suit. In terms of style, there are clear specifications.This manifests itself in many ways.More important organizational aspects, such as Fu, generally write an introduction first, introducing the reason for writing this Fu, called "Preface", and then the main text; is not independent, must be placed at the end; etc.There are also language aspects, such as Lun and Zouyi, which generally use prose style, Qi and Zhuwen must use parallel style; some styles must rhyme completely, such as Song and Ce, and some styles must rhyme partly, such as Epitaph The inscription of the inscription, the praise of the post-historical biography, and so on.

In addition to organization and language, some styles also have some small frames in terms of format and terminology. For example, in the memorial to the emperor, the beginning should start with "Chen Wen" or "Chen Mou Yan", and the end often expresses fear "Unbearable...zhizhi" "A kind of words; history biographers, always start with "so-and-so, ... people", and end with what merits, what works, what kind of mourning after death, what kind of descendants are left behind, etc. The most obvious and strictest specification is of course poetry.As far as poetry is concerned, ancient style poetry still has a little freedom in terms of length, rhyme, and flatness, but modern style poetry (regulated poems, quatrains) has strict rhythms, and there is no freedom at all.For example, it is about Qilu.It can only be seven words and eight sentences; if one Dong rhyme is used, it is not allowed to use Er Dong rhyme to rhyme; and generally speaking, the two couplets in the middle should be antithetical; and so on.Words are lyrics, and the restrictions have to be stricter. In some places, not only is the level required to comply with the regulations, but also the type of type (up, down or in) is required to be used, which cannot be accommodated at all.

In vernacular works, especially modern ones, there are almost no such rules and regulations. 5.6 Aspects of expression: rhyming Expression is for affection.The same affection can be expressed in more than one language.Different terms generally have a difference between superior and inferior, and the superior one not only suits the affection, but also has the advantages of conciseness, elegance, and beautiful voice.It is rhetoric to use language to express ideas, strive to match emotions, and also want to have the advantages of simplicity, elegance, and beautiful voice.There are many rhetorical methods in classical Chinese, which are commonly used but hardly used in modern Chinese. There are three that deserve special attention: rhyme, duality and allusion.

5.6.1 Rhyme and its rhetorical role Many styles of classical Chinese use rhyming writing, as mentioned in Section 5.5.2 above.Rhyming is to make words with the same rhyme appear regularly one after another at the appropriate place in the sentence (usually the place of pause).The so-called rhyme includes three situations.Take modern Chinese as an example: one is the same, such as "ba" and "na", the finals are all a; the other is the same main vowel, such as "jiajia" and "huahua", the main vowel is a; The third is that the pronunciation is the same, such as "jingjing", "genggeng" and "gonggong", the pronunciation is ng.Classical Chinese rhymes in the same way, except that ancient Chinese sounds are different from modern Chinese sounds, so sometimes the ancients rhyme and the current pronunciation does not rhyme. This has also been mentioned in Section 5.2.3 and Section 5.2.5 above. .As for whether words that rhyme require the same tone, the situation varies from body to body.For example, modern style poems must be the same; ancient style poems and words can sometimes be adapted.

Rhyme is an important rhetorical method in classical Chinese. Roughly speaking, its function is pleasant to hear.To be more specific, the function can be divided into two layers.The first layer is musical, that is, in the back and forth of the rhythm, in addition to understanding the meaning, you can also feel the strong beauty of sound.For example, read Du Mu's "Mountain Journey": "In the far distance, the stone path is slanted in the cold mountain, and there is a family where the white clouds are born. Stop and sit in the maple forest at night, and the frost leaves are as red as the flowers in February."

"Slant", "home" and "flower" appear one after another, and what is conveyed to people is not only the scenery and mood, but also the beauty of the sound (the beauty of the sound also comes from the coordination of level and obliqueness, which will be discussed below).The deeper layer is artistic conception, that is, different rhymes can also evoke different sentiments.For example, reading Du Fu's "Out of the Fortress": "Enter the Dongmen Camp in the morning, and go up to the Heyang Bridge in the evening. The setting sun shines on the banner, and the horses sing and the wind is rustling." (Old Subordinate Ping Sheng Er Xiao Yun) We will feel desolate and bold; reading Wang Wei's "Farewell" : "Let's send each other off in the mountains, and the sun will cover the firewood. The spring grass is green every year, will the kings and grandchildren return?" (Old belongs to Shangping Sheng Wuwei rhyme) We will feel sad and melancholy.This beautiful voice and deep artistic conception are difficult to express in bulk.

5.6.2 Various forms In classical Chinese works, the situation of rhyming is very complicated.Let me talk about "scope" first.As the name suggests, rhyming should only be used in verse, but it is occasionally seen in a few prose texts.For example, "Lao Tzu" is the most prominent, "Being and non-existing · birth, difficult and easy · form, long and short · shape, high and low · incline" (Chapter 2), "destroying its sharpness, solving its differences, and reconciling Its light, like its dust, seems to exist” (Chapter 4), etc., are all like this.The "Yueyang Tower" mentioned in Section 5.5.2 above is also a good example.Secondly, in rhymes, the scope of rhyme also varies from full to partial. For example, some early Fus did not rhyme throughout.Therefore, we can generally say that in classical Chinese classics, verses must rhyme.

