Chapter 3 Chapter 3 Holland
I live less than 10 miles across the Hudson River.Everyone knows that the river was named after the 17th-century explorer Henry Hudson, but few people know that Hudson was hired by the Dutch East India Company to explore New York. Instead, they hoped to find a "Northwest Route" to enter the Far East and trade with China.It turns out that in the early 17th century, the Europeans had poor geographical knowledge and did not know the width and depth of Canada and the Pacific Ocean. They thought that they would reach China soon by following the northwest route.At that time, China was also rumored to be one of the richest countries in the world. In the early 17th century, the Netherlands was waging a war of independence for independence.At this time, the southern ocean is an area where many countries compete. If you go in the opposite direction, you may have unexpected gains.The Netherlands has already discovered many secrets to making the country rich and strong, and if this method can be found, it will definitely be able to make great strides forward.
Needless to say, this dream did not become a reality.Although the Netherlands developed some land along the Hudson River, famous Dutchmen such as the Roosevelt family also took root here.But after the Second Anglo-Dutch War, this area was ceded to the United Kingdom, and New Amsterdam was renamed New York, or New York, in honor of the Duke of York (the Duke of York later inherited the throne as King James II, because He was not popular, was expelled and lost his country, this is a later story. He was a sea hero when he fought against the Netherlands, and was praised by the parliament, so the largest port in the world today still uses the name of York to commemorate his military exploits).
The development of the Netherlands in the Western Hemisphere has not achieved actual results.However, the Dutch sailed around the coast of Africa to the Far East, and gained a lot, and once occupied Taiwan.Knowing about China is not as rich as the rumors say. In the future, the Western European countries slaughtered China, and the Dutch people did not participate deeply.The colonies developed by the Netherlands in Southeast Asia are Java, Sumatra, Borneo and other places, which are also places with abundant resources in the world. In the early 17th century, the Netherlands, with a population of only 1.5 million, occupied this vast area for hundreds of years.The reorganization of this colonial empire after the Second World War was certainly the influence of the trend of national self-determination in the new era, and one of the main factors that promoted the development of this trend was China's success in resisting Japan.Therefore, the expansion of the Netherlands is still directly and indirectly related to China.
The above paragraph summarizes the deeds of several centuries, mentions many countries, and also involves the regions where the editor, author and readers of this book are located.At first glance, it seems that this story lacks structure, and the occurrence of various events in it depends entirely on chance.However, when we combine these deeds and think again, we can see that due to the advancement of transportation and communication, the eastern and western hemispheres, and the old and new worlds have been integrated into one.At the beginning, there must be a period of conflict and friction due to the unbalanced factors between the parties, and at the same time, the form of the strong bullying the weak is inevitable.After long-term development, the situation tends to balance.And it was so-called capitalism that first started this gigantic movement.
In the above two chapters of this book, the spirit of capitalism has been mentioned intermittently.The Dutch develop outwardly, i.e. cannot be separated from this spirit. The ambition of "mercenary" prompted the Dutch to act boldly.On the one hand, relying on this spirit, the Netherlands dared to fight Spain, Britain, France and Sweden successively as a small country.The Dutch got rid of the shackles of monarchy and theocracy, and pursued profit and pragmatism, so the whole country developed into an organization and a movement under the leadership of capitalism.At this time, the people in charge must follow the social and economic trends and tend to be more or less materialistic, individualistic, and liberal, otherwise they would not be able to develop the above-mentioned gambling and adventurous character.This unrestrained character will eventually be inseparable from racism and imperialism.In the past, the Dutch tried to monopolize the production of spices for meat, and they did not hesitate to harm the natives in Southeast Asia, and they trafficked people on a large scale in the Western Hemisphere.
Under such circumstances, when we study capitalism, we cannot draw a certain boundary and describe capitalism as an isolated and abstract factor.Nor can capitalism be criticized because of certain good and bad deeds in the process of capitalism becoming an organization and a movement.
Standing at the end of the 20th century, we recognize capitalism as an instrument for the advancement of modern society, a development in which the Netherlands has made a substantial contribution.Unless we first describe the history and background of Dutch independence in more detail from the standpoint of technology, we cannot determine which factors can be counted as the characteristics of capitalism in the long-term historical development, and which factors can only be counted as individual and accidental factors. background.
The Netherlands, as we generally call it today, should be officially named the Kingdom of the Netherlands (Koninkrijk der Nederlanden). When she became independent in the 16th century, it was the United Provinces, or the Dutch Republic. The Netherlands ( Holland) is just one of 7 provinces (now 11 provinces).
This country, together with Belgium and Luxembourg, was collectively known as the "Low Countries" in the Middle Ages.Although there are differences in national languages in all regions, the political system of the above three units has never appeared in history before the independence of the Netherlands.The Dutch people also lacked experience in organizing an autonomous state in the past.Or due to the strong feudal influence in the Middle Ages in Europe, various regions became the hereditary properties of dukes and earls and the dowries of princesses and princesses.Its effective government is always at the bottom.That is, around 1500, among the national states in Western Europe, only Britain, France, and Spain were considered crude embryos.The above-mentioned countries have complete territories, clear boundaries, the same language of the people in the territory, and historically controlled by a powerful royal family, so that they can roughly express the shape of some modern countries on a large scale.But this kind of performance is still extremely limited, because in the past, the functions of the government were simple, and financial power and police power were mostly manipulated by lower-level authorities (see Chapter 1 for details).In the future, due to the needs of the new era, the royal family is going to collect taxes from the people of the whole country, establish a standing army, create a civil service organization (bureaucracy), and determine the judicial system, which is bound to cause conflicts with new and old forces.And because the powers and responsibilities of bishops involve religion and belief, it is more likely to cause turmoil across the country.Several centuries in the modern history of Western Europe have been spent in this kind of conflict.The English Civil War and the French Revolution were both the climax and the end of this reorganization.What this chapter wants to point out is that the low countries lacked a powerful royal family in history, and they cannot enter a centralized system by referring to the situations of the above countries.An efficient government was urgently needed here, and it was under these dual conditions that the Dutch Republic came into being.
Another factor that hinders the centralization of power in the Low Countries is the concentration of towns in them.According to the customs of the Middle Ages, each town had immunity from the feudal princes' charter, and the feudal laws only applied in the countryside and did not apply within the city walls.Self-governing citizens (burghers) have the right to make laws on their own, and the princes cannot directly collect taxes from the citizens. Even if the situation requires it, when the feudal princes need it from the towns, they must undertake it in the name of consultation and automatic donations.At the beginning, a large number of citizens were mostly serfs (serf or villein, generally translated as "serfs" and are easily misunderstood, collectively referred to in this book as serfs), or their descendants.According to the general customary law in Western Europe, one only needs to live in a city for one year and one day to become a citizen, and in some places it only takes 101 days.But in the Low Countries sometimes as little as 40 days counts.
