Chapter 5 Chapter Five Features of Classical Chinese (1)

This chapter discusses the characteristics of classical Chinese.Features are products of contrast.Compare with what?Of course, it is the same as the vernacular, including modern Chinese; sometimes it even emphasizes modern Chinese, such as traditional characters and variant characters. Compared with the ancient vernacular, there is no such problem.The characteristics are summarized into two categories: one is organizational, including characters, words, sentences, and articles; characters are further divided into fonts and phonetics.One is expressive, including rhyme, duality, and allusion. 5.1 Organizational Aspects: Glyphs

Characters have form, which is written by hands and seen by eyes; has sound, which is spoken by mouth and heard by ears; meaning (except for very few, such as "dragon"), which is understood by the heart. 5.1.1 A large number of words are used In recent years, more than one person has made statistics on the characters used in modern Chinese, and the results are roughly: there are more than 3,000 commonly used characters, and about 3,000 less commonly used characters, which together total no more than 6,000 characters. "Xinhua Dictionary" is a small dictionary with about 10,000 characters (including traditional and variant forms). "Modern Chinese Dictionary" is a medium-sized dictionary, because it also takes care of dialect words and old words, and has a relatively large number of characters, more than 10,000 (including traditional and variant forms).As for the dictionaries that are also used for reading classics in classical Chinese, there are more characters. The new "Ci Hai" is about 15,000 (including traditional and variant forms), and the new "Ci Yuan" uses traditional characters, about 14,000. It is for practicality, not for perfection.For completeness, there is the old "Kangxi Dictionary" with more than 47,000 characters, and the new "Chinese Dictionary" with more than 48,000 characters.This is due to the large number of words in classical Chinese shown by the statistics.Many, for a reason.One of the reasons is that it has been used for a long time, and those found in the classics of various eras (many of which are no longer used by descendants) are counted; the other is that there are many variant characters, and one person eats two or even more.

Without statistics, if we look through the classics of classical Chinese, we will also feel that there are many more works using characters than modern Chinese (traditional and variant forms are not counted).There are quite a few characters that we feel are unfamiliar, the pronunciation is not sure, and the meaning is not clear, so we have to look them up in dictionaries; sometimes even "Ciyuan" is confiscated, so we have to look it up in "Chinese Dictionary". 5.1.2 Many traditional characters Looking at the books and periodicals printed before the simplification of Chinese characters, the most notable difference is that there are many traditional characters for the not very young people. What the very young people feel may not be that there are many traditional characters, but that there are many characters that they do not know.One source of this feeling is that classical Chinese uses traditional characters instead of simplified characters.In fact, it is an inevitable trend to simplify writing from complex to simple, because saving trouble is better than trouble, as long as we compare seal script with regular script, we can know.It’s just that in the old days, this trend was self-sufficient, and Chinese characters have unwavering characteristics. Therefore, since the popularity of regular script, except for a few small books of popular literature that are not elegant, characters with many strokes are always difficult to simplify.After the founding of the People's Republic of China, starting from 1956, the relevant state units successively announced the method of simplifying Chinese characters. Including the simplified characters of radicals, there are thousands of characters whose shapes have been simplified.These characters, of course, are all the same in the classical Chinese classics of the old era.Simplification from complexity is a good thing, but we can't demand that the texts of classical Chinese classics printed before 1956 become simplified.This is the trouble classical Chinese brings to us. We either don’t read it; if we must read it, it’s better to know traditional Chinese characters as well. ——Even if you only read classical works printed in simplified characters in recent years, it is still beneficial to know some traditional characters.Take an example or two at random.There was a great painter named "Wen Zhengming" in the Ming Dynasty. It is strange that he dared to be called "Zhengming" in the Ming Dynasty. In fact, "Zheng" is a simplified character, and "Zheng" is traditional.There are two sentences in Tao Yuanming's "Elegy" that are "relatives or Yu Bei, others have already sung." I'm sad, he didn't know that the word "Yu" is a simplified character, and it was originally a traditional character "Yu".In short, there are many traditional characters, whether it is good or not, this is a characteristic of classical Chinese, and we must pay attention to it.

5.1.3 There are many variant characters Two characters or more than two characters have the same pronunciation and the same meaning, but the shape is different, we call it variant characters.One is enough to express the meaning, but you have to remember two. If you already know "guan", you also need to remember "箟", which adds unnecessary burden, which is of course not good.Often you only need to remember one more, such as "cup" you need to remember two more "cups" and "cups", and "windows" you need to remember five more "把", "窓", "窻", "牕" and "列".The fonts are different, and they come from a long time and a wide area, and the writers have different habits.However, after variant forms became popular, some literati often deliberately used relatively rare variant characters in order to express liberalism.So in the old days, variant characters could only be increased but not reduced.This is a disease such as warts, which is best cured by cutting.The unification of characters and styles was done once after Qin Shihuang annexed the six kingdoms, presided over by Li Si.After that, no one cares about it.It was after the founding of the People's Republic of China that large-scale and planned sorting of variant characters occurred. At the end of 1955, the "First Batch of Variant Character Sorting Table" was published, and about a thousand variant characters were abolished.After that, when writing classical Chinese works, generally no longer use variant characters.However, as mentioned above, classical Chinese classics are almost all printed in old times, and there are still many variant characters in them.Therefore, although this characteristic of classical Chinese is unsatisfactory, we still have to pay attention to it.

5.1.4 Too many fake characters The holiday is replaced by words with the same or similar sound. For example, if you write that you are not allowed to "bring" a child, you are not allowed to "represent" the child, and you write the task of "delivering" as the task of "waiting". We now say that it is a different character.Naturally, if the other characters get older and gradually become old brands, and are recognized by the majority of young people, they can be considered correct, such as "confession".Some people say that the ancients' use of normal characters is equivalent to our current writing of other characters. This is not entirely true, because the situation is different.The so-called other characters are the names for counterfeit brands after they have genuine ones.Thinking back to earlier periods (such as the Spring and Autumn Period and the Warring States period and before), there were always some characters whose authenticity had not yet been determined, so whether it was the confrontation between the North and the South or the Three Kingdoms, they had to be considered orthodox.This situation is gradually changing, one party's power is relatively increasing, and the other is relatively weakening, so the word with greater power has the correct meaning, but the one with weakened power may not be wrong. You are wrong, he can quote "Historical Records Xiang Yu Benji" "You must come to thank King Xiang every day" to defend himself.Therefore, in this kind of place, when we read classical Chinese classics, it is best to pay more attention to facts and less concern about right and wrong.The fact is that the ancients were accustomed to using Tongjia characters, and when we look at them now (of course wearing the current glasses), it will become an obstacle to our understanding; but it is not difficult to break the barrier. OK.