Let's talk about the "format" of rhyming, which refers to where the rhyming words are used.Rhyme characters are generally used at the end of sentences, so they are customarily called "rhyme feet".Say average, with a few exceptions.That's when a statement ends with a dummy word, such as: (1) Nymphium japonicus, flowing from left to right.Fair and fair lady, sleep soundly and ask for it. ("Book of Songs Zhou Nan Guan Ju") (2) Look at Xiakou in the west, look at Wuchang in the east, look at the mountains and rivers, and feel gloomy. Can't this be Cao Mengde's trap in Zhou Lang? (Su Shi's "Red Cliff Fu")

But this kind of situation is rare after all, so we might as well say that the rhyme always appears in the place where the sentence pauses. The place where the pause at the end of the sentence is the foot, which foot rhymes, the situation is not the same.Most of them use rhyme every other sentence, such as the few Tang poems cited in this section and the previous section.Ancient poems also have rhymes in every sentence. Legend has it that it started with the couplet of Bailiangtai, Emperor Wu of the Han Dynasty, so later generations called it "Bailiang style" (seven words, rhyme in every sentence).In fact, this was the fashion at that time, as early as Han Gaozu's "Great Wind Song", with "Yang" at the end

Both "Xiang" and "Fang" use rhyme; the late ones such as Zhang Heng's "Poems of Four Sorrows" use rhyme in every sentence, although they don't rhyme to the end.The general situation is: before the Wei and Jin Dynasties, especially in Yuefu poems, the rhyme standard was not very strict, and it could be used every other sentence, or every sentence, or the two methods could be interleaved; after the Southern and Northern Dynasties, it became common practice to use rhyme every sentence, Except for the intentional imitation of antiques, other forms have almost disappeared.

The above is based on poetry, and it is common to use rhymes at intervals.The interval between sentences is for changes in the loop.For the beauty of sound and even the beauty of language, "change" is an important principle.The use of rhyme in a sentence has more loops and less change. It is better to use it in the next sentence instead of using it in the previous sentence, especially the flat rhyme, which can make people feel frustrated.Words are different from poems in that they are long and short sentences, and the principle of using rhyme every other sentence in order to have both loops and changing sound beauty is not fully applicable.As for how to arrange the rhymes, the situation is ever-changing. We can only say that it is quite different from modern poetry; But it is different, whether it is separated or not (whether the sentence uses rhyme), or how much is separated, it is not certain. There is also a difference between a rhyme to the end and a rhyme change in rhyme.Modern poems all rhyme to the end, and the rhythm of the unlimited number of sentences is also the same.The ancient poems are not necessarily, as the author wishes, the rhyme may not be changed, such as Han Yu's "Tiao Zhang Ji", the rhyme can be changed, such as Du Fu's "Soldiers and Chariots"; the number of changes can be less, such as Li Bai's "Drinking Alone under the Moon" "Hua Jian" "One Pot of Wine" is only changed once; it can be changed many times, such as Bai Juyi, not only changing frequently, but also irregularly (changing a few sentences once, changing flat and flat, not necessarily).There are various situations in which words are changed or not changed because of different tones. Generally speaking, it is normal not to change words;Fus are long, and the rhymes are changed; since the Tang and Song Dynasties, the imperial examinations have often restricted how to change the rhymes, such as Bai Juyi's "Luochuan Qingwang Fu", which states "with the rhyme of wishing to pick up green and purple" under the title, which requires that the rhymes be changed in order. Use four rhymes. Rhyme, the rhyme foot uses flat and flat, and each style is different.Almost all modern poems rhyme in level tone.There are a lot of archaic poems and Fu; the same is true for Fu.There are different regulations for different tones (with very few exceptions, one tone can be used for both flat and zetical); some not only stipulate ping and ze, but also specify which kind of ze, such as "Recalling Qin'e "You must use the entering rhyme.Generally speaking, the use of flat and zep for the rhyme has something to do with the mood. For example, the mood of flat tones is more cheerful, and the mood of zhe tones (especially entering tones) is more gloomy, which can often be understood from the reciting of the words. 5.6.3 Leniency and Difficulty Rhyme has a difference of "lenient and strict" due to different styles, or in other words, the scope of "same usage" has a difference of size, the larger is wider, and the smaller is strict.As mentioned in section 5.2.3 above when we talked about the Middle Ages, the rhyme books in the Tang and Song Dynasties once divided the rhymes into a maximum of 206 parts, but the writing of poems (including poetry writing for exams) did not divide the characters into 206 piles, and the limit was not allowed to exceed the limit. Instead, the "same use" method was used to subtract almost half, leaving 106 units in the end.The leniency and strictness mentioned here refer to the leniency and strictness after being merged into 106 parts.Strictly, it is divided into 106 piles, which are not allowed to cross the boundary; wide, some piles of characters can cross the boundary, or they can be merged to become fewer parts.In terms of style, modern style poetry is strict, and the 106 poems must not invade each other.If you use a Dong rhyme, you are not allowed to see "Dong" and "Zong" in the rhyme. Words like "pine" and "gong" belonged to Erdong's group.Only the