The depreciation of real estate is also a symbol and driving force of the rise of citizen power and the decline of feudal power.Although the towns and cities are self-governing, their real estate is still owned by the feudal lords. At first, the subinfeudation method was adopted, and the lower classes were in charge and could not be bought or sold (if they could be bought and sold freely, the entire feudal system could not be maintained).But the townspeople built houses on land, and the rent they paid to the feudal lords could not be adjusted by current prices.All houses are chattels under common law.Therefore, when the price of currency circulation in the new era is soaring, land rent is no longer a factor worthy of consideration, and house rent has risen with the price of goods. Citizens who own houses gradually ignore the existence of landlords, and they have the tendency to overwhelm the landlord.
The economic development of the low countries is also thanks to the favorable location.Amsterdam has already connected to the Baltic Sea in the north (the route through the strait between Denmark and Sweden was first created by the Dutch), and there are three main rivers in this whole area coming from the hinterland of Germany and France, and passing through it into the North Sea.Antwerp and Bruges (both part of Belgium today) have become important ports in Europe since the Middle Ages.Flanders (Flanders, most of which belong to Belgium today, and part of each belongs to France and the Netherlands) in the Low Countries has become a woolen production center since the 13th century, and countless towns and cities have prospered with the development of this handicraft industry.If the local wool supply is insufficient, it is imported to England, and the woven woolen cloth is exported far and near, as far as the Mediterranean Sea in the south.At the same time, the benefits of traditional fish salt have not been overlooked. Since the 14th century, the method of preparing herring at any time has been improved, which can keep the aquatic products in the North Sea for a long time and sell them to distant places.The design of fishing boats and fishing nets has also been completely reformed, leading to the concentration of harvesting, transportation and marketing.The entire economic structure of the northern part of the Low Countries known today as the Netherlands was transformed.
At this time, the entire Low Countries was divided into 10 internal and external political units. Brabant and Guelders were dukedoms; the Netherlands and Flanders were counties; Special (Utrecht) for the bishopric (bishopric).Because of social and economic changes, the princes and princes promoted some nobles to be in charge of internal managers, thus breaking the feudal balance, causing entanglements among the nobles, and complicating the internal politics of the Low Countries.The biggest difficulty for the princes was that they could not make ends meet, so they had to make concessions to the towns in order to expand their financial resources.For example, the bishop of Utrecht, on the one hand, tightened control in Utrecht, and on the other hand, supported emerging towns in the surrounding suburbs.The privileges acquired by the towns at this time are represented by the new charter of Amsterdam in 1400.This charter recognized that the directors of the municipal councils could each elect their successors, which of course increased the political power of the emerging bourgeoisie.
According to the practice of European historians, this book generally refers to the above political units as "provincial states". An important development in the 14th century was the rise of State assemblies.The source of these provincial councils is still a subject of debate among experts, and no one seems to be able to make a conclusion. It is just that the princes and princes who enjoy the country in the provinces, due to financial needs, have to summon their subordinate chiefs, their own staff, and the towns and cities from time to time. It has become a trend since the 13th century that popular people in the country review domestic and foreign policies.
The economic development of the Low Countries certainly aroused the covetousness of the surrounding kingdoms.Britain, France, and Germany (Germany was not unified at this time, but the Holy Roman Empire essentially represented Germany and Austria and became a relatively loose organization, and many provinces in the lowlands were still nominally part of the empire) all had ambitions to annex this area .On the one hand, due to mutual jealousy, and on the other hand, because no one can meet the needs of the Low Countries, this plan cannot be realized.Another method is that these royal family merchants often marry princes and princes from more than 10 provinces in the Low Countries.However, there is a contract for the marriage concluded, which clearly stipulates various circumstances of inheritance.Powerful people in the provinces emphasized at this time that they had no intention of participating in dynastic wars between princes and princes, nor did they have the obligation to donate to support such wars.This stance of outsider neutrality is evident in writing.
In the early 15th century, the more than 10 provinces of the Low Countries, except for the northeast corner, were all acquired by Burgundy. The arrangement of fate.The Duke of Burgundy was originally a descendant of the French royal family, and the Burgundy under his jurisdiction was in the northeast of France today.The way it acquired the Low Countries was first of all the marriage between Duke Philip and the heir of Flanders (later Magalida, Countess).He left behind three sons and one daughter, who were also married to the princes and princes in this area through marriage.Many of these princes and princes used marriage to maintain their relationship with each other, and the Duchess of Brabant was also Magalida's aunt. into the hands of Burgundy.If the normal relationship develops, the three sons and one daughter will establish their own families, and each will have its own merits in the future. After several generations, the relationship with the suzerain will become increasingly indifferent, and the relationship between each branch and the locality will deepen.However, among the four families of Burgundy, three branches developed outwards. Their heirs either died in the Hundred Years War between England and France, or died in the French Civil War, or were exiled after participating in the defeat in the civil war in the Low Countries. After many extinctions and no heirs, the provinces they inherited were reverted to the Burgundian authenticity through the method of brother-in-law.
Therefore, when Philip's eldest son, nicknamed "John the Fear-less" (John the Fear-less) and his grandson, "Philip the Good" (Philip the Good) succeeded to the Grand Reign, Burgundy had all the princes in the Low Countries The princes were wiped out (there are still some areas that are not governed by politically unimportant areas), and the bishops of Utrecht and Liege (Liege) sent relatives and family members (David, the bishop of Ucheng) Bastard son of Philip the Good).In this way, the territory of Burgundy is connected between Switzerland and the North Sea, forming a situation of the third great kingdom between Germany and France today.
Philip the Goodman's son "Charles the Bold" succeeded in 1466.Three generations of their grandparents ruled the Low Countries for about 50 years and strongly supported the economic development of the region. In the 14th and 15th centuries, free cities in northern Germany united to form the Hanseatic League, which tended to monopolize commerce from the Baltic Sea to the English Channel, and backed commerce with force.The Duke of Burgundy supported the sailors of the Netherlands and Zeeland (another Maritime province adjacent to the Netherlands) and encouraged them to fight against the cities of the Hanseatic League.Burgundy also tried its best to make Antwerp the world's first-class port and international city.In this way, the citizens of the Low Countries really benefited, and were also happy to have such a royal family that guaranteed their safety.
