Chapter 2 Chapter 2 Venice

A part of my experience in reading and teaching is that in the scope of adult education, when a new theme related to history is proposed, it is better to lead to an extraordinary deed than to follow the rules and start from the lineage system of territorial evolution.When describing this deed, the relevant background will naturally be involved.On the surface, this approach appears to be unsystematic.In fact, this is the direct disclosing of the things that readers or listeners need to know urgently. It not only has a demonstration function, but also has a key point in retrospect.What is sacrificed is the name and program on the surface, and what is obtained is the efficiency of time economy and flexible use.

When I was studying in elementary school, middle school, and even university, I only focused on the development of Britain, France, Germany, and Imperial Russia in Western history, and rarely mentioned Italy.I only know that Venice is a city in water, but I have never heard that she once captured Constantinople, managed 3/8 of the city's area, and claimed Crete as a colony, and Her navy has been one of the best not only in the Mediterranean, but also in the world for centuries.We were indifferent to these deeds in the past, but today they should be widely publicized, because the history of the world has changed, and the history of China has also changed.Looking back on the past, our view of the past is different from that of our predecessors.I used to think in school that there are only a handful of major events in world history, such as the achievements of Peter the Great, Napoleon, and Bismarck, but they have lost their prominent status.The rise of nation states, as distinct from dynastic states, is hardly considered exciting historical news at the end of the 20th century.What the general readers urgently need to know today is why some of these countries are rich and powerful, some are poor and weak, some are declining from prosperity, and some are rising stars.

The day when Venice dominated the Mediterranean was roughly 500 years from 1000 to 1500 AD, which coincided with the Song (960-1279), Yuan (1271-1368) and early Ming dynasties (1368-1644) in China.At the beginning of these 500 years, all the nation-states in Europe were absent.Even at the back end, although the United Kingdom and France have the embryonic form of a modern country, they are still immature.The emergence of Germany and Italy was still in the Xianfeng Tongzhi period of the Qing Dynasty in China, and it was still several centuries later.This is also one of the main reasons why we cannot treat every country in history as a unit similar to other countries, and analyze it from the perspective of its territorial evolution.

Now I am going to bring up an extraordinary event that took place in AD 1355.In April of this year, Marino Faliero, the ruler of Venice, was found guilty of treason by a tribunal composed of 36 people and sentenced to death.This matter has not only become a mystery that historians have repeatedly studied but cannot fully settle, it is also a subject for later writers and artists to express their emotions. In the early 19th century, "romanticism" (romanti-cism) flourished in Europe.Painter Delacroix (Delacroix) is famous for rendering historical thrills in oil paintings.He has a picture of "Hua Liluo's Death Penalty" which proves that the leader of the lord conspired to launch a coup and attempted to become a dictator.Therefore, the dead body of the prisoner is drawn in front of the stone staircase of the commander's mansion.One of the members of the Council of Ten (Council of Ten, the public security committee in Weicheng) stood on the balcony, holding the sword used in the execution in one hand, which was still dripping with blood, and publicly announced that the leader of the treason still deserved what he deserved. The meaning of what Mencius said, "I have heard that a husband is punished, but I have not heard of killing a king."

But the Romantic poet Lord Byron, at the same time as Delacroix, had a completely different interpretation of this matter.It took Byron three months to make a five-act play. According to himself, he had considered writing this play for several years, and the plot in it was based on the principle of being as close to history as possible.Hua Liluo in his works is not only a wise national leader, but also a popular hero.He has fought for Weicheng for decades, and in the midst of blood and tears, he has made great achievements in battle, and he also cares about the people's well-being.It is in obvious contrast to the aristocrats in Weicheng at that time who were arrogant, extravagant and obscene, did not take small people seriously, and exploited and humiliated them to the utmost.Hua Liluo hopes to arouse the lower class people, especially the employees of the government-controlled shipyards (called arsenal in Venice), to overthrow the current ruling class and organize a democratized government.Although things failed, this tragic hero generously publicized his noble purpose before his execution, still making those who tortured him bow their heads.