first sentence is an exception, because the first sentence can use rhyme or not. Some people use "neighboring rhyme" when composing poems flexibly. The rhyme is "village", both of which belong to thirteen yuan, but the first sentence "there are many rains during the Qingming Festival" uses the word "fen" in twelve characters.For all styles other than modern poetry, the rhyme is wide.For example, in ancient poetry, Dong, Dong, Jiang, Yang, Zhi, Wei, Qi, etc., words with neighboring rhymes can all be used together.The rhyme of the words is similar to that of ancient poetry, and in a few places it is wider than that of ancient poetry (for details, please refer to Mr. Wang Li's "Ancient Chinese" or "Metrics of Poetry"). There is also a difference between difficulty and difficulty in rhyming.The lenient and strict just mentioned is a kind of difficulty: lenient, there are many words available, and easy; otherwise, it is difficult.Generally speaking, it refers to the difficulty within a strict range.Because the characters contained in each rhyme are different in quantity and nature: if the number is large, the words are often used, which is easy; if the number of words is small, and the words are not commonly used, it is difficult.Take the 30 rhymes in the level tone as an example. Some rhymes, such as the four branches of the upper level tone and the first level of the lower level tone, not only contain many characters, but also have many commonly used characters, which are easy to choose and are called "wide rhymes"; some rhymes, such as the upper level tone Wuwei and Shishiwen contain few characters and are difficult to choose. They are called "narrow rhyme". There are also some rhymes, such as Sanjiang in the upper level tone and Shiwuxian in the lower level tone. (Such as Sanjiang's "Long", "Pang", and "Jian", and Shiwuxian's "Xian", "Jiang" and "Title"), it is difficult to choose, and it is called "dangerous rhyme".Poetry is generally adapted to the requirements of affection, and the available wide rhyme or narrow rhyme is used to avoid dangerous rhymes.However, there are also some people who sometimes deliberately use dangerous rhymes to show that they can take advantage of difficulties, or at the same time please others and make others difficult, which is close to word games.In addition, there are also some words in wide rhyme and narrow rhyme, which have strange meanings and are rarely used in daily life. If they are used as rhymes on purpose to show off and make people difficult, the nature is the same as that of using dangerous rhymes in the whole poem. Word play. (It is also of this nature that there are a few difficult-to-use words left in the five-character rhythmic couplets. 5.7 Duality Duality, also known as antithesis (in ancient times, armed with weapons to defend the nobles, they were left and right in pairs, famous battles, and later became ceremonial guards), which means appearing in pairs.Sentences are used in conjunction, and duality is only one of the many forms that may be formed.However, it has a strong personality and heavy colors, so it has become a big family in classical Chinese. It not only appears frequently in various styles, but also establishes its own independent kingdom: parallel style.Duality has many patterns and far-reaching influence. It is a very important way of expression in classical Chinese, so it needs special attention. 5.7.1 Duality and its rhetorical role Sentences are used in conjunction, and words or sentences with the same nature and the same form appear in pairs. We call this expression a duality.For example: "Reviewing the old and learning the new, you can be a teacher." "The Analects of Confucius Weizheng") "Reviewing the old" and "Knowing the new" are pairs in the sentence; "Learning without thinking is useless, and thinking without learning is perilous." (Ibid.) The two parts before and after the comma are antithetical; "For example, if it is a mountain, if it is not a short distance, stop, I will stop; for example, even if it is covered by a short distance, I will go forward." ("The Analects of Confucius·Zihan") Before and after the semicolon Two-part duality.In the pre-Qin period, antithesis was used, presumably as a coincidence, so the requirements for meaning and sound are not strict.Later, when we kept improving, the situation was quite different.For example: "The meaning of Geng Jie is hurt, and the feeling of depression is full of complaints; Linyuan has the ambition of "Huaisha", and Yinze has the appearance of "haggard"." (Xiao Tong's "Selected Works") Water, dense rain invades Xueli wall obliquely. Ridge trees cover thousands of miles of sight, and river flows like nine ileums." (Liu Zongyuan's "Climbing Liujiao City Tower and Sending Zhangting Fenglian to Four Prefectures") We knew it was intentional at the first thought.This kind of painstaking effort to put it together is naturally related to the atmosphere; but the formation of the atmosphere cannot but have objective factors.For this objective factor, the article "Wen Xin Diao Long Li Ci" says: "For good fortune to form, the branch must be double; God's principle is used, and things are not isolated." Obviously, it is a generalization; so it is better to talk about it in terms of requirements. , is to use this form to achieve good expressive effect.To be more specific, it can be divided into two aspects: meaning and sound.In terms of meaning, the two parts of the dual set off and echo each other, and the expressed meaning will appear more abundant, clearer and more precise.In terms of sound, the two parts of the duality open and close, and release one another. The rhythm can appear ups and downs, the rhythm is clear, and it is harmonious and pleasant.This advantage in expression can be observed from many famous sentences that have been circulated.Take two places in the Tang Dynasty as an example: "The soil is still dry, but the six-foot solitary can be trusted (the old tone)." (Luo Binwang's "Discussion of Wu Zhao") "The sunset and the lone duck fly together, and the autumn water grows together into the sky One color." (Wang Bo's Preface to the Pavilion of King Teng) We can recite it carefully, if we don't use antithesis, it is very difficult to achieve such an effect. 