Since Burgundy has opened up a kingdom 500 miles long and 300 miles wide, it is necessary to make a unified plan for the ruler of the whole territory.So in each province, a governor (stadhouder or stadtholder) was sent to replace the original princes and princes (later when the Netherlands became independent, its rulers still used this official title to attack).Convene a state assembly (states-general) to decide on taxes in the Low Countries to support the military expenditure of the Duke of Burgundy.This is already beyond the precedent, because in the past, each province was its own unit, and when it came to recruiting troops and raising salaries, it was only temporarily negotiated with the provinces.The judiciary created by Charlie's recklessness is in great conflict with the local autonomy advocated by the local people.Under his supervision, a Supreme Court was established in the Low Countries, and it was stipulated that all official documents in various places should be in Latin or French, and the laws should be based on Roman law (because the people of the Low Countries, especially the Dutch, have always used customary law and unwritten law).As soon as this policy was announced, it aroused widespread opposition. Liege peasants rebelled and killed judges and lawyers in the territory.A township in the Netherlands even created a regulation of its own, "whoever quotes a foreign or obscure legal term without translating it into the common Dutch language" will be fined two pounds. In 1476 the National Assembly rejected Charles' request for taxation and payment.
If this stalemate continues, the future development will be unpredictable, but the following year (1477) Charles recklessly died in battle, and the successor was the 20-year-old Duchess Mary.The Park of Burgundy lost Burgundy after the war (the place has since become French territory) and became only the royal family of the Low Countries.For a while, important people from various provinces gathered in Ghent to draft a document called "Groot Privilegie" (Groot Privilegie).It is stated that the Supreme Court cannot review cases that the local courts themselves can solve. The owners and towns of the local estates cannot be sent to answer questions outside their borders. All official documents must be in the language of the Low Countries; unless the estate owners agree, The Duchess may not declare war, collect taxes, or mint coins.All officials were to be filled by locals, and even the marriage of the Duchess herself was subject to the consent of the towns.
At that time, the Low Countries were facing the threat of internal rebellion and French invasion, and Mary had no choice but to accept it. The "Great Privilege" is like a charter. It has no enforcement power in itself, but only shows the introverted character of the Low Countries when they were formed.The Union of Utrecht in 1579 was the harbinger of Dutch independence.The declaration within the alliance stated that the original privileges of the towns and cities in the provinces would not be invalidated by the alliance, and that the alliance's actions on important events must obtain the unanimous consent of all provinces.
Marie's marriage brought the Low Countries just out of Burgundy's grasp and into the clutches of the Hapsburg royal family.Marie married Maximilian, Grand Duke of Austria, sponsored by people from the original Low Countries. At the end of the 15th century, France's strong neighbors suppressed the border, and there was a prince of German and Austrian descent as a son-in-law, which could also be used to slightly balance the power.Unexpectedly, the Habsburg dynasty also used marriage to expand its territory, which was even better than Burgundy.What was annexed was not only the small lands of duchies and counties, but also a modern European country.Maximilian himself was elected as the emperor of the Holy Roman Empire (at that time, the Holy Roman Emperor was also elected by seven kings and bishops, and was inherited by the Habsburg family after the 16th century). The head of the state is not only the emperor of the Holy Roman Empire, but also owns Austria.He also controlled Hungary and Bohemia (today's Czech Republic) through Austria, and was also the king of Spain. Because of the latter's relationship, he controlled the Italian Peninsula and some areas in the Americas.The Habsburgs encompassed half of Europe, prompting reactions from England and France.Especially in France, seeing that its territory was surrounded by the Habsburg dynasty on three sides, it was eager to resist.Therefore, by means of long-distance and short-term attack, entanglement with more peripheral allies in Europe such as Turkey, Scotland, Sweden, and Denmark to carry out a larger-scale anti-encirclement.
The Low Countries, including today's Netherlands, Belgium, and Luxembourg, originally hoped to have a little security under one king, and their founding policy was to be neutral and decentralize, so that each town could develop its own economic interests.At this time (16th century), the development of the situation was farther and farther away from their wishes.
The 16th century was also the period of the Reformation.
Martin Luther announced his "Ninety-Five Theses" on October 31, 1517. It turned out that he was driven by his own conscience to express some opinions on the religious facilities of the day from the theological point of view. (He nailed 95 theses to the door of the Wittemberg church, which was in line with the way things were done at the time. Because although he was a monk, he still held a professorship at the University of Wittemberg, and the door of the church was the announcement of the Department of Theology card.) This action caused great waves in history, which I did not expect.The social and economic conditions in Europe were already far from the system established in the Middle Ages. The call for religious reform was raised at this time, which only allowed other movements that needed reform to take advantage of it, and its scope was also expanded and its trend was more obvious.In hindsight, it was inevitable.
The purpose of Protestantism is under the advocacy of freedom of religion and the ethos of "priest-hood of believers" (priest-hood of believers), and many denominations have emerged in Western and Northern Europe.Among them, Lutherans are still more conservative among them. Martin Luther advocated the abolition of some bad habits of the Holy See, but he still maintained a traditional view of social order.Therefore, Lutherans were easily accepted in Germany.After supporting Luther, many princes and princes broke away from Rome and Vienna, and their authority in their own fields was not diminished. (Germany at this time was composed of about 300 units, princes and bishops each had more than a hundred territories, and free cities also had about a hundred.) The Protestant "left wing" can be represented by Anabaptists.This school has no intention of delving into theology and philosophy.They only hope to reproduce the original character of Christianity described in the Bible in the world.Their church is a suffering organization.Therefore, they also create a tendency not to take care of their family and production business, but only to vent their emotions.With this as a flaunt, they can easily break into the lower class, such as Dutch seamstresses and bread bakers who became the leaders of the Anabaptist.Weavers in Flanders also organized many small units.Some of them took the path of anarchism and primitive communism.Their weakness is that they cannot serve as the spiritual pillar of the new social system institutionally.In the end it was the Calvinists, between conservatives and radicals, who had a decisive influence in the Low Countries.
Calvin, a Frenchman, took "predestina-tion" as the core of his theological position.To put it simply, whether people are good or bad, whether they will go to heaven or hell in the future is predestined by God.However, there are still various problems in the theory of determinism, such as: Is this destiny an absolute or relative factor?Could it be that man's evil is really God's mastermind, not just his own disobedience to God's will?If there is a destiny, how can a person be sure that his choice is God's arrangement if he has to make up his mind between right and wrong?Questions such as these can be answered logically, and they can also be regarded as a mysterious phenomenon beyond human experience that cannot be explained by logic. The following sections of this book will have the opportunity to narrate.It does not fall into a mechanical explanation, but can be accepted by many parties, and it also makes the leaders and thinkers of the high-level society in the new era interested in it.When the theory of endowment is firmly explained, it has the spirit of "my personal destiny cannot be controlled by other authorities in the world", and people who hold this concept also tend to be inclined to success in their careers, so that they can prove that they really have God bless.These attitudes and tendencies are generally recognized as promoting materialism, individualism, and liberalism, and are powerful tools for advancing capitalism.