Why are the two people's excuses so different?Let us look at the historical record: The Hualiluo event began in 1355 with the Giovedi Grasso festival, with various games and juggling in Piazza San Marco.Afterwards, the commander held a banquet in the official residence (that is, on the side of St. Mark's Church and the square, still today) according to the usual practice.For a while, the powerful officials gathered in Weicheng.There was a young man named Michele Steno who was half-mad and half-drunk and showed enthusiasm to a female guest at the meeting, which was beyond the limit of common sense, and Hua Liluo ordered him to be expelled from the residence.But for some reason, Stone Nuo went to the meeting room in the mansion again, and scribbled two lines of rhyme on the back of the chair where the commander often sat, which meant that Hua Liluo's wife was beautiful and young, but unfortunately she had an affair.

Under the charges of Hua Liluo, Stonero was tried by the Council of Forty (Council of Forty, with jurisdiction, see below), but was only sentenced to two months' imprisonment.Given the seriousness of his offense against the commander, and the lightness of his punishment, Hua Liluo was already furious.Coincidentally, at that time, another civilian administrator in charge of the shipyard, Bertuc-cio Isarello, came to complain to the commander: he was beaten by the nobleman for refusing to hire a boatman introduced by a nobleman.The leader replied that the privileged class in this city is domineering, and he himself is still under the control of others and can do nothing.Isanello said that as long as the leader is determined, the current situation will not be difficult to change. If so, they already have a coup plot.

The workers in the shipyard have long been dissatisfied with the status quo, and they often serve as the commander's guard according to the rule, so it is logical to organize them to rebel.With Hua Liluo's consent, Ishanero assisted 20 conspirators, each of whom summoned 40 subordinates.The motivation and purpose of the conspiracy were not clearly explained to these subordinates.When Venice was fighting Genoa, the ringing of the bell was an announcement that the enemy ships had invaded the sea and marshes. According to regulations, the nobles in the city had to gather in the square.Hua Liluo planned to sound the alarm on the night of April 15th in St. Mark's Square. Taking advantage of the panic, the 800 people involved in the conspiracy would easily kill or capture these nobles, and they were expected to catch them all.Then Hua Liluo announced the reshuffle of the government.

However, the matter was not confidential. Some of the participating employees revealed the news, and relatives and friends began to warn each other not to enter the square at this moment to avoid disaster.The ten-member committee heard the news and began to investigate. First, they met secretly in a monastery to decide whether the leader himself conspired with Wen.After learning that Hua Liluo was indeed the principal criminal, he started a public trial in the commander's residence, which is actually the government office in Weicheng.The ten-member committee was expanded into a special court of 36 members according to the law.Hua Liluo was found guilty. At dusk on April 16, Ishanero was hanged. On the morning of the 17th, Hua Liluo was tortured.The gate of Xingbi's official residence was opened for the masses to watch. The body was sent to a deserted island for burial that night without a tombstone.

In official records, this case is written in only two words (non scribtur), which can be translated as "不书", which means: "Let's not mention this matter anymore!" The conference room of the mansion has always been There are portraits of previous leaders.At the place where Hua Liluo was, it was covered with a black gauze, and a letter was written, "Here is Hua Liluo, who was beheaded for committing a crime."Until 1520, that is, 165 years later, some people saw a commemorative ceremony held in Venice on April 16. In the parade, some people held out blood-stained brocade, which was still called the relic of the execution in 1355.