5.1.5 A few classics use fonts other than regular script Strictly speaking, the typeface commonly used in printed books and periodicals is Song typeface, which is slightly different from Kai typeface.Song typeface is a square integration of handwritten Kai typeface, and systematically it still belongs to Kai typeface.Almost all the classical Chinese classics we read now, including woodblock editions, use italic characters.However, if we read a wider range and drill deeper, we will encounter characters other than italics.Roughly speaking, these are photocopies or photocopyings of ancient documents.As far as fonts are concerned, there are oracle bone inscriptions, such as Liu E's "Iron Cloud Hidden Turtle", Luo Zhenyu's "Yin Xushu Qi Jinghua", etc.; ", etc.; there are small seal scripts, which can be found in Xu Shen's "Shuowen Jiezi" in addition to the gold and stone relics of Qin Dynasty such as "Yishan Stele" and Qin Quanqin Liang; there are official scripts, many famous stone carvings of the Han Dynasty, such as "Zhang Qian There are many cursive scripts, such as Wang Xizhi's "Seventeen Tie", Sun Guoting's "Book Book", etc.; "Preface to the Teaching", Yan Zhenqing's "Manuscript for the Nephew", etc.This kind of literature is specialized in nature and the amount is not large, but it is all in the classics of classical Chinese, so if you want to fully understand classical Chinese, you can't turn a blind eye.

5.2 Phonetics The pronunciation of Chinese characters refers to a syllable, which generally includes three parts: sound, rhyme, and tone.The so-called homonym means that the sound, rhyme, and tone are all the same; different sounds, or the sound, rhyme, and tone are different, or two or one of the three parts are different.The following general talk about pronunciation refers to a syllable. 5.2.1 Pronunciation changes rapidly Compared with the shape of the characters, the pronunciation of the characters has changed a lot.Because no matter how stable classical Chinese is to the eyes, its sound must always be expressed through spoken language, and the sound of spoken language is always changing, so the sound of classical Chinese has to change accordingly.As mentioned in Section 3.2.6 above, people of different ages read the first "Guanju" with different voices.These different eras may not be very far apart, such as the end of the Spring and Autumn period and the middle period of the Warring States period.The specific situation is different. Unfortunately, there was no recording equipment in the past, so it is impossible to understand clearly.But we can infer that there must be changes.Taking "Beijing dialect" as evidence, many foreigners mention it and always regard it as a harmonious and stable whole. The level is not very strong), before and after can be divided into three types: the former is the words of the old banner people, the middle is the words of the old Beijing, and the latter is the words of the cultural circle (including students).There are small differences before and after, which are the result of changes over time.The situation of this change, looking at history, is too complicated, and all we can infer is a little outline revealed in the written form.This is roughly related to our reading of classical Chinese classics (mainly in the Middle Ages), so it should be briefly introduced.

5.2.2 Ancient Sounds Because it is a rough outline, it may be divided into three sections: ancient times, middle ancient times, and modern times.Let me talk about ancient times first.There are rhyme books in middle and modern times, but not in ancient times.The main purpose of studying ancient sounds is to find out the situation of rhyme, and also explore the situation of initial consonants and tones in that period.This trend did not start until the Song Dynasty, and it was not until the Qing Dynasty that many sinologists made considerable gains.However, the views of different schools are different. For example, for the rhyme part, the division is more and more detailed: Gu Yanwu is divided into ten parts, Jiang Yong is divided into 13 parts, Kong Guangsen is divided into 18 parts, Wang Niansun is divided into 21 parts, It has been increased to twenty-nine volumes by Mr. Wang Li (see "Rhyme Reading of The Book of Songs" for details).Regarding the initial consonants and tones, the opinions of different schools are naturally inconsistent.However, according to the results of various researches, we can know some things about the pronunciation of ancient characters.This kind of knowledge can solve some difficulties encountered in reading. For example, when we should rhyme, we read it according to the modern pronunciation and do not rhyme. After understanding the situation of the ancient pronunciation, we know that it still rhymes.But what we know is a rough outline in terms of quality, and details in terms of measurement. Naturally, there are still many difficulties in tracking the sounds of the ancients when they read.Fortunately, when we read classics in classical Chinese, we generally pursue meaning; as for the sound, knowing that it is different from future generations but not knowing the details of "different" is not a big harm.

5.2.3 Medieval sounds The Middle Ages roughly refers to the period from the Northern Dynasties to the Tang and Song Dynasties. If you don't understand the situation of the sounds in this period, it is not without great harm.Because there are a lot of rhyme and parallel prose works in this period, we like to read them, but when we read them in modern pronunciation, the sound beauty of the works often cannot be reflected, so we have to feel at a loss.Character sounds are generally composed of three parts: sound (a few numbers have no initials), rhyme, and tone. The so-called beauty of sound is mainly manifested in rhyme and tone, and the sound has little to do with it.Taking Du Fu's "Lv Ye Shu Huai" as an example, the first four sentences are: "The fine grass and the breeze are on the shore, and the boat is alone at night. , and the same flat tone can rhyme; just adjust the four sentences as "Ze Zhe Ping Zhe, Ping Ping Zhe ("Du" used to be a Zhe tone). Ping Ping Ping Zhe, Ping Ping Ping Ping", the first sentence and the second In the second sentence, the second sentence and the fourth sentence, the characters of the same status must be different in order to be paired (the pair has sound requirements, it is flat to flat, and flat to flat).In this way, if you want to reflect the beauty of sound when reading old rhyme and parallel prose works, you must know the rhyme and tone of the characters in that period, or the difference from modern characters.