In the 16th century, the economy of the Low Countries developed again. The woolen industry was released from the division of labor (see Chapters 1 and 2 for details) and entered and exited today’s small towns and villages in southern Belgium and northern France. , with an ever-increasing scope and a more capitalist character.At the same time, the ships of the Netherlands and Zeeland were also expanding. After the middle of the 16th century, 1/2 to 2/3 of the ships entering and exiting the Baltic Sea were owned by the Low Countries, more than 2,000 ships per year, most of which belonged to the Netherlands.The ships spend half of the year fishing and carrying merchant ships the rest of the year, as far north as the Baltic and as far south as Spain and Portugal.Although they only come in and out of countless towns and villages along the coast, they operate with huge capital, and most of the financial supporters behind them are businessmen from big cities, mainly from Amsterdam.
In the Low Countries, various conflicts of interest have already arisen, such as the price of woolen cloth woven through the division of labor outside the country, which is lower than the public price set by the trade guilds in the towns.In some places there are many monasteries, and monks hold certain commercial tax privileges, which inevitably conflict with believers.After the gentry in the countryside developed their power in the cities, they denied the monks the right to tax them. These towns paid to buy the privileges of the feudal lords of Fuguo, including road tax, fishing and hunting privileges, etc., and used these privileges as a basis to support them in the economy. power of control.
The difference between the North and the South in the Low Countries also arouses suspicion.The Dutch-speaking area in the north does not recognize Habsburg as belonging to the Germanic system. The origin of this dynasty and Burgundy, coupled with Brussels (the capital of Belgium today) as the government center, and the use of many lawyers and judges caused bureaucratic politics, making it " "French forces" and "foreign factors" are more colorful.The northeast corner of the Low Countries has united against Charles V for many years. The East Dutch language they use is close to Low German, and the Anabaptists can easily infiltrate this area from Germany because of their language proximity.By 1543, Charles V occupied all of this area, and since then he has commanded 17 provinces in the Low Countries and became the emperor of the Holy Roman Empire.However, many provinces and regions in the Low Countries still do not recognize him as the king. He is just a prince who also holds the positions of heads of 17 regions.Therefore, he must carry out his powers and responsibilities in each province in a different manner according to the established practice.If the system is changed, provinces and autonomous regions can still refuse to undertake.
Therefore, in the middle of the 16th century, the Low Countries enjoyed a short period of peace and unity, and each enjoyed a variety of vested interests within its territory.Charles V could have actually owned this territory, but because he was the emperor of the Holy Roman Empire, he was busy dealing with Martin Luther in Germany, and he had to preside over the war against the Turks and in the Italian peninsula.He has been busy for half his life, always hoping to create a veritable empire, eliminate all kinds of heresies and re-spread Catholicism among the areas and people under his jurisdiction, but things backfired, and he voluntarily abdicated in 1556.The empire under his rule was divided into two parts: the part of Germany and Austria and the Holy Roman Empire, which was passed on to the emperor's brother Ferdinand; the Spanish throne and the territory of the Italian Peninsula and the Low Countries were passed on to his son Philip II.The latter's 60-year reign was also the beginning of the Low Countries Rebellion, which eventually evolved to the independence of the Netherlands.There are many reasons for this, but since the Middle Ages, the value worshiped by Europeans has been religion as the first priority (at least superficially surpassing the nation-state and socio-economic status), so in 1566, more than 300 low-level nobles made a request in Brussels, Please end the persecution of religious heresy, which started the Dutch War of Independence.
The independence of the Netherlands began with a petition in 1566. In fact, the Habsburg royal family has a long history of punishing heretics. In 1550 Charles V issued a stern order.The inner statement: Anyone who prints, copies and disseminates Luther, Calvin, Zwingli and other apostate documents will be executed.Those who read the Bible privately without permission or explained the Bible in public and private occasions were also sentenced to death.If the person who violated this crime expresses repentance, the man will be beheaded and the woman will be buried alive. Those who do not repent will be tied to a stake and burned to death.Before the abdication of Charles V, the number of those executed for Protestant heresy in the Low Countries was already large, some say tens of thousands, or at least thousands.
The development of various sects also had different fates. For example, the Anabaptists were persecuted during the Habsburg dynasty, but they were rarely mentioned during the War of Independence, and the war was almost entirely led by Calvinists.Calvinism originally infiltrated the Low Countries from northern France and prevailed in Flanders. Today, after the 80-year war in southern Belgium, these areas are still dominated by Catholicism and are still ruled by Spain (and become Belgium in the future).Calvinism prevailed in the north and became the national belief in the former Dutch Republic (today's Netherlands).It can be seen that religion touches human life and thought, and the relationship between the two is very subtle.Therefore, although believers can be infinitely pious when worshiping, they can also mix in a lot of vulgar ideas, many of which are beyond the insight of the person involved.John Lothrop Motley has studied the Dutch independence movement and the War of Independence for many years. He once wrote: "As for the interpretation of the problem of heaven, many people may give up their purpose because of coercion and temptation. In matters of religion, human nature often It can be mixed. When it comes to material and financial matters, resistance to power will lead to unanimity.” This statement points out that the religious disputes of the day were actually the surface, while many other issues such as social and economic privileges were the core. .If not for the latter, there would be no former.
Historians have now accepted that Charles V grew up in the Low Countries and knew the people's sentiments well. Although he punished heretics, he was still unwilling to disturb other complex factors in the region.His son, Philip II, is considered to be Spanish.He rejected heresy and used religious issues to rectify the internal management of the Low Countries.He planned to create new bishoprics throughout the territory while maintaining a standing army.The use of religion to subdue the believers has a tendency towards the unity of politics and religion, and with the backing of force, the military expenditure is also given to the local people, which indirectly adds the threat of tax increases. The petition at the beginning of 1566 did not get a satisfactory answer, and demonstrations sprang up everywhere.In some cities, icons and other signs in various Catholic churches were destroyed. At the same time, many lower class people expressed their indignation at the high food prices caused by several major floods without proper relief.Dissatisfied with tithing churches and outrageous courts.Higher societies in the Low Countries saw through Philip's actions as a check on their historical privileges.
Philip was in Spain at this time, and in 1567 he sent Alva (Duke of Alva) to lead 10,000 elite soldiers across the Alps. In 1569, according to Alva's suggestion, Philip announced the new tax system of the Low Countries, among which the tax value of business tax was the most stringent.The folk economy in those days was not like today's society. Every time an item changed hands, the price would increase by 10%.