After the research of historians, the above-mentioned affair of Hua Liluo's wife has no actual basis.Probably because the official records do not mention the details of Hualiluo's rebellion, the details of the hearsay also infiltrated into the official history.For example, on the day Hua Liluo was tortured, he was 76 years old and his wife was only 45 years old.Her name is also written twice in each book.The disturbing Stono was indeed a real person. He later became the commander of Venice. During his reign from 1400 to his death in 1413, he was one of the most capable leaders in history.In 1355 he was too young to be invited to the Rector's annual banquet.If he really had the frivolous plot of making a catastrophe in front of Hua Liluo, it is reasonable that he should not have any other chances. Following the regular route of Venice, he was a naval officer, then a governor, and finally was elected as the commander. It's just that the motive of Hua Liluo's conspiracy still attracts attention.He was old and childless (Byron's play added a nephew to him, but there is no historical basis), himself from the most prestigious noble family in Venice, and served in many departments of the government. He once led troops to fight, and the current post of commander is tenured for life. When he was elected half a year ago, he won 35 out of 41 votes. on the negotiation.He never sought or campaigned for the position, he told friends.But why, after a few months, took such a big risk and ruined his reputation? Although Stoneno's fuse was unfounded, there was convincing evidence for Hua Liluo's dealings with the shipyard leader Ishanero and other employees. Therefore, not only the two of them were sentenced to death, but more than 10 people were sentenced to death.These circumstances led Byron to put his own ideas of class struggle in the early nineteenth century into the mind and mouth of Valerie.However, Hua Liluo never stated that he wanted to lead the labor movement. At the same time, it was unreasonable for such a movement to be placed in Venice in the middle of the 14th century. Not far from the Black Death in 1355, the European population dropped sharply for a while, and the shortage of labor force had already caused a general increase in wages, so there was no need to promote riots to improve the status of workers. Delacroix's oil paintings represent the spirit of the ordinary bourgeoisie seeking freedom before and after the French Revolution.The tyrants they fought against were relics of the ancien regime, that is, the leaders of the nobles and priests.With this kind of theme, adding it to Hua Liluo and Venice, it is unavoidable to be crowned.Hua Liluo probably has the determination to be an authoritative prince.He probably believed that the ruler of Venice should have real power and should not be restrained by layers of nobles in the city.Some historians believe that he was the main combat faction, and he launched the coup in the hope of fighting Genoa to the end, and would not be diverted by the pressure of the peace faction.If so, his tragedy is not as deeply involved as that of the Romantic painters.It can only be regarded as a political and technical issue, and it has only one-sided historical significance. Today we review the relics. It has been more than 600 years since Hualiluo attempted to launch a coup d’état, and it has been propagandized by Romantic poets and painters for more than a century and a half.Instead of following Byron and Delacroix to speculate on the purity of the tragic character's mind, we should ask why his mood has attracted so much attention from posterity.This theme is not only a script on the stage, but also a famous painting in the salon, and the playwrights and painters have prepared to keep this scene forever, chant and observe.Is this anecdote from April 17, 1355 really so fascinating? My answer is that what is fascinating is not only the fact at that time, but the background that involves this fact.Byron said it well: "The conspiracy at the head of Vallero is one of the most noteworthy events in the annals of one of the strangest governments, cities, and peoples in modern history." Ordinary. Her face is like a dream, her history like a legend." Regarding the shape and appearance of Venice, two current writers have pointed out: "Venice is unparalleled in the world. A sensible person would not build a city in this place." Today, the historically famous buildings in the city, There is a risk of continued immersion in water.International rescue organizations are trying to inject ooze into the foundations of these buildings, hoping to raise them. This is so because Venice was never the planned city.Around 500 AD, several groups of Germanic tribes invaded the Italian peninsula, and this city was created hastily.A 19th-century history says: "They were all refugees, more than 40,000 in number. They were expelled from their hometown by the barbarians in the 5th century and took refuge in this sea swamp. The land here is constantly moving, and it is in a salt-water swamp. Among them, the refugees found no soil to cultivate, no stone to quarry, no iron to cast, no wood to build houses, and even no water to drink. Here they (still) founded the port of Rialto." The so-called Rido originally refers to the islands of Venice, but today it is one of the two main islands. It is adjacent to San Marco (San Marco) in the west in the west and separated by a grand canal in the middle.Traditionally, shopping malls are located in Rido, while government residences and public squares are located in San Marco.In addition, there are surrounding islands, which are secondary.The city of Venice is located at the northern end of the Adriatic Sea, and it can be regarded as the divergence point of the east and west coasts.The distance between the two islands and the mainland is only 2.5 miles, and most of them can be waded, but there are many deep water channels in them, which are unknown to non-natives, so they are easy to defend.In her more than 1,000-year history, Venice has been on the verge of being invaded several times, but until Napoleon allocated her to Austria in 1797, it was never occupied by foreign troops, and its influence