Chapter 17 Section 04

one three Thirdly, we must also set before the understanding some instances in which the quality under inquiry appears in more or less varying degrees; How much to compare.For since the form of a thing is said to be the thing itself, and since it is said that a thing differs from its form only in that its appearance is different from its reality, its appearance is different from its inner being, and that what is in man is different from what is in the universe. It follows, then, that a quality cannot be regarded as a true form unless it always increases or decreases as the quality in question increases or decreases.I therefore call this table the table of degrees, or the table of comparisons.

The various degrees or comparative tables of heat I shall of course speak first of those substances which contain no degree of heat perceptible to the sense of touch at all, but which seem to have only one latent heat, or only heat. Tendency and preparation.Next, I shall proceed again to those substances which actually have heat, and shall speak of the senses of touch, and of their various intensities and degrees. (1) Every solid and tangible body is not inherently hot in its nature.Stone, metal, sulfur, fossils, wood, water, and dead animals are all hot. ① As for the hot water in the springs, it seems to be heated by some external cause: or by a kind of flame or subterranean fire, like those that spout from Aetna and many other high mountains; Or by mutual conflict between bodies, as iron and tin produce heat in their decomposition.From this it follows that in [inanimate] substances there is no degree of heat perceptible to touch; they only differ in degree of coldness, as wood is not equally cold than metal.But this should go under the "Cold Scale". ① Kachin pointed out that this statement is completely wrong.All bodies have some heat to a greater or lesser extent; there is some degree of heat in the coalescence of all particles.As for metal being cooler to the touch than wood, it is not because it contains more internal cold, but only because its particles are denser and dissipate a much greater amount of heat.See the note under item 20 of the preceding article.

- translator (ii) But as far as potential heat and suitability for combustion are concerned, we see that many inanimate substances are strongly inclined to this, as are sulphur, naphtha, and oil. (3) Plastids that have been heated once, like horse dung passed through the body heat of animals, lime passed through a fire, or also ashes and cinders from a fire, retain some latent residual heat. ① Therefore, some objects are evaporated and melted when buried in horse manure, and water is poured with lime, as mentioned above, which can also stimulate heat. ①Kachin pointed out that the so-called "laten tremains of former heat" should not be confused with "latent heat"; the latter was not discovered until Blake did the experiment.

- translator (iv) In the vegetable kingdom, we do not find any plant or its appendages (such as gums or resins) that are warm to the touch.Despite this, as mentioned above, young grasses can get heat when they are stuffy.As for the internal sense of touch, such as the palate or the stomach, some plants feel the heat of the earth and others of the cold; This situation. (5) A dead animal or any part that has been separated from the whole has no heat in the human touch.Even horse dung, unless stuffed and buried, cannot keep it warm.But all dung seems to have a latent heat, as can be seen from its fertilization of the soil.Similarly, animal corpses also have such a hidden and latent heat. Therefore, in the cemetery where people are buried every day, the soil has a certain hidden heat, and the erosion of newly buried corpses is much faster than that of pure soil. ① We also know that a fine and soft fabric has been discovered in the East, made of the down of a bird, whose inner strength can dissolve and melt butter lightly wrapped. ②①Kachin pointed out that this assertion is baseless. - translator

②Kachin pointed out that this kind of situation will happen, if the package is tight enough to keep the air inside. - translator (6) All substances which fertilize the soil, such as dung of all kinds, chalk, beach sand, salt, and the like, have some tendency to heat. (7) All putrefaction contains in itself some feeble thermal element, but not to such a degree as to be felt by the sense of touch. Even those plastids that become microbes when they rot, such as meat and cheese, etc., do not feel hot to the touch; and rotten wood that glows in the dark is like this. ①It should be pointed out, however, that the heat in putrefaction is sometimes disturbed by a strong foul odor. ①Refer to the first and second items in the previous article. - translator

(8) Among the kinds of substances that can be felt by human touch, the first level of heat is that of animals; and there are quite a lot of degrees in degree.The lowest, such as the heat of an insect, is scarcely perceptible to the touch; but the highest is seldom equal to the heat of the sun in the hottest season in the hottest country, nor so hot that the hand cannot bear it. There is, however, also mention of Constantius,1 and of other persons of peculiar constitution, who are said to have scalded their hands more or less in severe fevers. ① This refers to Constantine II, the son of Constantine the Great.He died of a fever, and his high fever is described in Ammianus Marcellinus (Greek, who served as a soldier in the Roman army, died in AD 390) "History of the Roman Empire", Volume II, Volume 15. It was recorded in the chapter.