Armed resistance in the Low Countries began around 1569, and by the time of the Thirty Years War (Thirty Years War) peace conference in 1648 (which involved most of Europe), countries (including Spain) recognized the independence of the Dutch Republic.Among them, the Utrecht Union was established in 1579, which has been mentioned above.The Dutch Republic declared its independence in 1581. In fact, in 1609, the Republic and Spain signed a 12-year truce. At this time, the Netherlands has been recognized in fact. However, historians collectively call the Dutch independence movement lasted for 80 years. .The details of these developments are beyond what this book can or should describe, and the following are only briefly mentioned where they are relevant to our subject:
The Prince of Orange (also known as "William the Silent"), who led the War of Independence, inherited the fiefs of Orange in southern France and Nassau in western Germany. Land, Brabant, and Geddes own manors. They are one of the richest men in the Low Countries and also high-ranking nobles. They have always been close to the Habsburg royal family, but they did not reveal their intentions until the eve of the rebellion, so they have this name. .Originally a Catholic, he became a Lutheran, and during the war he became a Calvinist.After fighting for 16 years, he was stabbed to death by the Spanish envoy in 1584.After the independence of the Netherlands, his descendants succeeded him.But they only use the title of governor (stadtholder), and although their office is hereditary, they still claim to pass the elections of the provinces, although there are interruptions in it, until the time of Napoleon.It can also be said that it opened a way out for constitutional monarchy. (After Napoleon's defeat, the heirs of the Orange family were restored as kings, and they are also the royal family of the Netherlands today.)
During the war, controlling towns became the main strategy of the two sides, so siege warfare was extremely important. After the Duke of Parma (nephew of Alexander Farnese King Philip of Spain) gained military power in 1578, he changed his strategy and focused on cutting off the Sk The traffic in the lower reaches of the Erte River made the towns that depended on the river and internal and external traffic surrender without a fight (also effective), so its purpose is still to control the population center, not to destroy the opponent's field army.Combat methods tend to be professionalized, and artillery and fortification are equally important.In addition to the fact that the whole city joined collectively when life and property were at stake, usually the belligerents on both sides were recruited from abroad. Spain had 60,000 to 80,000 soldiers, making military expenditure and finance the main factors determining the development of the war.In addition to the distribution of donations by the Independence Army, early high-ranking nobles such as William Jiyan and others destroyed their homes and confiscated the assets of the Catholic Church, as well as donations from neighboring countries such as Britain, France, and Germany.Its long-term impact was the decline of the aristocracy in the Low Countries after the war, and the rise of the bourgeoisie in the Dutch towns.