5.7.2 Early duals Sentences form duals, and certain conditions must be met.There are rough and fine duals, coarse, few conditions to be met; fine, many conditions to be satisfied.Let’s talk about rough or low requirements first, and there are two conditions.One belongs to the aspect of meaning, and the meanings of two words (or two words) that are duals are different individuals in the same category.Such as "mountain" and "tree", "fly" and "see", "poor" and "rich", can all be classified into the same category, expressed in grammatical terms, they belong to nouns, verbs and adjectives respectively.The so-called different individuals mean that "mountain" cannot be opposed to "mountain", and "rich" cannot be opposed to "rich"; except for virtual characters such as "zhi", "and" and "yi", the opposite two parties can use the same Couplets are an exception, and virtual characters are not allowed to use the same one).Another condition belongs to the aspect of sound, that is, the dual western parts have the same number of words, that is, the same number of syllables.For example, "Yuan" can be opposite to "Ze", but "Furong" cannot be opposite to "Liu".The reason why this requirement can be raised and it is not difficult to meet is because Chinese has the characteristic that a character represents a syllable, and the vast majority of classical Chinese words are monosyllable; Difficult to do.Similar meaning and equal number of syllables are minimum requirements.In the early days, roughly pre-Qin, Han or later, because such writing was generally not intended, the dual majority formed could not meet this low requirement.Such as: (1) Those who attain the Dao will be helped more than those who have lost the Dao. ("Mencius Gongsun Chou Xia") (2) When a gentleman travels the way, he takes pleasure in forgetting his worries; when a villain is full of body, he speaks (joys) to forget his sins. (Yang Yun's "Book of Baosun Huizong") (3) There are no close relatives who are expected to be successful outside, and no children who are five feet away from the door. (Li Mi's "Chen Qing Biao") Example (1) and Example (2), both parts use the same word.Example (3) not only uses the same word, but also the relative meanings of "Qi Gong Qiang Jin" and "Ying Men Wu Chi" are not relative to each other.Sometimes it can be worse.Such as: (4) Cyan is taken from blue, and green is from blue; ice is made from water, and colder than water. ("Xunzi Encouraging Learning") (5) Husbands and emperors seek wealth and benefit, and those who are often afraid of lack of money have the meaning of ordinary people; emperors who seek benevolence and justice, often fear that they will not be able to transform the people, this is the meaning of doctors. (Dong Zhongshu's "Virtuous Countermeasures" III) This is only seeking the relative meaning of the total, while giving up the equal number of words.During this period, sometimes there is a better match, and that is just a coincidence.Such as: (6) Yan Wang was benevolent and righteous and Xu died, Zigong debated wisdom and Lu cut (the old tone). ("Han Feizi·Five Beetles") (7) Embrace the meaning of the four seas and swallow the hearts of the eight wilds. (Jia Yi's "On Passing the Qin Dynasty") In addition to being rough but not refined, the early antithesis also has a feature, that is, it is used in the loose body and is in a subordinate position.Such as: (8) The minister heard that those who have the whole will prosper, and those who lose the whole will perish.Shun had no place to set up a cone to own the world, Yu did not have ten households to gather kings and princes, the land of Tang and Wu was no more than a hundred miles away, and there were three lights that were endless above, and those who did not hurt the hearts of the people below had the art of kings.Therefore, the way of father and son is also in nature; if a hero does not avoid heavy punishment and remonstrates directly, then there will be no strategy left behind, and his merit will last forever.The minister is willing to serve the foolish and loyal with all his heart, but the king seldom pays attention to it, and he is sympathetic to the minister's words. (Mei Cheng's "Letter to Admonish the King of Wu") This passage uses a lot of antithesis, but after reading it, we always feel that these are taken at random, and there is a big distance between using them to serve the bulk of the narrative, and the subsequent parallel writing with careful words and sentences. 5.7.3 Duality of Parallel The pair has high requirements, and the conditions that need to be met are more detailed.One of the conditions also belongs to the aspect of meaning, which is that two relative words can not only be classified into a large category, but also can be classified into a small category.Taking the names of things as an example, "flower" and "horse" can be classified into the major category of nouns; "flower" and "grass" can not only be classified into the major category of nouns, but also can be classified into the subcategory of plants in nouns.A good duality requires that the two opposite words preferably belong to a small class.The other condition also belongs to the aspect of sound, that is, the two parts of the dual not only need to have the same number of words, but also have to have different relative words.The so-called difference between level and oblique mainly refers to the word that plays an important role in rhythm.Taking regulated poems as an example, two