(9) When animals are exercising, gymnastics, drinking, fasting, sex, high fever and pain, the heat will increase. (10) When animals suffer from intermittent fever, there is a burst of chills and shivering at first, but then it becomes extremely hot; in the case of high fever and epidemic fever, the high fever is It came from the beginning. (11) It is necessary to further explore the different degrees of heat in different animals, such as fish, beasts, snakes, birds, etc.; it can also be explored according to their species, such as lions, kites, and humans.The general opinion is that the interior heat is least in fish, and most in birds, especially pigeons, hawks, and sparrows. ①①The original Latin text is struthiones, which usually refers to ostrich (ostrich).Sibaiding conjectures that it should be called strutheus, that is, sparrow (sparrow). (Fleur points out that there is no reason to doubt that the original intention was not to refer to the ostrich, whose digestive power is generally believed to be due to the high heat in its stomach.—Translator

) (12) It is still a little further to investigate the different degrees of heat in different parts and in different limbs of the same animal. The milk, blood, offspring, and eggs are only moderately warmed, not as hot as the external muscles of the animal when it is in motion and excited.The extent of the heat in the brain, stomach, heart, etc., has not been likewise investigated. (13) In winter and cold weather, all animals are cool on the outside, but they are hotter on the inside. (14) The heat of the celestial bodies, even in the hottest countries, and at the hottest time of the hottest day of the year, is not so intense as to set alight or scorch the driest wood or grass or even tinder. , except to strengthen it with a fire mirror or mirror.However, it can extract vapor from the moist plastid.

(15) According to the tradition of astronomers, stars are of different degrees of heat.Among the planets, Mars is the hottest below the sun, followed by Jupiter and Venus. ① Others are considered cold, such as the moon, and Saturn is the most.Of the fixed stars, Sirius is said to be the hottest, followed by Leo, then Sirius, and so on. ②①It is estimated that Venus is cold and wet.But Ptolemy (ancient astronomer and geographer, born in Egypt in the second century AD) held the same view as Bacon. ② Kachin pointed out that this statement is entirely based on fallacies.See the note under the first case in the preceding article. - translator

(16) The closer the sun is to the vertical line of the horizon, that is, the closer it is to the mid-heaven, the greater the heat it will give. ①Other planets, in proportion to their heat, may also be like this.For example Jupiter may be hotter to us when it is in Cancer or Leo than when it is in Capricorn or Aquarius. ①Refer to the third example in the previous article. - translator (17) We also believe that the sun and the other planets, when they are at perigee, give off a little more heat than when they are at apogee, because they are nearer to the earth. But if, in a certain area, the sun is at perigee but its radiation is oblique, its heat must be smaller than when it is at perigee and at the same time near the vertical line of the horizon.From this it can be seen that the heights to which the planets ascend to the boundaries of different regions should be noted in connection with their verticality or inclination.