As for the sounds of characters in the Middle Ages, we know much better than those in ancient times.This is because there are many rhyme books to refer to.What can be seen or studied now and has a great influence is the earliest Sui Lu Fayan "Qie Yun". It summarizes the ancient and modern north and south, and the rhymes are relatively detailed.Later, "Qie Yun" was revised by Sun Min of the Tang Dynasty and became "Tang Yun", with slightly increased rhymes, 195 parts, and the same tone.In the Song Dynasty, Chen Pengnian and others added it and became "Guang Yun", and the rhymes were increased again, becoming 206; the tones are still flat, up, down, and into four.The rhymes of poems and fus in the imperial examinations of the Tang Dynasty are not as detailed as in "Tang Yun", but some similar rhymes, such as "dong" and "zhong" are used together, and "branch", "zhi" and "zhi" are used together.Song Dingdu and others compiled "The Rhyme of the Ministry of Rites" as a formula, an official document to be followed during the examination, and the rhymes that can be used together are combined, leaving only 108 rhymes.In the Jin and Yuan Dynasties, 108 rhymes were merged into 106 rhymes, because this division was found in the "Pingshui New Journal of Rites Rhymes" edited by Wang Wenyu of the Jin Dynasty, so it is commonly called "Pingshui Rhymes" (some people say that because the Southern Song Dynasty compiled "Renzi Xinkan Liu Yuan in "Rhymes of the Ministry of Rites" is from Pingshui [now Linfen City, Shanxi Province], so it is called that).Pingshui rhyme has a long lifespan and great influence. In the Qing Dynasty, it became "Peiwen Shiyun", or "Shiyun" for short. It is also an official book and must be followed inside and outside the examination room. "Peiwen Poetry Rhyme" divides the rhyme into four parts: level, up, go, and into.Ping Tone (no distinction between yin and yang, different from modern tones) including Shang Ping Tone (Shang Ping and Xia Ping are not classifications of Ping Tones, but are divided into upper and lower volumes because of the large number of Ping tones) 15 rhymes such as Yi Dong and Er Dong, and Xia Ping Tone Yi There are 15 rhymes such as Xian and Erxiao, a total of 30 rhymes; the upper tone includes 29 rhymes such as Yidong and Erzhong; the outgoing tone includes 30 rhymes such as Yisong and Ersong;Each rhyme is roughly in the order of commonly used and uncommonly used, and the words belonging to this rhyme are listed. For example, there are 174 characters such as "Dong", "Tong", "Tong" and "Tong" in the Shangping tone-Dong rhyme, and "Dong" in the upper tone-Dong rhyme. ", "moving", "hole", "total" and other 36 characters.

When reading classical Chinese works since the Middle Ages, as long as you are familiar with "Peiwen Poetry Rhyme", it is not impossible to know the evolution of rhyme books.If you read Du Fu's "Moon Night" "Tonight, the moon in Zhouzhou, I only look at it in my boudoir", and feel that the second sentence does not fit the rhythm of "Ping Ping Ping Ping Ping Ping", then you can look up "Peiwen Poetry Rhyme" to know that "independence" is the entry The character with the rhyme of a house, "Kan" is the character with the fifteen Han rhyme of the Qu Sheng, and the character with the fourteen Han rhyme of the Shangping tone (here the flat sound is used), and then it is pronounced as guizhongzhidu (Mandarin has no entering tone, which can be read As Qusheng) kan, if the rhythm is met, the beauty of the sound can be reflected. 5.2.4 Near ancient sounds An important rhyme book representing the ancient sounds (mainly referring to northern mandarin) is "Central Plains Rhyme" by Deqing of Yuan and Zhou Dynasties.This is a book written for Beiqu, because the song is a popular literature and does not use the middle-aged sounds of the written language, so the rhyme book must be changed according to the spoken language.The big changes are: Ping tones are divided into yin and yang; the entering tones are cancelled, and the original entering tones are compiled into Yinping, Yangping, Shangsheng, and Qusheng; charge).If we are familiar with modern phonetics, we can find that the phonetic system of "Central Plains Rhyme" is already close to that of modern languages.In fact, the transition from middle ancient sounds to modern sounds did not start in the Yuan Dynasty. According to some people's research, the -p, -t, and -k at the end of the entering tone have gradually disappeared in the Song Dynasty. The bold reform of "Central Plains Rhyme" is only an acknowledgment of a fait accompli.However, the rhyme books of the conservative Middle Ages are still holding their ground, ruling poetry and other works.For example, when Gao Qi wrote poems in the Ming Dynasty, Wang Shizhen wrote poems in the Qing Dynasty, and even Bu Dafu wrote poems in modern times, the pronunciation of characters used was still the standard of people in Tang and Song Dynasties.So when it comes to the ancient sounds, there is actually a dual-track system in writing: the real ancient sounds only govern part of the popular literature, and the rest are dominated by the middle ancient sounds.Here we are talking about the characteristics of classical Chinese, and the relationship between classical Chinese and the ancient sounds is not close, so there is no need to delve into it. 5.2.5 Pronunciation of classical Chinese The change of voice is gradual, but it does not stop.It is always changing, and the accumulation of less will make more. As the saying goes, it will be Hedong in ten years and