Philip's plan to use war to support war failed completely, and the business tax value could not achieve the expected goal. Instead, a large amount of gold and silver (first from South America) was sent from Madrid to the Low Countries.Such a long-term use of cash in this small area has accelerated the development of the financial economy here.Even in the Netherlands during the war, the trade of its ports also increased greatly.When the riots began, Protestants and anti-Hispanics in various parts of the South included many technical employees.Jews and capitalists fled to other countries until 1588 when the Queen of England came forward to help Holland, and people from all walks of life returned to the mainland and gathered in the north, which promoted the development of Dutch industry and commerce.Philip's inability to effectively deal with the low countries is closely related to Spain's overall strategy.At this time, he wanted to guard against the invasion of Turkey to the west (the naval battle of Lepanto (Lepanto) was mentioned in Chapter 2, that is, it took place in 1571, and the Western coalition was led by Spain), and he wanted to intervene in the civil war in France, and he wanted to stop it. British intervention in the Low Countries.最后，则有大舰队（Armada）之征英，都是极为浩费，很多行动没有成功，反而重重牵制菲力普的发展。对荷战事旷日持久，形成南北对峙的局面，当初一个宗教问题演变为荷兰人的民族战争，西班牙只能控制低地国家的南部，而此地日后也终于演变为今日之比利时。
威廉寡言又以“海上乞丐”（Sea Beggars）为机动部队。原来1566年低级贵族请愿时，一位权臣曾轻蔑的称他们为“叫化子”（gueux），造反的人偏以此名号自荣，曾编制叫化子歌谣传颂，设计叫化子的图样自相标榜。所以经威廉发给特许状（let-ters of marque）的武装民船有交战员之身份，通称“海上乞丐”。他们出没无常，也给独立军助威不少。不过他们肆无忌惮，有时趁火打劫，杀人掠货之际，不严格区分敌友。就历史发展而言，他们助长了荷兰人日后在海上的发展，而他们所表现“海上无骑士精神”的侵略性格也成为16、17世纪的一般风气。
从以上各种发展综合看来，新时代的趋向符合克拉克所说的“战争是一种国营事业”（War became a business of thestate）。荷兰立国之后，没有更好的逻辑去支持她的存在，只好纵容此种趋向继续发展，而在其过程中表现出一种资本主义的性格。
荷兰共和国之立国可以说是发挥了自由的精神，但仍不能算作民主。而所谓的自由，也只是容许了社会上能说话的人物继续保全他们的权益，并不鼓励所有人各抒所见。在1600年前后，7个省的省议会约有代表2000人，称为“摄政阶级”（regentclass），是一切威权与财富之精萃，因之每一个城镇里的政治可能为极少的特殊阶级垄断，有些家族彼此照顾，他们的地方势力也等于世袭。
独立之初，全国的加尔文派只占1／10人口，至1619年后，已有未皈依此派的新教信徒不能在市政府里任职之规定。只是这种限制并未强制执行，随着时间之进展，其要求反更松懈。为此，有所谓控诉派（Remonstrants）及反控诉派（Contra-remonstrants）的争执。这两派同称为加尔文信徒，也同时有神学威权的支持。他们的争执在于对命定论的解释。前者要求对命定论不作过于严格的定法。有人批评他们根本不承认命定论。这时荷兰省（荷兰共和国内7省之一省）的权要，以奥登巴内佛（Johan Van Oldenbarneveldt）为领袖，坚决提倡荷兰联邦，为一种邦联，权在各省，本身可以编组军队，军士效忠于本省。他在全国会议里有多数支持的力量，1609年与西班牙停战的协定12年，大部分应归功于奥登巴内佛。
他站在控诉派的一边，和他们的发言人接近，又把宗教问题与政治问题甚至宪法问题混在一起。控诉派站在人本主义的立场，把命定论解释得比较自由化，但因他们要求荷兰省政府的保护，又重启政权阐释教义之门，使政府有决定教义的权力。
于是反控诉派（由大多数牧师组成，也算是加尔文的正规派），站在慕黎斯王子（Maurice of Nassau）之后，举他为领导。慕黎斯王子乃威廉寡言之子，此时为7个省中5个省之总督（另外二省则推他的从兄弟为总督）。他对宗教问题并无兴趣，他本人的政策，则和奥登巴内佛格格不入。因为他兼联邦陆海军总司令，当然不乐意各省在他麾下之外自组军队。这时荷兰一省占全国之大半，可能多至2／3，又是首富，如果再提倡更强化的地方分权，也等于以一省的力量凌驾于全国之上了。总之，他认为新共和国如果不继续向西班牙抗战，就不能维持内部之统一，因此更不赞成奥登巴内佛所谈判的12年停战。除此之外，他对奥伦治一家朝代之利益也相当有兴趣。
在此冲突之中，奥登巴内佛与阿姆斯特丹的商人及莱登（Leiden）大学的智囊团接近。慕黎斯则代表当时各省的贵族，也有下级的支持，他本人则为有力量的军事领袖。他对付奥登巴内佛的办法半系合法的部署，半系政变。首先解散各省组织的军队，又将奥登巴内佛及其亲信拘捕，更将控诉派之人士逐出各省议会之外，然后组织特别法庭以叛国罪名义于1619年将政敌奥登巴内佛处死刑。一方面全国改革教堂集会，六个月后，于1619年闭幕，正式宣布控诉派为异端，自此确定了狭义加尔文派之立场。
局势急转直下，以奥伦治家为核心，组织皇室，中央集权，注重军事力量，为必然趋势，况且后面又有一个带保守性标榜正规的教廷。但这些现象正是几十年独立运动要扫荡的对象，战时社会经济的发展也和这些条件背道而驰，加之荷兰一省担负联邦大量经费，有时多至3／4，历史与现实都不容许如此全面开倒车。慕黎斯将以前的盟友以罪犯处死，已是骇人听闻。奥登巴内佛死后，慕黎斯自己也只有6年寿命，以后他的继承人被称为奥伦治派（Orangists），有时对共和国体制是一种威胁，然则他们代表了内地各省的利益，与荷兰省之水上及外向的发展相对，又不可少，历史上两者因冲突产生危机的情况并不常见，即使有，也仍能在最后关头化干戈为玉帛。各省曾主张不设总督，只是不久又因为事实之需要，仍请奥伦治家出马，可见得威廉寡言及其后人对荷兰之实行资本主义，虽不直接参与，仍有一种支持的效用，他们保持着荷兰共和国为一个民族国家，若非如此，鹿特丹及阿姆斯特丹之经营仍是一两个自由城市的体制，其发展必受限制。