(18) We also suppose that the nearer the sun and other planets are to the larger stars, the greater the heat they impart. For example, the Sun is closer to Leo, Leo, Virgo, Sirius, and Sirius when the Sun is in Leo than when it is in Cancer; but it is closer to the vertical horizon when it is in Cancer. ① We must also imagine that the most densely dotted part of the constellations in the sky, especially the larger constellations, emits the greatest heat (although it is completely imperceptible to the touch). ① Bacon probably wanted to explain why July is hotter than June, so he put forward this astronomical assumption.We know that the zodiac is divided into four triads, each corresponding to one of the four elements, in which Leo is a corner of the fire triad; it is also the native house of the sun. (19) In short, there are three ways to increase the heat of a celestial body: one is the verticality to the horizon, the other is the approach to the earth, the so-called perigee, and the third is the convergence or combination with the stars. (20) What follows is of flame, even of the mildest kind; of all burning bodies; of liquids superheated by fire, and of air itself. Their heat is a great distance in degree from that of the above-mentioned animals, and of the rays emitted by the heavenly bodies, as they do to us.Even a scattered and unconcentrated flame of alcohol is sufficient to set aflame paper, hay, and linen; which the heat of animals can never do, nor the heat of the sun without passing through a fire-glass or mirror. arrived. ①①Kachin pointed out that flames are easier to ignite combustibles than many objects with much higher heat. This is because it has the conditions to easily combine with flammable chemical elements in objects. - translator (21) But as regards the heat of flames and burning bodies, there are also various degrees of intensity. ① But this point has never been seriously explored, so we can only brush it lightly.Alcoholic flames seem to be the softest of all flames alone; perhaps only the so-called will-o'-the-wisps and the flames or sparks of animal sweat are softer.Next, I would like to count the fires from light and porous plants, such as grass, reeds, and dry leaves; and the fires from hair or feathers are about the same.Stronger ones may be fires from wood, especially those that contain only a small amount of rosin.Here there is another difference, that is, the flames from small pieces of wood (such as ordinary bundled fagots) are milder than those from large pieces of wood and roots.Try this at a furnace any day, and you will see that a fire of sticks and sticks is of little use there.Next, I would like to count the flames that emanate from oils, fats, waxes, and the like, fat and oily substances without much causticity.Finally, the most violent flames are found in turpentine and rosin; still more in sulfur, camphor, oil, petroleum, and salt (after the roughness has been removed); in mixtures of these such as gunpowder, Greek fire (commonly called as well as wild fires) and their various varieties; ②this kind of fire is so tenacious that it cannot be easily extinguished even with water. ① Kachin pointed out that the heat intensity of the flames emitted by different bodies depends on the combination of the burning bodies, and also depends on how difficult it is to combine with the oxidation in the air. - translator ②Kachin notes that the synthesis of gunpowder is generally: five-sevenths of saltpeter, one-seventh of sulfur, and one-seventh of charcoal. See the seventh example in the 36th article of the second volume. (22) I think also that the flames from certain imperfect metals are also very strong and active.However, this remains to be further explored. ① Kachin pointed out that the so-called incomplete metals are those metal bodies that can grow and thin in the fire, and can last for a long time, but only to a certain extent. If it is too long, it will be destroyed by the fire and become a piece. Soil loses all the properties of metals, such as copper, iron, lead, and tin. - translator (23) The flames of powerful lightning seem to be more powerful than all the above. Greek fire is said to be composed of sulfur, petroleum spirit, pitch, gum, and pitch, and can burn underwater. It was invented by a Greek engineer named Callinicus in the seventh century AD. - translator Greater power; we know that it has even melted wrought iron into drops, which the flames mentioned above could not do. (24) There are also degrees of heat in burning bodies, but again this has never been seriously examined.The faintest of these, I suppose, is the heat that emanates from the wire with which we light our fire; and the same from the kindling or twigs with which we fire our cannon.Then there are burning logs, coals, and burning bricks, and things like that are hot.Of all flaming substances, I think the hottest are flaming metals, such as iron, copper, etc.But these also need further investigation. (25) Some burning bodies are much hotter than some flames.Burning iron, for example, is much hotter and more destructive than the flame of alcohol. (26) Certain substances which are only heated by fire but not ignited, such as boiling water and the air enclosed in a furnace, are also hotter than many flames and ignited substances. (27) Exercise can increase heat, examples of which can be seen from bellows and torches; ① relatively hard metals cannot be decomposed or melted by dead or still fire, and the fire must be strengthened with a torch, and this is the reason. ① Kachin pointed out that this is because more oxygen has been supplemented from the input air.Exercise alone is not enough. If you spray steam to