Hexi in ten years.It may be an exaggeration to say ten years, but it is not an exaggeration to say a hundred years?But when we talk about the changes in speech over the past three thousand years, we only divide it into three periods, which is too rough.It is of course impossible to use this rough model to cast the sound of countless works when they were written.Therefore, when reading classical Chinese works, only modern pronunciation can be used.For example, "Guanguan Jujiu", no matter how Confucius pronounced it, we can only pronounce it as guanguanjuju, "fine grass and breeze on the shore", no matter how Du Fu pronounced it, we can only pronounce it as Xicaoweifengan.Generally speaking, it is not only impossible, but also unnecessary, or even uneconomical, to chase after the old sounds, because we have always used modern sounds to express our feelings. If we use unfamiliar sounds (assuming it can be done), it will make the authenticity and depth of feeling are affected.But this is generally speaking, not without exception.There are two exceptions that are often encountered: one is still saying that the pronunciation should be changed, such as "funny" should be pronounced guji, "王天下" should be pronounced wangtianxia; "Only watch in the boudoir" is pronounced dukan in the present pronunciation, which is not pleasant.How to deal with it properly? Let’s talk about the former case first.The reading situation is quite complicated.Some of them come from common falsehoods, such as "Mu Nei vassals", "Nei" is equal to "Na", "Wang Da Shuo", "Shuo" is equal to "Yue", then they cannot be read literally and must be changed.If it cannot be changed, it will not be a problem.The other reading is not like this. For example, "funny" reads gu, "Shi Lai Xi Qianqian" reads "jianjian", "Li Shiqi" reads "shiqi" as yiji, and "Qiqi" reads "Qiuci". "" reads qiuci, and "Namo" reads "namo" in "Namo Amitabha Buddha", which probably preserves the old pronunciation and has not changed with the current pronunciation.Another situation is the so-called "broken reading" in the old days, such as "wang" in "wangtianxia" read wang, "zhi" in "governing the country" read chi, "xing" in "conduct" read xing, and "think twice" "Three" is read as san, and it is all used to distinguish different meanings or usages by means of variant readings.It is a burden to read classical Chinese and change it. You have to memorize more.It is better to have a burden than to have no burden.But this is a principle, and it depends on whether it is necessary in practice.Regarding Po-reading, Lv Jiping and Chen Xin gave many reasons to them (the principle is not consistent, the understanding of the annotators is inconsistent, it is not necessary, etc.), and they think that the majority should be abandoned and a very small number should be retained ("Different Readings of "Poyin in Ancient Books") "Problems", "Chinese Language" No. 5, 1964).I am in favor of the principle of lightening the burden, and I am also in favor of a no-one-size-fits-all approach.For example, whether it is necessary to break the reading cannot be generalized.Modern languages ​​admit that it is sometimes necessary, such as the "middle" reading of "shooting", the "same" reading chen of "symmetry", the "interval" reading Jian of "interval", and the "long" reading of "growth". zhang, wait.Modern language is still alive, we can do nothing about it.But in this way, when reading "Historical Records · Xiang Yu Benji", "Dao Zhiyang Jian Xing" and the like, "jian" has to be read as jian; then, "jian" has changed, and "dao" has become dao?This is where the current principle and the consistent principle sometimes conflict.There are other situations to consider.For example, "flat boat" (small boat), "long zhang thing" (excess things), "heart wide body fat pan" (the meaning of fat is comfort), "Gong Shangjiao Zheng Zhi Yu" (sign is the five-tone 1) and so on, if read literally, it seems that it will affect the expression of the correct meaning.It seems that the best way to deal with it is to give consideration to both economics and expressiveness, try not to change, and change as a last resort.This is a principle, and it is inevitable to encounter ambiguous situations in specific implementation, even if there are not many.As for those that retain the old reading method, this principle can also be used to deal with it. In modern languages, if there is a counterpoint, if the unchanged will affect the meaning, change; in addition, it can be read literally.This simplistic approach makes sense in theory, because the facts are as follows: First, modern language has already dealt with it in this way a lot, such as "envoy" in "ambassador", "action" in "character", and "advice". "Wen", "Wen" in "Written to cover up nonsense", etc., have no change in reading.Second, dictionaries also quietly use this principle (although not thoroughly), and for some sounds that still say that they should be pronounced differently, note "old reading" or "pronunciation", which means that the pronunciation can be read according to the current pronunciation.Third, the Putonghua Pronunciation Review Committee also used this principle, such as stipulating that "eat" in "stuttering" should not be pronounced as ji, and "ye" in "Yegong Haolong" should not be pronounced as she.It's just a pity that they are all sporadic, and there is no whole screening.Using the principle of reducing the burden, you should sieve the whole thing.This job is quite arduous. It takes a lot of energy to pass all the tests. It is another