荷兰改革教会（Dutch Reformed Church）也没有成为一个排斥异己的团体，正规派虽被承认是正宗，可是控诉派的异端不过对命定论有不同的解释，也禁无可禁，全国会议后之10年，他们已经公开露面。改革教会自1618～1619的全国会议之后，也未再召开。自此天主教、犹太教及再洗礼派也在荷兰共和国中活动，当日之信教自由在欧洲国家之中尚属首见。其中还有一个值得注意的因素是加尔文派的教会，其每一个单位由本身的牧师、教士、长老和执事组成，本来就带着一种地方自治的性格，也与荷兰共和国的政治体系平行，不复在政争中增加纠葛。
在这些条件之下，全国的组织集地方分权之大成，原则上承袭了封建时代的体制，不过时代的进步，交通通信发达，金钱的使用展开，以摄政阶级为主体组成的城镇，只有随着他们本身的性格去发展工商业，尽量存积资本。我们也可以说荷兰共和国在1600年前后已整个的进入资本主义时代。如此一个新型的民族国家，在此时有了这样的一段表现，为世界史中的创举。
17世纪的旅游者一进入荷兰，就发觉这个国家不仅上端是7个各自保有独立主权的小国家拼合而成，而且下面每一个小单位之内仍有不少市镇保留着若干独立自主的性格。所以这新国家的体制曾被批评为“胡乱”、“陈旧”和“复杂”。她的海军由5个不同的海军枢密院（admiralty colleges）掌握，阿姆斯特丹城自组邮局，向海外通邮，直到1752年才由全国邮政接收。共和国无外交部或外务首长。国家如有全国性的事件，只能向全国议会接洽。1654年荷兰省竟宣称她在某种范围之内有单独与外国定约之权，不待联邦政府批准。
在组织方面讲，荷兰共和国纵横分割，成为无数小单位。横向分割的界限为宗教及社会阶级，纵的方面则是各省镇地区。如此的体制，可以说是和传统中国的衙门政治完全相反。传统中国注重外表上的整齐划一，下层机构根据上层机构的政令组成，其不合实际的地方存积在下端，由官僚粉饰掩盖。尼德兰的新国家，由下层机构自己作主，所以能够全部存真。国家的政策只有一种从属的关系，而不是主宰。其重点在保护私人的及商业上的利益。在此前提之下，提倡自由，成为一时风气，而所谓自由，也仍以商业上的放任政策（laissez faire）为主。并且荷兰共和国的对外战争如1652及1665之对英战争及1672年之对法战争，虽说牵涉了很多其他原因，其中商业上和经济上的冲突总是一个带决定性的因素。
当日四周邻国仍保持以农业为主的经济体制，既有工业的制造，也以本地的资源为主，而荷兰独特地采取了商业体制。于是阿姆斯特丹不仅是船舶进出的中心，也是国际银行业与保险业的中心。阿姆斯特丹的银行创始于1609年，亦即与西班牙停战的初年。它不发行货币，而以存款为主要业务。当日各地不同的货币良莠不齐，商人无法找到大量又合标准的货币汇票，为国际贸易中的一大缺陷，阿姆斯特丹银行接受各种成色不同的货币存款后，给存款人以它自身所定的一种等于荷币的信用货币，登记于账簿之上，存款人即以此信用与人交易，因为所存货币储蓄于保险库内，查核稽严，又由阿姆斯特丹的市政府出面作保障，所以这银行信用昭著。而且阿姆斯特丹立法，凡转手在600荷兰盾（guilders）以上的交易，一律用这银行的信用货币支付。不久之后，这银行的信用货币价值高于外间通行的货币。于是得款人也不要求兑现，安心长期的倚靠银行掌管其收支，使阿姆斯特丹银行的业务越做越大。
之后，这银行又展开接受金银条块存款的业务。银行给予存款人之信用货币的数目，低于存入金银之市价的5％，存款人在所得信用货币之外，银行也另给存入金银之收据，在6个月之内存款人或其利益转让人，若能将银行所给予之信用货币数目还清，并付少许手续费，仍可凭收据取回其存入之金银，所以银行之信用货币及储存金银之收据，同时可以在市场买卖，只是赎取金银时两者都不可缺。而用荷币购买信用货币之贴水（agio）通常也是5％，因之赎回金银无利可图，反要付手续费，故在一般情形下，收据无转让价值，通常令其逾期作废，存入之金银归银行所有，其发行的信用货币，等于支票存户之存款。如此积年累月的经营，银行的资本愈积愈多。同时贵金属被银行收买，不复为使市价大幅波动的工具，它们所代表的信用，也经常被使用着，不像传统中国，财主以金银窖藏，或者制成首饰器皿，消极地和闭门自守地保存其购买力。
以上的情形，显示着欧洲初期信用货币开创前后的情形，也呈现着当日所谓“重商主义”（mercantilism）以确实掌握金银为保持国家财富之根源。此时若非直接控制金银，则无法展开其信用（今日则以外汇存储数为衡量经济力度之尺度）。
阿姆斯特丹的交易所据说创始于1530年。这不是交易所之最先发初者。意大利、西班牙和法国很多城市里的交易所都比这时期早，有的竟早了几百年。不过阿姆斯特丹的交易所首先将现代商业的组织与技术渗入，也可以说是首先带有资本主义特性。现在看来，至17世纪中期，阿姆斯特丹的交易所仍不过是一般商人汇集之处，通过交易所可以买卖转手的物品达300多种，包括农产、矿产及制成品，胡椒则有五种。可是有组织的将政府公债以价转手和将公司股票公开竞争的出卖，要到17世纪后期方才成熟。征之以上阿姆斯特丹银行业务展开情形，也可以见得货币市场有赖于长时间的经营，才能使资金愈为集中，运转也愈显定型，而世纪后期之买空卖空（荷语为windhandel直译为“风中成交”，其所谓“出卖尚未捕获之鲱鱼，发售尚未开采之矿产”都出此门径），起先有了“预期交货”（futurity）的型态，次之则公司股票也可以“抛空”（selling short，卖者先以借来之公司股票高价卖出，以后趁跌价时购进弥补以从中牟利），都由阿姆斯特丹首创，于1689年光荣革命（Glorious Revolution）后传入伦敦。
买空卖空的投机事业为人以道德的名义垢病。可是行之几百年之后，在今日有条理之市场中，被认为有其社会功能与效用。出卖尚未捕获之鲱鱼及发售尚未开采之矿产，也可以说是让资本家投资于待展开之事业，也向推销商保证货物来源及可以预为筹备之价格。买方也通知了卖方，即使生产过剩预定出卖之商品已有被指定的市场和被保证的价格。大凡投机商将各种风险事业及吸收大幅盈亏作为他们的专长，则一般商人更能作较安稳的经营。甚至生产者也可以付少数之价款，以购买权（option，涨价时卖方仍有照预定价格出售之义务，跌价时则买方只放弃定款，不被强迫购买）的方式预定本人生产之商品，作为一种间接局部的保险，因此更可以大量投资，冒更大之险，去采用以前未曾采用之生产方式，而涉猎于以前未曾涉猎的地区使生产成本愈低、利润愈高。本书前已说及，资本主义带有试验与赌博的性格，而不安于按部就班的平淡经营。买空卖空使这种放宽领域的行动为可能。这中间可能发生的弊端极多，也可能影响公众的安全。一个为政府监督的商场能使如此种种经营有秩序地继续下去，无疑的这国家已进入资本主义体制。
布罗代尔曾说，资本主义端在它与国家互为一体，它“本身”即成了国家（第一章）。荷兰共和国透过司法和立法，使各种冒险与赌博的行动合理化，当初必迁就于资本家，否则不可能突破传统道德观念之约束。事实上共和国初成立时，传统的道德观念并未消失。改革教会仍有不许放高利贷者参加圣餐的情事，各大学也不发给他们学位，尤特列克特大学神学系更以传单制止之。后来由荷兰省及菲斯兰省（Friesland）出面申明教堂不能干预银行之事，这些阻拦才告平息。能如此急转直下，实因荷兰地方小，历史情形特殊；阿姆斯特丹占着商业战略重要的位置，而加尔文派也始终没有一个机会坚持其立场，才使地方分权政教分离的精神排除众议。发挥得尽致。因此我们考虑到资本主义之形成，不能忽略这许多因素错综的关系，也更能体会到地理因素在历史上的重要。