inflame the fire, it will only blow out the fire. - translator (28) It can be tested in this way (as I remember) with a fire mirror. If you put the fire-finding mirror at a distance of (let's say) a foot away from a combustible object at once, it is better to put it at a distance of (let's say) half a foot at first and then slowly move it to a distance of one foot. It is as easy to burn or destroy the object as far as a foot away.It is the same for the collection of rays to be conical; but the motion itself adds to the action of heat. ①①Kachin pointed out that there is no basis for saying that exercise itself increases heat.Perhaps, the latter process can find the focus better, and thus generate stronger heat.The original note of the English translation also says that the only explanation here is that the focal distance of the fire mirror is between half a foot and one foot. - translator (29) A fire lit in a gale is supposed to advance more against the wind than with it; for the flame recoils more violently when the wind gives way than it advances when the wind blows. ①①Kachin pointed out that this is not the case.The reason why the fire burns brightly in the high wind is explained in the note under the 27th case of this article. - translator (30) If the flame does not have some empty space in which to make its movement active, it will not burst out, nor will it be produced.The only exception is the explosive flame of gunpowder and its like, where compression and confinement increase the fury of the flame. ①①Kachin pointed out that a general flame needs oxygen, so it needs space, that is, air.The case of gunpowder is different because there are other reasons for the explosion there; as for the so-called tight confinement, it only points out the direction of the explosive force.Actual expansion is still the same as in open air. - translator (Trinity) The anvil becomes very hot under the hammer.If it were made of thin iron sheets, I think it would even become like burning red iron under vigorous and continuous hammering.However, this has yet to be tested experimentally. ①① Kachin quotes Herschel as saying, “Compression, whether it is the compression of air by pressure or the compression of metal by impact, is always a powerful source of heat. Therefore, iron can be skillfully hammered. It's as hot as red." See Section 347 of Tractatus Natural Philosophy. - translator (32) But in a flaming substance, which has holes for the fire to move about, if this movement is checked by pressure, the fire will be extinguished at once.For instance, tinder, or burning wicks and wicks, or even red-hot coals or coals, the action of the fire ceases as soon as it is capped with a extinguisher, or any similar implement, or stepped upon with the foot. (33) Approaching a hot body also increases the heat in proportion to the extent of the approach.The same is true of light: the closer a thing is placed to the light, the more clearly it is seen. ①① Kachin quotes Herschel's words and noted, "As for the law of heat emission, we have seen that its law of light emission is very similar in some points, and also has special differences in other points. place."...the closer we are to the radiating object (whether bright or hot), the greater the intensity of light or heat we perceive; and vice versa.See Section 351 of Tractatus Natural Philosophy. - translator (34) The combination of different heats can also increase their heats, except that the bodies of several heats are fused together.For example, if there is a large fire and a small fire in the same room, they will heat each other; but pouring hot water into boiling water will cool the latter. ①①Kachin states that the flames gather their power in the process of consuming oxygen.Water does not consume oxygen, but heats up by other means, and has no inherent heat, so when mixed at two different temperatures, a compromise temperature is obtained.Heat obeys a law, that is, it always tends to be even. (35) The continuous application of a hot body can also increase the heat, because the heat which is always emitted in it is mixed with the heat previously existing, and of course the heat is multiplied.It is evident that the same fire does not heat a room as well in half an hour as it does after an hour.But this is not the case with light. For example, a candle does not give more light after it has been lit for a long time than when it was first lit. ①①Kachin commented that light does not seem to penetrate the air like heat does.In a room there is no steady increase of light, like heat.Air is slow to receive heat, but good at keeping it.The heat, therefore, is felt for a time after its removal; whereas the light of a candle dies almost immediately as soon as it is removed. - translator (36) The stimulation of the cold air around can also increase the heat, which can be seen from the situation of the fire when it is severe frost. ①This situation, I think, is not only due to hot stuffing and condensation - which is also a kind of combination - but also due to stimulation. In this way, when the air is violently compressed, or a stick is bent, they do not spring back only to the point at which they were compelled, but beyond that point to the side.We may try this carefully: put a stick of wood, or something of the like, into the flame, and see whether it burns faster from the sides of the flame than from the center. ① Kachin commented that in dry and frosty weather, oxygen is easier to escape from the air, and the air circulation is faster.The flame is hottest nearer to the other, also due to exposure to the air that feeds it. - translator (37) There are also various degrees of sensitivity to heat.Here it must