difficulty to change the old habits suddenly and completely.But as long as we accept this principle of lightening the burden, we will have no confusion about the nature of the problem, and it will not be too difficult to ask for a slow solution. Let's talk about the latter case.This is a problem of another nature, which comes from the common tricks in classical Chinese, such as leveling and rhyming.As mentioned in Section 5.2.3 above, classical Chinese works since the Tang and Song Dynasties all use medieval tones, which are different from modern tones. Obviously, if you use modern Mandarin to pronounce, some places will inevitably be uncoordinated. , the original rhyme does not rhyme.The former such as: (1) However, in the north, Tongwu Gorge, and in the south, Jixiao and Xiang. (Fan Zhongyan's "Yueyang Tower") (2) Green bamboo in Sui Garden, bottle of Qiling Peng Ze; Zhu Hua in Ye Shui, brush of light in Sichuan. (Wang Bo's Preface to the Pavilion of King Teng) (3) Ye·cry several families heard about war·cutting, Yi·ge several places started fishing and woodcutters. (Du Fu's "The Pavilion Night") (4) There is nothing to do. When the flowers fall away, it seems like a deja vu. The acquaintance Yan returns. (Yan Shu's "Huanxi Sand") Example (1) is the duality of prose, example (2) is the duality of parallel prose, example (3) is the duality of regulated poetry, and example (4) is the duality of word.These are pronounced in the middle ages. "Xia" is the oblique sound, which is the antithesis of the peaceful sound "Xiang", "Ji" is the oblique sound, which is the antithesis of the peaceful sound "Tong"; , the peaceful sound is the antithesis of "Chuan"; "crying" is the tonal sound, the peaceful tonal "song" is the antithesis, "cutting" is the tonal sound, and the peaceful tonal "Qiao" is antithetical;If it is pronounced in modern pronunciation, it will become level tone to level tone, which does not meet the requirements of duality.The latter such as: (5) Fish and birds are hesitant and afraid of Jian·shu, and Fengyun often protects Chu·Xu.Only ordered the general to wave his magic pen, and finally saw the descending king pass on the chariot.It's really embarrassing to have talent in wind music, but Guan Zhang has no life.When he was in Jinli, he went through the ancestral temple, and Liang's father chanted it into hatred. (Li Shangyin's "Cuibi Station") (6) The sound of the flute · pharynx, Qin E's dream of breaking Qin Lou · the moon.Qin Lou · month, every year willow color, Ba Ling hurt · farewell.Leyou Yuanshang Qingqiu Festival, Xianyang Ancient Road Sound Dust Absolutely.Absolute sound and dust, the afterglow of the westerly wind, and the Han Jialing Que. (Biography of Li Bai's "Recalling Qin'e") Example (5) is a regulated poem, using the flat tone Liuyu rhyme. If the modern pronunciation prevails, the final consonant of the rhyme word can only rhyme if it is u, but "Book", "Xu", "Che" " Such as" is neither.Example (6) is a word, which uses entering rhyme ("月" and "精" in the fourth part), but in modern language, "bie", "jie" and "jue" have become Yangping and cannot rhyme.In this way, reading such works cannot fail to consider the question of what to follow.From the new or from the old, there are naturally only one of the two paths.The biggest advantage of using modern pronunciation is that it saves effort, because there is no need to memorize Yidong, Erdong, Sanjiang, Sizhi, etc., and memorize which words are included in each rhyme.Another advantage is that it does not violate the principle of promoting Mandarin (as far as I know, the Central People's Broadcasting Station adheres to this principle, so reading classical Chinese works does not care about the meter).But this kind of effort saving is like liking fishing and not refusing to repair fishing tools. The result is that you can catch more, but you don’t catch as much. "You can't get what you want", this is also something that is difficult to accept.Unfortunately, there is no compromise.Or it is suitable for different situations to be treated differently.For example, if you happen to read a few poems on occasion, maybe you won't read them again, or you won't read too many, so you don't need to make great efforts to memorize one or two poems first.If, on the contrary, you are very interested, not only want to read again, but also want to persevere, then it is better to put in some effort and memorize one or two winters, because once you can do it once, you can make a lot of money with a small investment.Among other types, I think that even if you can't remember the details of "Rhyme of Poetry", it is better to know the outline to reduce the difficulties when reading, than to know nothing at all. 5.3 words There is not a one-to-one relationship between characters and words in Chinese.Some characters are not words, such as "cricket" and "cricket", because neither can express meaning.There are many words with more than one word.A character is a unit of shape and syllable, and a word is a unit that can express meaning independently, which is roughly equivalent to the word in English. 