syllables are used as a unit, and the emphasis is on the latter syllable. Therefore, "Fenghuo" (Ping Zhe) can be used for "family letter" (Ping Zhe), but "Gu Shui" (Ze Zhe) is not allowed.The principle of duality in the text is also the same, but there are some changes due to the different sentence structures, such as "Wang Chang'an is in the sun, and Wu will be in the clouds" (Wang Bo's "Tengwang Pavilion Preface"), the focus is on the third and sixth characters, rather than the second word of two syllables.The refinement of sound requirements has already begun in the Wei and Jin Dynasties, such as "When you walk, you will connect with others, and when you stop, you will take over the banquet (the old tone is flat)" (Cao Pi's "Book with Wu Zhi"), "Leaning on the south window to show pride, judge appearance Knee (formerly humming) Zhi'an" (Tao Yuanming's "Gui Qu Lai Ci"), seems to have traces of carving.But this is based on perceptual groping, that is, as Shen Yue said: "Speaking and clever sentences, the phonology is natural, all of which are dark and reasonable, and the bandits come from thinking." , sometimes not in the middle.In the Qi and Liang periods of the Southern Dynasties, the situation was different. Inspired by the Sanskrit pinyin in the translation of Buddhist scriptures, Shen Yue and others created the sayings of four tones and eight diseases. Obviously, the duality is finely crafted.Elaborate crafting is trying to meet the conditions of both meaning and sound.However, the binding force of these two conditions is different: it is "best" to belong to the same subcategory in terms of meaning, that is to say, it is okay to fail to do so; it is "must" to be different in sound, otherwise it is a violation of the law. As far as the text is concerned, starting from the Wei and Jin Dynasties, antithesis has gradually moved towards "similar meanings", "different levels", "increased proportion of parallel sentences", "used more than four or six sentences", and gradually in some articles, the paraphrase took over the main role, thus the parallel style came into being.There is a boundary problem between bulk and parallel bodies.As with some things, it is not easy to divide them into two distinct piles.The views of the ancients tended to be lenient, such as Li Zhaoluo compiled "Parallel Wenchao", Li Si's "Book of Remonstrance and Chasing Guests" collected from Qin and Han Dynasties, and Jia Yi's "On Passing Qin".In my opinion, whether a prose is considered parallel style should be determined by whether the duality is dominant.Sentences form duals, which can be coupled, but the number is not many; a large number of neat duals appear continuously, which is always the result of intentional carving.The parallel style should be carved out of intention.Carving, keeping improving, so starting from Qi and Liang, first, the proportion of duality is increasing; second, the proportion of four-character sentences and six-character sentences is increasing. The standard parallel style was formed, such as Xu Ling's "New Songs on the Yutai Preface" and Wang Bo's "Tengwang Pavilion Preface" that are familiar to everyone.Parallel style mostly uses four or six sentences. In addition to requiring the same meaning and different levels, antithesis also seeks changes in the interlacing of four and six. For example, antithesis can be four to four, six to six, or four to six to four six, six to four. June four.No matter what the form is, virtual words such as "zhi", "and" and "yi" still do not avoid repetition. The expression of duality not only invades prose prose and becomes parallel style, but also invades rhyme prose and becomes "parallel fu".This writing method was included in the examination subjects in the Tang and Song Dynasties and became "Lyue Fu", and the requirements for antithesis were even stricter. 5.7.4 Duality of verses Duality has become a common way of expression, striving for perfection, so some people pay attention to the research of various specifications.Shen Yue's Eight Diseases (Flat Head, Upper Tail, Wasp Waist, Crane Knee, etc.) discusses the specifications of the sound, which means that if you want to be harmonious, you must be like this, and you are not allowed to be like that.In terms of meaning, there are four types of antithesis in the article "Wen Xin Diao Long · Li Ci": words and facts, opposition and positive antithesis.In the Tang Dynasty, there was a Japanese monk named Bianzhao King Kong who came to study abroad in the Tang Dynasty and wrote a book "Wen Jing Mi Fu Lun", which introduced the various attentions of Tang Dynasty people in poetry. 29 categories (also in terms of sound)Later, most of the books for poetry and prose research divided rhetoric into several parts such as astronomy, seasons, and geography.In practice, duality is used, and the division is even more detailed, such as color to color, number to number, name to name, or even stem to stem, year to year, and so on.These cumbersome details, or quintessential dualities, are most concentrated and prominently expressed in verses.Rhythm poems include five rhythms and seven rhythms. Generally speaking, the two couplets in the middle should be antithetical.The sound requirement is that two syllables are a unit (the latter is the key point), and it must be changed (it is not allowed to repeat with adjacent units).Such as: Five Laws and Seven Laws flat flat flat flat flat flat flat flat flat flat flat flat flat As far as the first unit is concerned, looking to the right has changed, and looking down has also changed.Invariance is an irregularity, which is called "misalignment".Wrong sentences are called "obscured sentences", which can be remedied and are called "obscured sentences".The format of the two couplets is also not allowed to be repeated. For example, if the third sentence is a flat tone (the second word is a flat