on mainland agriculture was minimal. As Byron said, the history of Venice can be regarded as a legend. Although it is easy to understand, it cannot be directly described. Now let me explain it as follows: Over the past 2,000 years or so, the governments we have seen in history have generally been monarchical governments.The basis of monarchy is always "divine right of monarchy".There are both religious implications and moral provisos.If God is revealed to man, as a king, of course he is required to lead his subjects to do good, otherwise there is no logical meaning.We are still in its shadow, and it is not easy to suddenly appreciate the long history of this idea.China did not abolish the imperial system until the early years of the 20th century.That is to say, in the early 17th century, James I of England was still advocating the divine right of kings. He did not count his own books, and repeatedly dictated the purpose of the unity of politics and religion. He once said in person: "Without a bishop, there is no king." (no bishop, The essence of "no King" is that if he is not allowed to send monks to control the spiritual life of his subjects, he does not need to be the head of the country. At this time, if someone came forward and said: I just don't believe your way.The purpose of life is nothing more than ample food and clothing at first. If we can have enough food and clothing, we should seek prosperity.Then I have to look forward to Shu, and look forward to all kinds of desires between power and fantasy. As long as I can achieve my goal, it's none of your business.As for my good and evil, I also have my own conscience to decide.My relationship with God is more than you and your bishop can interfere. This view can also be regarded as the original thought of capitalism.Easier said than done.Even Yang Zhuwei (Chapter 1) also has this tendency, and has been scolded by Mencius and Mo Zhai as "a beast without a father or a king", which shows that the established factors in history are blocking the "construction of freedom" ( free construction).However, before the Western Yuan Dynasty, when the philosophers of the East and West were able to put forward the above-mentioned opinions, the organizations of various powers had already divided the world into clean territory.The social system is also related to this system of power.Until recent times, the development of the economy has been very slow, and it is not allowed for individuals or a group of people to imagine that their private wealth can continue to expand without limitation for life. Venice produced an exception within this impossible condition. It is not necessary to advertise the above-mentioned opinions, but it has proved in fact that "free construction" is feasible.Her earliest history, roughly outlined above, is like that of Tao Yuanming.Venice does not get involved in the political struggles on the Italian mainland, and it really has the attitude of "I don't know if there are Hans, regardless of Wei and Jin".However, after several centuries of immigration and reproduction, the original 40,000 refugees reached about 100,000, which has already surpassed the plan of "not being humane".Venice first established a commercial foundation on the Po River and the Adriatic coast with the profit of fish and salt, and later developed eastward, becoming the leader of Mediterranean commerce. It can be said that it lacked political, religious, and social aspects. All kinds of constraints and obstacles to its organization can be applied to the most economically reasonable norms, with the common use of funds (wide extension of credit), managerial employment (impersonal manage-ment) and technical support factors (pooling of service facilities) principle, so that ownership (ownership) and employment (employment) united (see Chapter 1).Its national power has expanded, and the scope of personal activities has also expanded. Young people with ambition and ambition first worked as archers on the centipede ship (galley), took part in overseas travel, and began to bring goods, and then participated in the share trade (col-leganza) ), and accumulate more and more capital, it is not impossible to build farms overseas, villas on the mainland, and houses on the banks of the Grand Canal in the future. It is true that important positions in Venice, including the position of admirals, were often monopolized by nobles.But social mobility was high before the 13th century.It was not until 1323 that nobles and their families (usually 1,000 to 2,000 people, representing more than 200 families) were required to represent the members of the "Grand Council". However, only a few of the nobles in Venice still owned real estate, and most of them were gentry in the city. business.At the same time, nobility is just a status, not necessarily rich; wealthy gentry and merchants are not necessarily noble. From the perspective of a historian, making money is not the only important thing, but the population of this city-state has been fixed at about 100,000, and doing business has given them a common purpose, and living on an island compactly, they also feel that they are closely related .In addition, Venice has been developing continuously for several centuries. In this economic life, there is often a kind of life dynamics, rich in experience of breaking the environment, and unique.Comparing with most of the unchanged situation in the middle ages of Europe, it shows the liveliness of capitalist society.Therefore, on the one hand, Byron envied the nobles of Venice, on the other hand, he still felt that the legend of Venice was extraordinary and intriguing. Braudel said: "In the development of capitalism, an important factor is the willingness to take risks and speculate." He also believes that "deception" is also one of the factors. "The rule of this competition is to invent a new rule-to target the existing laws and means of the market and make it work differently." Why did another economist emphasize in his book "Faust's vision "(Faustian outlook) (Faust is a legendary figure, who can be regarded as a representative of restlessness and bent on opening up the current situation), is the philosophical basis of modern