5.3.1 Large number of uncommon words When we look through the classics of classical Chinese, a prominent impression is that there are many words that do not know the pronunciation and meaning, or know the pronunciation but do not know the meaning, and sometimes even do not know whether a certain syllable is a word.This is not surprising, because classical Chinese classics were written in the old era, and we are not familiar with the old era, so naturally we cannot know what some words denoting the old era are.There are different situations in using uncommon words. "Rituals" and "Book of Rites" talk about funerals and other things, many of which are performed and the utensils used, etc., such as "cutting down the clothes, tying sticks, twisting belts, crowns, ropes and tassels" ("Rituals Mourning Clothes") , "Recommend millet, millet, shame, liver and lungs, see the heart, and use chivalry to add depression" ("Book of Rites·Jieyi"), it is too far away from our modern life, and we will naturally feel unfamiliar.But this is the record, it has to be.This is not the case when the Han people compose Fu, but deliberately create momentum, find many or even some uncommon characters to join in the fun, such as, "The mountain is ridged, 嵕嶱, 嵑嵣嶚型, narrow, 埊嵬, 嵚巇倒巙" (Zhang Heng " Nandu Fu") That's it.This is what the author thinks is necessary and we don't think is necessary.In addition, many ancient literati since the Tang and Song Dynasties (the Ming Dynasty is the most powerful), in order to show that they are free from vulgarity, they often try to find some ancient characters to replace the commonly used ones. When we see it, we will naturally feel unfamiliar.This is of course unnecessary.General classical Chinese works are written in popular classical Chinese, and some words in them are unfamiliar to us. There are mainly two situations.Take "The Analects of Confucius·Xiangdang" as an example, one is that the ancient things written are extinct or not used, such as "Gui", "Qi" (Zhai), "Nuo" and "Gentleman", etc., and the other is that there are still some ancient things. And changed the name, such as "Xun Xunru", "Threshold", "Jiyue", "Jifu" and so on. Compared with the two, the amount of the former one is larger than the latter one, because there are many old names and objects, and the words naturally need Followed by many, as long as the name is in the past, we will feel unfamiliar when we see that word. From the perspective of feeling unfamiliar, the latter has the same nature, because it is used in ancient times but not used today. In classical Chinese classics, there are many Unused words are a major difficulty in reading classical Chinese works, and we must pay attention to them. 5.3.2 Most of the words retain their ancient meanings Words have meaning and longevity.Different words may have different life spans: some are as long as thousands of years; some are shorter, or they were born later, or they are not used for a period of time.Some of the words with a long lifespan have the same meaning, such as "water", "fire", "big" and "small". We still use it as the ancients used it.But there are quite a few meanings that have changed.The changes can be large or small, for example, "go to the country" used to be "leave" the country, "go to Shanghai" is now "to" Shanghai, which is a big change; "zai" used to refer to the second time, but now it can refer to the first time Many times in the future, this is a small change.Regardless of the big change or small change, the meanings of ancient and modern times are different.This difference is often expressed in different (written) languages.Obviously, in classics of classical Chinese, words with different meanings in ancient and modern times must have ancient meanings; on the contrary, in works in modern Chinese, words with different meanings in ancient and modern times must have modern meanings.Therefore, from the perspective of the evolution of word meanings, classical Chinese has preserved a large number of early word meanings.When reading classical Chinese works, we must pay attention to this phenomenon, otherwise, it is of course a big mistake to interpret "going to Lu" as "going to the country of Lu", even if we interpret "good walking" as "able to walk", it is always wrong, because it is not the same as Inconsistent. 5.3.3 Many monosyllabic words Words have short and long shapes.The short ones are only one syllable, such as "人" and "打".The length is more than one syllable, and the most is two, such as "people" and "thinking"; there are relatively few more than two.It is said that a multi-syllable word counts as "one" word, because when making a sentence, it must act as a whole and cannot be taken apart.For example, "learning", you can say "learning English", you can say "willing to learn", you can say "learn piano", but you can't say "Xi——", "Xi" can't act independently, so "learning" counts as "one". word.As far as Chinese is concerned, in the inventory of words, monosyllabic words plus disyllabic words are the absolute majority.But this is a general statement that does not distinguish between ancient and modern. If ancient and modern are divided, then there is a big difference in the ratio of monosyllabic words and disyllabic words: monosyllabic words are more ancient than modern, and disyllabic words are more ancient than modern.The source of this difference is that many words that are often used alone in classical Chinese cannot be used alone in modern Chinese.Take "sufficient food and soldiers, the people believe in it" ("The Analects of Confucius Yan Yuan") as an example, "sufficient" should now say "sufficient", "food" should say "grain" or "food", and "soldiers" should say " "weapon" or "armed", "people" should say "people", and "trust" should say "trust".The syllables of words have changed from single to multiple, which is a long-term evolutionary trend of Chinese.why?Because monosyllables are used alone, there will be too many homonyms.What should I do if there are many