tone), the fifth sentence must be flat, and the same is "lost stick".As far as the couple is concerned, these are all attached, so I don’t need to say more. Compared with the sound aspect, the meaning aspect is much more particular.Said general requirement earlier, is that two words that are best relative belong to the same subcategory, as " spring " to " summer ", and " hundred " is to " thousand ", is " work is to ".As a last resort, take the second, such as "Heaven" to "Xia" (astronomy to season), "Du Fu" to "Handan" (person's name to place name), it is "neighborhood to".The second is just similar words to similar words, which is a "wide pair".Virtual characters such as "zhi", "and" and "yi" are hardly used in regulated poems. If they are used, the upper and lower couplets are not allowed to have the same one.Duality and neatness are the duty requirements of regulated poems, and there are some common tricks besides the duty, here are a few common ones as examples.One is "the right sentence", such as Dai Shulun's "Jiangxiang Guren Puppet Collection Guest House": "The wind branches frighten the dark magpies, and the dew grass weeps the cold insects." ", all in the sentence dual.If this writing method is used in a couplet of regulated poems, it will naturally become a multi-level dual.The other is "flowing water pair", such as Chen Tao's "Long Westward Journey": "Poor bones by the Wuding River, still like a person in a spring girl's dream." It is combined into a sentence, like flowing water flowing down.The other is "borrowing pairs", such as Wen Tingyun's "Suwu Temple": "When you go back to the sun, the tower is not a tent. When you go, the crown sword is the year of Ding." The meaning of "Ding" was borrowed to make it form a stem-branch pair with "A" in the Shanglian.There is another kind of "face to face", also known as "sentence pairs", such as Zheng Gu's "Send Pei to Meet Yuanwai": "In the past, we took pictures of the Songxi River, and there are no more desolate monks on the Songzhe stele; today we still think about Jincheng. It’s a matter of snow disappearing and flowers thanking dreams.” It is the first sentence and the third sentence, and the second sentence and the fourth sentence.There is another kind of "intricate right", such as Li Qunyu's "Small Drinking Show with Zheng Xiang and Song Ji": "The skirt drags six pieces of Xiangjiang River, and the temple embraces a section of clouds in Wushan." (The first couplet of Qilu) is the first couplet of the Shanglian. The third and fourth characters are paired with the fifth and sixth characters of the second couplet, and the fifth and sixth characters of the first couplet are paired with the third and fourth characters of the second couplet.In addition, antithesis can also be superficial and spiritual (meaning pair), such as Cui Hao's "Yellow Crane Tower": "The yellow crane will never return, and the white clouds will be empty for thousands of years." the dual.In short, no matter whether it is within the duty or outside the duty, those who write regulated poems not only seek neatness, but also seek strangeness and ingenuity, that is, they do not hesitate to spend a lot of thought on antithesis. 5.7.5 Other aspects The expression of duality, and its fruits, have long been loved by most people.Love it and be willing to use it, so it is like a bamboo root, it thrives when it meets the right water and soil.It's hard to say in detail what kind of territory it occupies, but here we only talk about three aspects as examples. One is "couplets", which were written or engraved on the pillars hanging on both sides of the door in the early days, so they are also called "couplets".It is speculated that a couplet with auspicious and gorgeous words in the verses was used as decoration at first.Since it is a decoration, it can be outside the door or indoors, so gradually, the trend of inviting celebrities to make and write couplets is booming.A side branch of this decorative couplet is the "Spring Festival couplets", which are still in use today.There is also another side branch, which is almost the opposite in nature. It is "elementary couplets", which are still used now.The couplet comes from the antithesis of the verses, but the vassal became a big country and made up many new tricks.For example, the number of words can be as few as three or four, or as many as dozens or even hundreds; the style of sentences can be the same as poetry, or the same as writing (using imaginary characters);All these were considered very interesting by literati in the old era, and some even wrote special books on them. For example, Liang Zhangju's "Yinglian Conghua" is one of the more famous ones. The other is "eight-legged prose", in which the duality has its own characteristics, which are the loose body of the paragraph and the pair of the loose body of the paragraph. The previous section 4.2.5 gave an example and will not be repeated. There is another one, which should be emphasized. Since the Tang and Song Dynasties, after the victory of the ancient prose movement, many literati, either out of hobbies or because they have read too much parallel style, unknowingly, often use some antithesis in their essays. Such as: (1) What you can see from the Gai Pavilion is hundreds of miles from north to south, from east to west, with turbulent waves, wind and clouds opening and closing, boats and oars appear and disappear in front of it during the day, and fish and dragons screaming under it at night. Don't look at it for a long time, now it's just a few seats to play with. (Su Zhe's "Huangzhou Kuaizai Pavilion") (2) However, people in Hangzhou stop at noon, Wei and Shen three o'clock when they visit the lake.In fact, the work of dyeing the lake with emerald green, and the wonderful coloring of the mountains and mist, all begin to emerge in the morning sun, and are extremely charming