first be pointed out that no heat, however weak, can effect a change, and warm it to some extent, in the least sensitive body.Even holding an aluminum ball or any other metal object with one hand for a moment transfers some of the heat from the hand to them.In short, heat can be easily and generally transmitted and generated without any change in the body. (38) Among all the substances we are familiar with, air is the easiest to accept and lose heat; ① this can be seen most clearly from the cold and heat instruments (air thermometer). ② The structure of this instrument is as follows.Take a glass bottle with an empty stomach and a thin rectangular neck, and insert it upside down into another glass vessel filled with water, with its mouth facing down and upside down, so that the mouth of the former touches the bottom of the latter, and the neck of the former rests lightly. Hold the latter's mouth so that it can stand upright.For more convenient placement, a small amount of wax can also be used on the mouth of the latter, but the mouth should not be completely sealed, so as not to be injured due to lack of air when performing the light and sensitive movements described later. blocked. ① Kachin pointed out that this is wrong.Please refer to the notes under the 35th of this article and the 18th of the previous article. - translator ② Kachin quotes Herschel's words and notes: "This kind of thermometer, according to the original manufacture of Cornelius Drebell, does not use air, nor is it like the current thermometer that uses the expansion of mercury to measure the increase in heat, but uses air to measure the increase in temperature. It is measured by the expansion of the natural philosophy." See the 356th section of the Tractatus Natural Philosophy. - translator Before inserting the former into the latter, the upper part after it is inserted upside down, that is, the abdomen, must be heated by the fire.Now that it is placed in the position mentioned above, the air that was expanded due to the heat will shrink itself to the same volume as the surrounding air when the original bottle was filled with water after a sufficient period of time to dissipate the heat added from the outside. , At the same time, the water is sucked to the corresponding height.A narrow rectangular strip of paper should be pasted on this glass bottle, on which you can draw as many degrees as you like. Thus, depending on the weather, you can see that the air shrinks under the action of cold, and expands under the action of heat, from the rising and falling of water as the air expands.Moreover, the air's sensitivity to heat and cold is extremely subtle and sensitive, far exceeding the perception of human touch, so much so that as long as a ray of the sun, or a little heat from the breath, especially some heat from the human hand is added to the top of the glass bottle. on, immediately causing a clearly visible drop of the bottle of water. ①① There are different opinions about the original invention of the thermometer.Alice said in the English translation note that because Bacon made such a description of the cold and heat instrument, some people attribute this invention to Bacon, but the reason is not sufficient. He believes that Fludd was the first person to publish the account of the thermometer, and it is possible that it was from him that Bacon heard about it.But he also admitted that Nelli's statement has its authority, that is, Galileo invented the thermometer before Fludd published it.Ellis has a long commentary on this, without citations. Fleur noted under the fifth case of the previous article that different records attributed the original invention of the thermometer to Galileo (in 1597), Drebell (in 1609), Paolo Sarpi (in 1600 9) and Sanctorio (in 1610) et al.And M． Bouillet and M． de Vauzelles attributed the invention to Bacon himself, though not on sufficient grounds.Fleur concluded by saying that the credit for this invention should probably go first to Galelio. - translator But I also thought that if the essence of animals was not hindered and counteracted by the bloat of the body, they would be more sensitive to cold and heat. (39) The bodies most sensitive to heat from below the air I presume to be those newly transformed and compressed by cold, such as snow and ice; decomposed and dissolved.And then, perhaps, the mercury should be counted.After this one counts oily substances, such as oil and butter, and the like; then wood; then water; and lastly stone and metal, which are insensitive to heat, especially Even more so on the inside. ①However, once they get hot, they can keep the heat for a long time. For example, after a burning brick, stone or iron is thrown into a basin of water, it can still be too hot to touch for about a quarter of an hour. ②① Fleur pointed out that, as a general rule, metals are the best conductors of heat; silver and copper are especially so, and iron is inferior. - translator ② Kachin noted that this is of course due to the relatively high density of stone and metal. - translator (40) The smaller the volume of any body, the faster it heats up when it is near a hot body.This case shows that all heat known to us empirically is somewhat contrary to tangible matter. ①①Kachin pointed out that this is wrong again, for the same reason as in the previous item.Solids are the best heat conductors.The larger the body, the slower it heats up, and this is due entirely to its greater density, that is to say, the greater number of particles to be heated. - translator (41) Heat, as far as it involves people's senses and touch, is variable and relative; cold hands dipped in lukewarm water feel hot, and warm hands feel cool.