and must be distinguished?This is easy to do in written language. For example, two Mr. Zhang, one fat and one thin, write out "Mr. Zhang is fat, Mr. Zhang is thin". Fat, but Mr. Zhang who established the early chapter is thin."In the same way, a large number of monosyllable words in classical Chinese are transmitted by oral language. In order to clarify the meaning, we have to use various methods (mainly to make the same or close meaning) to double the number of syllables.In this way, compared with modern Chinese, this characteristic of classical Chinese vocabulary is quite prominent.It is outstanding not only because of its static performance on the heap, but also because of its far-reaching dynamic impact.For example, the usage of words is flexible, and it appears to be capable, which mainly comes from here; the sentences are short and concise, and this is even more from here.Speaking of short sentences, we can't help but think of poems that abide by strict rhythms. If there are not many monosyllabic words, such as "The distant fragrance invades the ancient road, and the clear green meets the barren city" (Bai Juyi's "Farewell to the Ancient Grassland"), "Nostalgic for the homeland, empty There are old traces, but the smoke and grass fade away, and the crows slant toward the sun" (Saduci's "Man Jianghong"), it is difficult to write such a sentence with few words and many meanings. 5.3.4 Flexible usage of words In terms of meaning, a disyllabic word is clearer and more fixed than the corresponding monosyllabic word, such as "friendship", "friendship", "friendship", "friend" and "friend".It is less clear and less fixed, but it has its advantages when it is used to make sentences, and it can be put anywhere.For example, "taking it as a friend" is fine, and saying "friends" is fine, but "friendship" and so on are not.This flexibility in the usage of classical Chinese is mainly manifested in four aspects. (1) Many words have both noun and verb usages.Such as: (1) When the common people heard the sound of the king's bell and the drum, and the sound of Guan Yu, Juxin was delighted and told each other. ("Mencius under King Hui of Liang") (2) Filling the drum, the weapon is received, abandoning the armor and dragging the soldiers away. ("Mencius · King Hui of Liang Part I") (3) The left and right blades are similar to each other, and they are like Zhang Mu. ("Historical Records Biography of Lian Po Lin Xiangru") (4) Fan Zengshu Project King, three of them held up the jade rings they wore to show them. ("Historical Records Xiang Yu Benji") (5) Scholars aspire to the Tao, but are ashamed of those who hate evil, clothes and food, which is not enough to discuss. ("The Analects of Confucius Liren") (6) Clothes are worn out and gowns stand with those who wear lonely raccoon dogs, and those who are not ashamed, the reason is also the same ("The Analects of Confucius Zihan") "Drum", "eye" and "clothes" all express things in the former case, and actions in the latter case.Modern Chinese also has this situation, such as "lock" in "lock" and "lock the door", but it is very rare.In classical Chinese, it can be seen everywhere.This phenomenon is customarily called "flexible use".If you only talk about this, it’s good; but generally, you need to go further, saying that the "drum" in "Gu Zhi" is a noun used as a verb ("目" "Clothes" are equivalent), this is a problem.The problem is how to know that "drum" is a noun.By etymology?Archaic glyphs do not appear to show favoritism.By statistics?Too bad no one has done that yet.The remaining commonly used methods are based on impressions, but unfortunately, there are many usages of both.This is like a small shop that sells both oil and vinegar. If A says it sells oil and vinegar, and B says it sells vinegar and oil, it will be difficult to win people's trust by sticking to one sided opinion based on impressions. .But for the one-sided view of the part of speech of "drum" of the same nature, it seems that everyone believes it. Why?Obviously, it is because they all wear glasses of modern Chinese grammar.With this pair of glasses, "Gu" is a noun, so there is no problem, so "Guzhi" is used flexibly. The implication is that this is not its job, but a temporary accommodation.Whether it is a temporary accommodation, you should ask Confucius, Mencius and Sima Qian, presumably they may not admit it.This involves the classification of classical Chinese words.Someone once paid attention to this phenomenon, and turned to the other side, saying that content words in ancient Chinese cannot be classified, such as Gao Mingkai.The safe way to compromise is to be able to divide, but it should not be divided according to the framework of modern Chinese grammar.The reason is that classical Chinese words have the characteristic of flexibility, and we must pay attention to this characteristic if we want to classify them. (2) Some words are included in sentences, and the usage can be changed occasionally.Such as: (7) False boats are not capable of water, but rivers and rivers. ("Xunzi Encouraging Learning") (8) King Wu Nai held a large white flag to command the princes, and the princes paid homage. ("Yi Zhou Shu Ke Yin Jie") (9) Grains, fish and turtles cannot be eaten well, and timber cannot be used well, so that the people can support, live and die, and die without regret. ("Mencius · King Hui of Liang Part I") “水”和“手”经常表示事物，这里却表示动作；“生”和“死”相反，经常表示动作，这里却表示事物。这样的灵活与上面那种灵活有分别：上面那种灵活是经常，有如狗既可以看家，又可以协助打猎；这里的灵活是偶尔，有如狗捉住一只老鼠。这类用法，在现代汉语里即使非绝对不可能，也总是非常少见。 （三）文言词还有使动、意动之类的用法。