经济史学家熊彼德说及荷兰共和国成立之前一般利息之高，是基于三个条件：一是朝代国家向商人强迫借贷而通常有借无还，二是货币市场缺乏组织，三是通货膨胀的可能性，因为美洲之金银尚在不断的输入，无法扼止。荷兰共和国本身已将前两个条件消除，第三条件虽没有完全逆转，到17世纪下半期金银的输入已降低。于是阿姆斯特丹的商业利息由12％跌至10％而更跌至6％，有一段时间内更低至4％，已低于一般新教领袖认为非高利贷的数额。利率既低，以前无利可图的事业此时转为有利。由于荷兰的利率经常低于英国约2％及3％，阿姆斯特丹银行家与保险业的经营，遂得以超过国界，向英国和其他国家发展，而表现一种国际性质。
荷兰共和国此时还有一种较西欧其他国家占优势的条件，为造船业之突出。其标准之商船称“弗罗伊德”（fluyd），它的特点不在设计之复杂，而是简单。通常船长125英尺，载重300吨，因此与战舰及大型商船分为两途。“弗罗伊德”船长为其宽之5倍至6倍，船头直截下水，船尾为圆形，没有一般战舰及大型商船之重楼叠阁，脱离了中世纪以来的设计，开始表现近代船只之直线型。由于桅杆之间距离大，又节省船员舱房，因此载货多，可节省脚水30％至50％。其他各国商船不仅难望其项背，即制造技术亦不及荷兰之价廉工精。“弗罗伊德”只用于西欧地区，其他远洋航船另有其设计。
16世纪末，荷兰船开始航行于远洋，1590年后航行于西印度群岛，1595年进入远东，也在这同时进入地中海，1601年各国船只进入伦敦的共714艘，英船为207艘，荷船则有360艘。此时据估计，荷兰共和国共有各式商船2000艘，总吨数在50万吨以上。其国民经常有20000人捕鱼，20000人参与西葡贸易。这在一个人口只100多万的国家是一个很大的比例。
17世纪初期，荷兰共和国实际掌握着瑞典的经济，又因三十年战争，汉撒同盟的力量衰微，英国则因内争而引发内战，荷兰经营之航海业及国际贸易一时世无其匹。远东运来的治肉香料，仍为大宗。此外瑞典之铜、铁、柏油及沥青，波兰及俄国之麻及亚麻绳索（均用于造船），挪威之木材，波罗的海各处所产之谷物，全部西南运。西班牙与葡萄牙经常感到食粮短缺，全赖北方剩余的国家供应，此时又全赖荷兰的船运解决交通问题，即在独立战争，荷兰共和国与菲力普交战之际，亦未停止。法国食盐为腌制鱼类之必需品，为北运物产之大宗。法国之酒大批由荷兰人预先购买，荷兰共和国商人在法国派有长驻经纪，专营此业。此时欧洲的毛织品有几个生产中心，各有专长的产品也由荷兰商人作中间交换人。此外，德国出产的兵器推销至远东，英国与法国的食粮不足或过剩时，亦是由荷兰人为之截长补短。至17世纪，荷兰人已发明一面捕鱼，一面在船上腌制装桶的办法，所以其水产能以较低廉的价格行销各国，甚至在英国附近水上所捕之鱼行销英伦，此最为英国人指责。此外经荷船转运的货物尚有皮毛、皮革和钾碱。总之，欧洲经过长时间的人口增加，城市兴起，产生了一种国际市场物资全面供应的形势。以上所述大都是国家经济及一般市民之必需品。荷兰人的经营，瑞在“以低廉的价格造船，而将之彻底使用尽致”（build Ships Cheaply and drive them to death）。其能运载不同而又笨重的货物，而无其他国家能与之竞争，所以前述市场投机的事业，也要有如此下层的坚韧耐久的工作支持，否则无从有组织的展开一种有秩序的商业经济。
中外学者有时提及，中国北宋期间、明清之际，有商业资本活跃的情形，并提出一个全国市场的形貌。乍看起来，好像与欧洲的国际市场不相上下。但是仔细比较以后，则可以指出中国从未产生一个如此各地区各就所长，分工合作到如此程度的局面。同时荷兰人已经在西欧和北欧有了相当的制海权，中国历史里更无此事例。至于阿姆斯特丹，10万人口中特权阶级执国家经济各前进部门之牛耳，又通过共和国之特殊体制，左右其内政与外交的情形，更不是山西商人或徽州商人可以梦想之事，即本书最粗浅的解释，也可以说明两方有天渊之别。
过去有很多学者强调荷兰商人是靠剥削掠夺殖民地来累积资本。20世纪后一般的看法则重视历史上的小商人刻苦成家，如莫特里所说的，“渔人和河上的筏夫成为海上的冒险家和商业的皇子”，以及“穷困的法兰德斯织工变成雄厚的制造家”。这种情形诚然有之，阿姆斯特丹和鹿特丹的绅商，并非在17世纪初期突然发富。即如我们列举以上银行、股票市场、造船和国际贸易的展开，也隐约可以推断其后面必有一段艰难创造的背景。但这也不是说剥削掠夺并未发生，这一点即荷兰本国的历史家也不隐讳。
荷兰东印度公司成立于1602年，资本650万荷币（英国东印度公司成立于1600年，只有资本30000镑）。这公司由不同之“厅”（chambers）组成，阿姆斯特丹厅即承担公司一半的债务。在10年之内，公司只发放一次红利，然其数额为股本之162％。世纪中期，这公司在东印度积存储币金即达2000万荷币，为当初投资之三倍。原来东印度公司经过全国议会立案的时候，荷兰尚在战时，这公司被赋予在它武力能克服的地区执行国家最高权力的任命，所以公司的海外执行人等于大帝国殖民地的开拓者，早有立法的根据。
荷兰人独霸远东治肉香料专利权的经过，早经以前的作家一再详细叙述。过去葡萄牙人首先进入东方，只控制着印度至红海间的水道，使印度洋运来的香料都落入他们手中（详第二章）。荷兰人的办法是摈弃所有中间人，直接进入产地，故舍亚洲大陆而进入印尼。在当地的政策，也非常的简单，凡出产香料的主要岛屿，即以武力占领，不能占领或其他出产较少的地方则将其作物破坏，甚至将其岛上人口杀戮迁移。荷兰人能较葡萄牙人及英、法人占优势者，端在其资本组织雄厚，如每三四年即装备能战斗之商船50艘进入此地区，所以有足够的力量将对方封锁困住，或使用武力，在某些场合，不待交涉即开火。1619年以巴达维亚（Batavia）为设防的根据地，禁止他国商人履足香料群岛（spice islands，西塞蒲斯与新几内亚间的岛屿），几乎完全垄断了肉豆蔻和丁香的生产，也掌握了胡椒与肉桂的供应，欧洲香料市场的价格可以一次陡涨二倍半，即是此故。印尼的土人也受他们统制，酋领被任为摄政阶级（regents），以封建方式受荷兰东印度公司管制。荷兰人控制的生产以后也延伸到其他物质，如咖啡、靛青、奎宁。土著的供应某时候甚至成为一种上贡制度。荷属东印度的农业自此世纪后受国际市场支配。
西印度公司组织于1621年，当时与西班牙的停战协定已失效。西印度公司也以拦截西、葡越洋的商业，夺取他们在美洲的殖民地（如巴西）和贩卖人口为要事。宋巴特曾指出，此公司在1623到1636年间制造船只800余艘，可是同时期却截得敌船540艘，其船货价格已两倍于造船时投入的资本。1628年一次截获西班牙船只上的白银总值荷币800万元。种种的发展使我们只好相信克拉克所说：“资本主义不仅是一种商业的事体，一半是征服占领，也可以说一半是对缺乏抵抗能力的土著所加的一种抢劫。”阿姆斯特丹保险公司本身拥有战舰60艘巡游各地，也只有在这情形下获得确切的解释。
荷兰独立战争期间，很多企业家与技术人员和工匠北移，其影响以纺织业和金属与机件的制作最为显著。一般来说，提及荷兰共和国的书籍大多会提及莱登的毛织品。其生产额在1584至1619的35年之内增加了四倍。还有一件脍炙人口的事，则是阿姆斯特丹的资本家基尔（Louis de Geer）原来有低地国家南部的背景，17世纪上半期又在瑞典置有地产，从此掌瑞典矿产之牛耳。又在荷兰替瑞典承造整队的战舰，全部装配妥当才开往瑞典交货。独立战争之前，低地国家北部之工商业远不如南部。阿尔瓦征营业税时，曾组织委员会估计各省工业出产品的总价格，这数字至今独在，从中可以看出迟至1570年，荷兰省及尤特列克特尚不能与法兰德斯及布拉班特相比。战后形势全殊，原因并不是工业本身条件改进，而是由于政府体制和社会条件全面支持重