at the beginning of the evening. (Yuan Hongdao's "West Lake II") (3) Those who suppress their thoughts and be good at their husbands, why should they know all about the deer carts and Hong cases?Those who are good at teaching children, do they all memorize Huadi and Maruxiong?Since the literati have a well-thought-out plan, all the boudoirs are like seals.Instead of being inaccurate in text, how can we fax it in quality? (Zhang Xuecheng's "Ten Disadvantages of Ancient Prose") The articles come from the Song, Ming, and Qing dynasties respectively, and they all use duality in the loose body.Those who stick to the barriers of ancient prose may find it inappropriate to write in this way, because the "bad habit" of "selection" has not been eliminated.In fact, in all fairness, it is also a bad habit to be careful all the time and avoid the antithesis.It is best to let the writing go its own way, if it is suitable for scattered, it will be scattered, and if it is suitable for parallelism, it will be parallel.Some people go a step further, such as Li Zhaoluo who edited "Parallel Style Wenchao" and Tan Xian who commented on this book, advocating that the article "should" be a combination of parallel and scattered, otherwise it will not be able to achieve the state of simplicity and nature. 5.8 Dictionary Using allusions is a way of expressing the meaning of the present by using ancient things and old sayings. Classical Chinese works, especially in some genres (such as parallel style), can hardly be separated from it; It also feels less elegant.The effect of using allusions is elegant, so for two thousand years, no matter how strenuous the writing and reading have been, they still have to regard it as a sublime way of expression, not only willing to accept it, but also striving to use it in large quantities. 5.8.1 Allusions in Classical Chinese Allusions come from old ones, so they are also called "allusions".Using allusions, also known as "yongshi" or "lishi", in the form of definition: using fewer words to cite specific ancient things or ancient sayings to express more modern meanings.Such as: (1) When Yang Yi does not meet, he caresses Lingyun and feels sorry for himself; when Zhong Qi meets, how can he be ashamed to play the flowing water? (Wang Bo's Preface to the Pavilion of King Teng) (2) Compared with traveling between the north and the south, it is quite a long time for friends and friends to ask Yu Blind. (Gu Yanwu's "On Learning with Friends") Example (1) uses ancient things: Yang Deyi recommended Sima Xiangru, see "Han Shu Sima Xiangru Biography Part 1"; Zhong Ziqi understood Boya's piano meaning, see "Liezi Tang Wen".Example (2) uses an old saying: "One day grows long with me", see "The Analects of Confucius Advanced"; "seeking the way from the blind", see Han Yu's "Answer to Chen Shengshu".Whether it is an ancient thing or an old saying, the meaning expressed is today: "Yang Yibufeng" means talent but not appreciated, "Zhongqi Jiyu" means that you are respected now, and you will not be polite and write a poem or preface ; The language of "pushing the length of a day" means that one is respected because of being older, and the language of "asking in the blind" is polite, saying that one knows nothing.From the above example, we can know that there are three conditions for using allusions.One is to quote the past to talk about the present.For example, Mencius said: "During the time of Yao, the water flowed backwards and flooded China. Snakes and dragons lived in it, and the people were uncertain."The second is that the ancient sayings quoted are specific.Specifically refers to a certain "one", or has a source.For example, "Yang Yi Bu Feng" and "Tui Yi Day's Length" quoted above all refer to a certain one, and they all have sources, so they are allusions.Conversely, if you say "diligent study" in general, the ancients of course often said it too, but if it doesn't refer to a certain time of a certain person, it is not an allusion.The third is that the language is not complicated but rich in meaning.The so-called richness sometimes means that the meaning is large, and sometimes it means that the meaning is euphemistic and tortuous, which will be discussed below. In classical Chinese works, the number of allusions is closely related to the style of the style. In a nutshell, there are many allusions in the stylistic style that is more social and embellished, and less allusions are used in the style that is more serious and plain.Therefore, for example, compared with Zi and Shi, the former uses more allusions and the latter uses less allusions; compared with Santi, the former uses more allusions and the latter uses less allusions.The number of allusions is also closely related to the contemporaries. It is less used in the early days and more used in the later stages.The reason is that the inventory of ancient things and ancient sayings increases with the times, and more allusions are available later in the era.This situation will also produce two other situations: one is that the use of allusions has become a trend, and writing for writing, whether intentional or unintentional, has to follow the trend and use them; Learning is a great honor, so literati are always willing to use it more.Because we try our best to use more, we will encounter allusions everywhere when we open classical Chinese classics.The so-called everywhere is not only the various styles of poetry and prose, but also other than poetry and prose.This includes many categories, such as the poet Meng Haoran, the historian Hu Sanxing, "Haoran" uses "Mencius Gongsun Choushang" "I am good at cultivating my awe-inspiring spirit", and "three provinces" uses "The Analects of Confucius Xueer" to "examine myself three times in a day" , this is the allusion of personal names; Canglang Pavilion, Zhibuzhai, the former uses "Mencius Liloushang" "The water in the Canglang is clear", and the latter uses "Book of Rites Xueji" "It is old learning and then knowledge is insufficient. ", this is the dictionary of place names; "Qi Dong Ye Yu", "Men Li Xin Hua", the former uses "Mencius Wan Zhang Shang" "Qi Dong Yeren's language", and the latter uses "Jin Shu Wang Meng Biography" " As far as palpable lice are concerned", this is a dictionary of the title.Others can be analogized. 