Such as: （10）王果能·将吾，中原可得，于胜小敌何有？（方孝孺《客谈二事》） （11）秦时与臣游，项伯杀人，臣·活之。（《史记·项羽本纪》） （12）于是乘其车，揭其剑，过其友曰：“孟尝君·客我。”（《战国策·齐策四》） （13）吾妻之·美我者，私我也。（《战国策·齐策一》） “将”这里是名词，带宾语，表示“使吾为将”的意思； “活”是不及物动词，带宾语，表示“使之活”的意思。 “客”是名词，带宾语，表示“以我为客”的意思；“美”是形容词，带宾语，表示“以我为美”的意思。一般介绍古汉语知识的书称前两例为“使动用法”，后两例为“意动用法”。特别提出来介绍，是因为它不守常规；在现代汉语里，随意打破常规是不容许的。 （四）名词作状语。Such as: （14）齐侯……见大豕，……射之，豕·人立而啼。（《左传》庄公八年） （15）夫以秦王之威，而相如·廷叱之，辱其群臣。（《史记·廉颇蔺相如列传》） （16）下首至尾，曲脊掩胡，·猬缩·蠖屈，·蛇盘·龟息，以听命先生。（马中锡《中山狼传》） “人”“廷”“猬”“蠖”“蛇”“龟”都是名词，分别修饰动词“立”“叱”“缩”“屈”“盘”“息”，作状语，在现代汉语里，这种用法是少见的。 5.3.5有些零件性质的词文言没有 语言里有些零件，研讨词类的时候像是附属品，其实由表意方面看也未必不重要。例如在饭桌前说“我不吃”是一种意思，说“我不吃啦”是另一种意思。虚虚的语气助词尚且如此，其他充实得多的零件就不用说了。可是文言简古，有些现在看来颇为有用的零件，它却没有。这指的是三种情况。（一）没有表动态的助词“着”“了”“过”。那么，表示事件、活动的“正在进行”“已经完成”“过去曾有”怎么办呢？一种办法是由事件、活动的本身来说明。以《论语·公冶长》篇为例，“颜渊、季路侍”可以表示“正在进行”，“以其子妻之”可以表示“已经完成”，“或乞醯焉”可以表示“过去曾有”。另一种办法是用表时间的副词，如“方”“将” “且”“已”“未”“渐”“旋”等；或表时间的常用语，如“初”“先是”“昔者”“顷之”“须臾”“久之”等；语气助词里有个“矣”，也有表示“已经完成”的作用。 （二）量词很少，表示数量只用数词。在文言中，除了表度量衡单位之类的词（尺寸、斤两、升斗等）以外，无论表名量还是表动量，都是数词和所计之物直接组合，中间不加量词。Such as: （1）蟹·六·跪而·二·螯，非蛇蟺之穴无可寄托者，用心躁也。（《荀子·劝学》） （2）今人有·五·子不为多，子又有·五·子，大父未死而有·二·十·五·孙。（《韩非子·五蠹》） （3）夫战，勇气也，·一·鼓作气，再而衰，三而竭。（《左传》床公十年） （4）王趣见。未至，使者·三·四·往。（宋濂《大言》）例（1）（2）是数词和事物直接组合，例（3）（4）是数词和动作直接组合，中间不用量词，这在现代汉语里是不行的。 （三）代词数量多，可是没有特定的表示多数的办法。现代汉语的代词没有文言多，可是有不很完备的表多数的办法。如“我”“你”“他”，可以加“们”，表多数；“这”“那”，可以加“些”，表多数。文言没有这样的办法，是单一还是多数，一般要由语言环境（包括上下文）来推定。间或有所表示，如“吾属”“尔曹”之类，可是“属”“曹”不是专职，与“们” “些”的性质不同。 5.3.6有不少不用在句末的语气助词 文言，尤其早期的韵文，简短，有时候为了声音和韵味的整齐或充沛，要在句首或句中加个不表示意义的音节。Such as: （1）·夫颛臾，昔者先王以为东蒙主。 ("The Analects of Confucius Ji Shi") （2）·言告师氏，言告言归。（《诗经·周南·葛覃》） （3）一雨三日，·繄谁之力？（苏轼《喜雨亭记》）（4）北风·其凉，雨雪·其雱。（《诗经·邶风·北风》） （5）日·云莫（暮）矣，寡君须矣。（《左传》成公十二年） （6）我东·曰归，我心西悲。（《诗经·豳风·东山》）像这样嵌在句首或句中的语气助词，文言里有很多（杨树达《词诠》举出上百个）。现代汉语的句子已经由短变长，难得有空隙，自然就用不着这些了。 5.4句 文言在句子的组织方面也有一些特点。这特点，有的表现在全句上，有的只涉及结构的一部分。下面择要说一说。 5.4.1形体简短 我们读文言作品，一个突出的感觉是句子比较短，停顿多。Such as: （1）广之将兵，乏绝之处，见水，士卒不尽饮，广不近水；士卒不尽食，广不尝食。宽缓不苛，士以此爱乐为用。其射，见敌急，非在数十步之内，度不中不发，发即应弦而倒。（《史记·李将军列传》） （2）山多石，少土。石苍黑色，多平方，少圆。少杂树，多松，生石罅，皆平顶。冰雪，无瀑水，无鸟兽音迹。至日观数里内无树，而雪与人膝齐。（姚鼐《登泰山记》） 不计标点，例（1）是六十二个字，停顿十四次，平均四个半字停顿一次；例（2）是四十九个字，也是停顿十四次，恰好三个半字停顿一次。这在现代语的作品里是罕见的。 文言句子偏于短，有多方面的原因。一种是单音节的词多，这在上面第5.3.3节已经谈到。另一种是惯于用意会法。Such as: （3）公子即合符，而晋鄙不授公子兵而复请之，事必危矣。……晋鄙听，大善；不听，可使击之。（《史记·信陵君列传》） （4）前长君为奉车，从至雍棫阳宫，扶辇下除，触柱折辕，劾大不敬。 ("Han Shu·Li Guangsu Jian Biography") 例（3）的“晋鄙不授公子兵而复请”“晋鄙听”“不听”都是假设的情况，照现代语习惯，前面都要用“如果”“假使”之类的词，文言却不用而靠意会。例（4）的“劾大不敬”是被劾，照现代语习惯，“被”要明白点出，文言却不说而靠意会。还有一种原因是省略的词语多，留到下面第5.4.7节再谈。此外，文人笔下崇简也是相当重要的原因，如上面所引《登泰山记》的文章，就分明是用意写得这样精炼的。 5.4.2整齐句式多 韵文要求句式整齐是当然的，这里是专就散体说。在先秦的典籍里，行文求句式整齐，《老子》是突出的代表。Such as: （1）曲则全，枉则直，洼则盈，敝则新，少则得，多则惑。是以圣人抱一以为天下式。不自见，故明；不自是，故彰；不自伐，故有功；不自矜，故长。The husband does not fight, so the world cannot compete with him. （第二十二章） 《老子》的文章是格言式的，自然不能不这样表达。其实也不尽然，如《荀子》总是长篇大论，句式也求整齐。Such as: （2）天行有常，不为尧存，不为桀亡。应之以治则吉，应之以乱则凶。强本而节用，则天不能贫；养备而动时，则天不能病；循道而不忒，则天不能祸。故水旱不能使之饥，寒暑不能使之疾，妖怪不能使之凶。本荒而用侈，则天不能使之富；养略而动罕，则天不能使之全；背道而妄行，则天不能使之吉。故水旱未至而饥，寒暑未薄而疾，妖怪未生而凶。（《天论》） 句式求整齐不只少数人，可见不是出于某些人的癖好。这由正面说是，整齐比不整齐会有比较好的表达作用。这作用包括两个方面，是由语句的积累和对称，意思可以更明朗，声音可以更悦耳。因为有这样的好处，所以到汉魏以后，它的势力就越来越大。如南北朝时期写散体文章，也是： （3）夫两仪即位，帝王参之，宇中莫尊焉。天以阴阳分，地以刚柔用，人以仁义立。……归仁与能，是为君长。抚养黎元，助天宣德。日月淑清，四灵来格。祥风协律，玉烛扬辉。九谷刍豢，陆产水育，酸咸百品，备其膳羞。栋宇舟车，销金合土，丝纻玄黄，供其器服。文以礼度，娱以八音，庇物殖生，罔不备设。（僧祐《弘明集》卷四何承天《达性论》） （4）时有西域沙门菩提达摩者，波斯国胡人也，起自荒裔，来游中土，见金盘炫日，光照云表，宝铎含风，响出天外，歌咏赞叹，实是神功。自云年一百五十岁，历涉诸国，靡不周遍，而此寺精丽，阎浮所无也，极佛境界，亦未有此，口唱南无，合掌连日。（杨衒之《洛阳假蓝记·永宁寺》） 可以明显地看出来，这是有意凑四字句。这种风气向下发展，精益求精，就不只求句式整齐，而且求相邻的句在意义和声音方面都对称（名词对名词，动词对动词之类；平对仄，仄对平），并且长短有变化（四六或六四等）。这就成为骈体，留待下面介绍。 5.4.3判断句的表示法 表达“……是……”，文言经常用“……者，……也”的形式。Such as: （1）南冥者，天池也。 ("Zhuangzi · Happy Journey") （2）廉颇者，赵之良将也。（《史记·廉颇蔺相如列传》） 或者只用一个“也”字。Such as: （3）夫许，大（太）岳之胤也。（《左传》隐公十一年） （4）张衡，字平子，南阳西鄂人也。（《后汉书·张衡传》） 还可以“者”“也”都不用。Such as: （5）此堂，师长教士地。（《明史·海瑞传》） 这种形式同“是”的古今异用有关系。“是”在文言里经常用作指示代词，一般不起联系的作用；如果用“……是……”的形式表示判断，那要用“为”“即”“乃”之类联系，如“其北为河”，“五大夫乃秦官”之类。 5.4.4句中的主谓关系多用偏正形式表示 用在句中的有主谓关系的词语，经常在主谓间加“之”字，使它成为偏正词组。Such as: （1）唯·我·郑·国·之·有·请·谒焉，如旧昏媾。（《左传》隐公十一年） （2）欲勿子，即患·秦·兵·之·来。（《史记·廉颇蔺相如列传》） （3）·师·道·之·不·传也久矣，欲·人·之·无·惑也难矣。 (Han Yu's "Teacher's Talk") 这也许是为了紧凑，因为偏正给人的感觉是一个单位，主谓是事物和动作并立，象是两个单位。 5.4.5宾语前置的规格 现代汉语有宾语前置的形式，那是用“把”字。在文言里，“把”字没有这样的用法，可是宾语前置有较多的规格。 主要是三种。 一种是，宾语是代词，在疑问句里要前置。Such as: （1）室如县（悬）罄，野无青草，·何·恃而不恐？ （《左传》僖公二十六年） （2）吾·谁·欺？欺天乎？ ("The Analects of Confucius Zihan") （3）直道而事人，·焉·往而不三黜？（同上） 另一种是，宾语是代词，在否定句里要前置。Such as: （4）硕鼠硕鼠，无食我黍。三岁贯女（汝），莫·我肯·顾。（《诗经·魏风·硕鼠》） （5）古之人不·余·欺也。 （苏轼《石钟山记》）（6）然而不王者，未·之·有也。 （《孟子·梁惠王上》）还有一种是，用中间加“之”或“是”的办法使宾语前置，以加重语气。Such as: （7）非·子之·求而·蒲之·爱，董泽之蒲可胜既乎？ （《左传》宣公十二年） （8）鸡鸣而驾，塞井夷灶，唯余·马·首是·瞻。（《左传》襄公十四年） （9）皇天无亲，惟·德是·辅；民心无常，惟·惠之·怀。 （《尚书·周书·蔡仲之命》） 5.4.6状语和补语的位置 介宾词组“以……”“于……”以及一些副词作修饰成分，现代汉语经常用在前面作状语的，文言却经常用在后面作补语。Such as: （1）投我·以·木·瓜，报之·以·琼·琚。（《诗经·卫风·木瓜》） （2）君子食无求饱，居无求安，敏·于·事而慎·于·言。 ("The Analects of Confucius Xue Er") （3）中孚为其先妣求传·再·三，终已辞之。（顾炎武《与人书》） 有时候，现代汉语用作补语的，文言却用作状语。Such as: （4）令尹子文·三仕为令尹，无喜色，·三已之，无愠色。（《论语·公冶长》） （5）夫天地之大计，·三·年耕而余一年之食。（《淮南子·主术训》） 5.4.7省略较多 词语省略是语言中常见的现象，只是与现代语相比，文言省略比较多。下面分类举些例（括号里是省略的词语）。 省主语的： （1）余幼时即嗜学，（）家贫，（）无从致书以观，（）每假借于藏书之家，（）手自笔录，（）计日以还。天大寒，砚冰坚，（）手指不可屈伸，（）弗之怠。 （）录毕，（）走送之，（）不敢稍逾约。 (Song Lian's Preface to Sending Dongyang Horses to Live) （2）（）见渔人，（）乃大惊，（）问所从来。 （）具答之。（）便要还家，（）设酒杀鸡作食。 (Tao Yuanming) 例（1）省略的虽然都是“余”，可是跳过两个句号；例（2）“具”“便”不是承上省（换了主语）。这在现代语里是少见的。 省宾语的： （3）今至大为不义攻国，则弗知非（），从而誉之，谓之义。（《墨子·非攻上》） （4）吾骑此马五岁，所当无敌，尝一日行千里，不忍杀之，以（）赐公。（《史记·项羽本纪》） 例（3）是省略了动词后的宾语，例（4）是省略了介词后的宾语。 省“使”“令”之后的兼语的： （5）不如因而厚遇之，使（）归赵。（《史记·廉颇蔺相如列传》） （6）今媪尊长安君之位，而封之以豪腴之地，多予之重器，而不及今令（）有功于国。（《战国策·赵策四》） 像这种地方，现代汉语是不能省去“他”字的。 省介词的： （7）晋主不衔璧（）军门，则走死（）江海。 （卷一○四） （8）布袍脱粟，令老仆艺蔬（）自给。（《明史·海瑞传》） 例（7）省略的是“于”，例（8）省略的是“以”。 5.4.8容许变格 文言作品，多数是在诗词里，为了适应字数整齐、对偶、押韵等要求，句子的组织还可以打破常格。Such as: （1）清新庾开府，俊逸鲍参军。（杜甫《春日忆李白》） （2）枯藤老树昏鸦，小桥流水人家。古道西风瘦马，〔夕阳西下，断肠人在天涯。〕（马致远《天净沙》） （3）寻寻觅觅，冷