5.8.2 Explicit and hidden use There is a distinction between explicit and implicit use of allusions.Let me explain first, and there are differences in grades.Some are the most obvious, not only copying the original text, but also pointing out the source.Such as: (1) "Poetry" says: "It's like cutting like learning, like cutting like grinding." ("The Analects of Confucius Xueer") (2) Doesn't it matter? "A good question will make you rich." (Liu Kai's "Ask and Talk") (3) Laozi is sick and false, so it is called "good words are not believed". ("The Literary Mind and the Carving of Dragons·Love") Some quote the original text with slight changes, indicating that there is a source without specifying it.Such as: (4) According to the legend: "The sky does not stop its winter because of people's aversion to cold..." (Dongfang Shuo's "Answer to a Guest") (5) Yin Yin Xia, Zhou Yin Yin, and the profit and loss of the Zhou Dynasty can be known for a hundred generations, and the sage Gai has predicted it. (Ma Duanlin's "Preface to the Examination of Documents") （6）而曰言之不文，行之不远云者，……（王安石《上人书》） 例（4）所谓，“传”是指《荀子·天论》；例（5）所谓“圣人”是指孔子，出处是《讼语·为政》；例（6）“曰”的处所是《左传》襄公二十五年。有些明显的程度又差一些，只是间接表示有出处。Such as: （7）所谓诗人丽则而约言，辞人丽淫而繁句也。 ("The Literary Mind and the Carving of Dragons·Looking for Color") （8）臣闻五音令人耳不聪，五色令人目不明。 (Lu Kai's "Admonishment to Lord Wu Haoshu") （9）如优孟摇头而歌。（黄宗羲《柳敬亭传》） 例（7）的“所谓”表示前人说过，这前人是扬雄，出处是《法言·吾子》；例（8）的“闻”也表示前人说过，这前人是老子，出处是《老子》第十二章；例（9）的“如”表示以前有过，这以前是《史记·滑稽列传》。还有些明显的程度更差，我们只能由口气推测有出处。Such as: （10）夫桃李不言而成蹊，有实存也。 ("The Literary Mind and the Carving of Dragons·Love") （11）盖儒者所重，尤在于名实。 (Wang Anshi's "Answer to Sima's Remonstrance") （12）人亡弓，人得之，又胡足道？ (Li Qingzhao's "Golden Stone Record Post-Preface") 三个例都有“正如古人所说”的意味，所以同样可以算作明用。例10）是引用《史记·李将军列传》：“桃李不言，下自成蹊。”例（11）是引用《孟子·告子下》：“先名实者，为人也。”例（12）是引用《孔子家语·好生》：“人遗弓，人得之。” Let's talk about using it secretly.暗用也有等级的分别。有些虽然不表示是用典，可是照录原文。Such as: （13）鬼之为言归也。（《汉书·杨王孙传》） （14）人生几何？So far away! （白居易《与微之书》） （15）既睹其人，则瞻之在前，忽焉在后。 ("Book of the Later Han Dynasty: Biography of Huang Xian") 例（13）是引用《尔雅·释训》；例（14）的“人生几何”是引用曹操《短歌行》；例（15）的“瞻之在前，忽焉在后”是引用《论语·子罕》。有些是引用原文而有所增减。Such as: （16）逝者如斯，而未尝往也。（苏轼《赤壁赋》） （17）伤心桥下春波绿，曾是惊鸿照影来。 (Lu You's "Shen Garden") （18）人非生而知之者，孰能无惑？ （韩愈《师说》）例（16），《论语·子罕》作“逝者如斯夫”，例（17），曹植《洛神赋》作“翩若惊鸿”，这都是有所减；例（18），《论语·季氏》作“生而知之者”，这是有所增。有些变化更大，是改动一部分。Such as: （19）有二军将……号虎冠。 (Gao Qi's "Biography of Nangong Life") （20）盖尝慨然有江湖之思。（陆游《烟艇记》） （21）室唯四壁。 （孟棨《本事诗·情感》）例（19），《史记·酷吏列传》作“虎而冠”；例（20），潘岳《秋兴赋》作“有江湖山泽之思”；例（21），《汉书·司马相如传上》作“家徒四壁立”。还有拆散原文，随意组织的。Such as: （22）外人颇有公孙布被之讥。 (Sima Guang's "Exercising Thrift and Showing Health") （23）他日趋庭，叨陪鲤对。 (Wang Bo's Preface to the Pavilion of King Teng) （24）可以其似赋而谓之雕虫乎？ (Su Shi's "Letter of Thanking the Teachers") 例（22），《汉书·公孙弘传》作：“弘位在三公，奉（俸）禄甚多，然为布被，此诈也。”例（23），《论语·季氏》作：“尝独立，鲤趋而过庭，曰：'学诗乎？'……”例（24），扬雄《法言·吾子》作：“或问：'吾子少而好赋？'曰：'然，童子雕虫篆刻。'俄而曰：'壮夫不为也。'” 典故明用，有好处，是容易理解，不必费力找出处。但是可惜，由数量方面看，尤其汉魏以后，明用的并不多。这是因为，暗用，尤其随意组织暗用，像是随手拈来就化入自己的文字，显得自然；而且可以表示自己熟于古典，不把这看作一回事。这严格说是旧时代文人喜欢炫学的坏习气，影响即使不说是很坏，也是很大，因为文言作品难读，这是若干原因中很重大的一个。 5.8.3用典的利弊 用典，借古说今，是文言的一种重要表达方式。重要，常用，当然是因为这样表达有好处。好处大致有以下几个方面。 一是引古，意思的分量可以加重。因为所引古事古语几乎都是名人之事，名人之言，甚至圣贤之事，圣贤之言，其正确性是不容置疑的，自己笔下用了，就会有更大的说服力量。如上一节例（8）反对声色的享乐，引用老子的话，比说自己认为如何如何，力量就大多了。 二是熟于古事古语，用典常常比用自己的话更省力。如上一节例（15）用“瞻之在前，忽焉在后”（原是形容孔子的）形容黄宪人品的高不可及，如果不用典而自编，那就会很费力。周密《浩然斋雅谈》有一段话更可以说明这种情况：“东坡《赤壁赋》多用《史记》语，如杯盘狼藉，归而谋诸妇，皆《滑稽传》；正襟危坐，《日者传》；举网得鱼，《龟策传》。” 三是用典可以以简驭繁，就是用较少的词语表达较多的意思。如上一节例（21）“室唯四壁”，只四个字，表达的意思既有很穷，又有才学像汉朝的司马相如，虽暂时困顿而将来必有大名。在用典的一些好处里，这以简驭繁的好处分量最重，力量最大，它常常使执笔的人“不能不用”。这种强制性最明显地表现在作诗方面。尤其律诗，或五言，或七言，字数有限制，还要对偶，有些意思，不用典就很难写出来，如孟浩然《宴梅道士山房》“忽逢青鸟使，邀入赤松家”一联就是这样。 四是用典可以唤起联想，因而意思就显得深刻或更生动。如上一节例（14）的“人生几何”，读过曹操诗的人就会联想到“譬如朝露，去日苦多”，因而意思就更加深刻；例（17）以“惊鸿”代美貌女子，熟悉《洛神赋》的人就会联想到洛神的美，因而意思就更加生动。 五是用典可以使语言委婉，表难言之意或难写之情，也就是平常话不好说的，可以用典故表示。如记肥水之战，苻坚大军南下，谢安故作慎静，桓冲很忧虑，说：“天下事已可知，吾其左衽矣！”“左衽”是用典（出于《论语·宪问》），等于说我要当亡国奴了，“亡国”的话不好明说，用典就委婉多了。又如李商隐诗的一联，“贾氏窥帘韩掾少，宓妃留枕魏王才”，写男女越轨的情事，如果不用典，简直就无法下笔。 可是用典也有弊。小弊是古事古语未必完全同于今的情况，引用，意思会不切合，甚至似是而非。如王勃在《滕王阁序》中说自己是“冯唐易老，李广难封”，其实那时候他才二十多岁，也不像李广，有抗匈奴的大功。大弊就严重多了，主要是暗用的，近于谜语，先要由谜面猜出谜底，然后才能确切了解是什么意思。使用语言，目的是求人了解，用典的结果常常是难于了解，所以是作茧自缚。所谓难于了解，有程度的差别。程度浅的可以望文生义，虽然这字面的义未必像典故所含的那样深。Such as: （1）百姓孰敢不箪食壶浆以迎将军者乎？ ("Three Kingdoms: Biography of Zhuge Liang") （2）莫不闻陇水而掩泣，向关山而长叹。（庾信《哀江南赋》） （3）酌贪泉而觉爽，处涸辙以犹欢。 (Wang Bo's Preface to the Pavilion of King Teng) 例（1）是引用《孟子·梁惠王上》“箪食壶浆以迎王师”；例（2）是引用古诗《陇头歌》“陇头流水……涕零双堕”；例（3）是引用《晋书·吴隐之传》饮贪泉而心不变的故事和《庄子·外物》车辙中鲋鱼求救的故事。像这些，我们不知道出处也大致可以了解。有些就不然。Such as: （4）一登龙门则声誉十倍。 (Li Bai's "Book of Jingzhou with Han") （5）情在骏奔，自免去职。（陶渊明《归去来辞序》） （6）凡此类，知者遇之。（王夫之《薑斋诗话》卷下） 例（4）是引用《后汉书·李膺传》“士有被其容接者，名为登龙门”；例（5）是引用《诗经·周颂·清庙》“骏奔走在庙”；例（6）是引用《庄子·齐物论》“一遇大圣知其解者，是旦暮遇之也”。像这些，如果不知道出处，确切了解就难于做到。还有少数，如果不知道出处还会误解。Such as: （7）愿言之怀，良不可任。（曹丕《与吴质书》） （8）不然，臣有赴东海而死耳。 (Hu Quan's "Wuwu Shang Gaozong Feng Shi") 例（7）是引用《诗经·邶风·二子乘舟》“愿言思子，中心养养”；例（8）是引用《战国策·赵策三》鲁仲连的话“则连有赴东海而死矣”。文中的“愿言”是歇后语，等于说“思子”；“赴东海而死”不过是用古典表示不想再活下去，并不是真要跳东海。 暗用有弊端，依理应该尽量避免。实际却不是这样，而是更有甚者。一种是挖空心思用僻典，就是到一般人不看的书里去找古事古语，嵌在诗文中，以表示自己博学。如苏轼的咏雪诗曾用“玉楼”和“银海”，王安石知道出自道书，大为赞叹。另一种是尽力避常语，可用今而偏偏用古。如沈义父《乐府指迷》说：“如说桃不可直说破桃，须用红雨、刘郎等字；如咏柳不可直说破柳，须用章台、灞岸等字。”就是这种情况。这类用典的流弊，文言作品中也不少见。 5.8.4典故的凝缩 读文言作品，如果没有注解，用典的表达方式常常使人头疼。当然，它也有可喜的一面。至于旧时代的文人，大概看到的都是可喜的一面，因而不只愿意用，而且把其中的有些凝缩为词语（包括成语），放在口边、手头，翻来覆去地用，并向下传递，以致我们觉得这些是日常的词汇，不是用典。如：革命，出于《易经·革卦》“汤武革命”；交代，出于《左转》庄公八年“及瓜而代”；舆论，出于《晋书·王沉传》“听舆人之论”；挑战，出于《史记·高祖本纪》“若汉挑战”；东道主，出于《左传》僖公三十年“舍郑以为东道主”；莫须有，出于《宋史·岳飞传》“其事体莫须有”；明哲保身，出于《诗经·大雅·烝民》“既明且哲，以保其身”；朝三暮四，出于《庄子·齐物论》“朝三而暮四”；同流合污，出于《孟子·尽心下》“同乎流俗，合乎污世”；乐极生悲，出于《淮南子·道应训》“夫物盛而衰，乐极则悲”。这类词语是我们现在还在用的，这就更可以说明用典的根柢之深，势力之大。