economy?It is human nature to look forward to Shu in Long.Now that the current problem has been solved, it is attempted to make further progress.Having achieved the monotonous purpose, it begins to create complicated problems.Things that were previously illegal and dare not be attempted are now made legal and dared to be attempted.This spirit of highlighting the environment into new territories has made Venice's history a legendary one.People can think so, only this city can do so. With a population of about 100,000, Venice and her are small remote counties resembling the Ming Dynasty in China.In the history of more than 1,000 years, she has also done some inhumane things.But her success did not make all citizens philistines.She once prevented the Turks from invading westward and became the mainstay of the Renaissance.Her architecture and the fine art collected over the centuries are still treasures handed down from generation to generation.Her printing industry was once the pioneer of Western European cultural relics.And her achievements in business organization and shipbuilding, of course, set a milestone in the history of the world. The fact that Venice became a free city is mostly due to the unexpected convergence of various factors in history.She is close to the Italian peninsula and originally belonged to the Western Roman Empire.Since the Germanic nation swept across the Italian peninsula in the 5th century, Emperor Justinian of the Eastern Roman Empire (the capital of the country is Constantinople, also known as the Byzantine Empire, which is actually a dynasty run by the Greeks) once ruled in the 6th century. In the middle of the year, troops were sent to restore most of the territory on the peninsula.However, the problem of the Germanic nation was still unresolved, and the power of the Muslims spread again. After the death of Justinian, the Byzantine Empire could only maintain a small part of the toe and heel of the boot-shaped territory of the Italian Peninsula.Venice and the coast of today's Yugoslavia are still nominally the territory of the Byzantine Empire, but they are actually independent. The Italian peninsula has also been invaded by other nations and dynasties.Pope Leo III crowned Charlemagne in 800 AD, making him emperor of the "Holy Roman Empire" and a way to restore the Western Empire in name.In fact, the land controlled by Charlemagne is in the north, and most of its residents speak German and French.As soon as this example was opened, it only caused the Pope and Charlemagne's heirs to fight for power in various places for nearly 1,000 years later.The Holy Roman Empire has always been in Germany and Austria today, but her power has invaded Italy.Venice, except in rare cases, did not offend any party except her substantial independence.At the same time, she used diplomacy to obtain the right to trade everywhere and to exempt and reduce taxes. The history of Venice's expansion can be summed up in the simplest integer dates: before 1000 AD, her operations were not located on both sides of the Po River and the nearby coast. It was not until 1000 years later that it extended to the Adriatic Sea and participated in the trade of the Near East (Levent). After the Fourth Crusade in 1200, Weicheng greatly expanded its overseas colonies, connecting a series of territories, harbors and settlements in important cities to form a commercial kingdom. It was only after 1400 that the Italian continent was expanded, but this "westward development" also symbolized the end of the eastward and overseas development. After 1500, although she made substantial contributions to the Renaissance with energy and wealth, her achievements in other areas were not as good as before. Although it is actually impossible to maintain the maritime kingdom that has been operated for hundreds of years.Experts laugh at such a rough-and-tumble compendium, but here it meets our needs. The success of early capitalism is rooted in patents, and patents eliminate competitors.Venice was the first to make salt, and she had ships that passed through the nearby ports, so she was the supplier of salt to all parts of the Po River in the early days.However, the salt produced by Weicheng itself is not enough to supply, that is, the government will come forward to order all the production from other salt producing places, and at the same time contract with the consuming towns to supply all their needs.Although sometimes the salt-producing towns are accommodated and a small amount is directly supplied to neighboring areas, the general principle is that buyers and sellers are not allowed to meet directly, and Venice acts as a middleman.This method is also accepted by other towns and cities, because these towns also have their own salt patents, and once the wholesale source and outlet are fixed, these towns can also buy or sell exclusively to the people.At the same time, Venice also sent guards and ships to patrol the Po River. From the supply of salt to food.The supply of wheat cannot be fully regulated or patented.But Venice was the first to encourage the surplus of grain everywhere to be sent to her city for sale.Within a certain period of time, she guarantees the lowest price. If no customer can be found, the local government will contract to buy it, and gradually designate Venice as a specific market (staple city) on the Adriatic Sea.She sent ships to clear the pirates in the Adriatic Sea, and ordered all grain ships to unload in Venice.Venetian merchants who shipped grain directly to other ports without authorization would be severely punished.Of course, not all ships coming to Hong Kong to buy grain came empty, so timber, vegetables, pork, and firewood were all concentrated in Weicheng Marsh.In the two port cities along the coast of Yugoslavia today, one is Zara (Zara) and the other is Ragusa (Ragusa). There are also quite a lot of ships, and they want to get ahead in business.Venice sent troops to occupy this area, so the natives refused to accept, and rebellions happened continuously throughout history.It can be seen that the government of Venice from beginning to end is either the spokesperson and host of the merchants, or their arms and backing. The advantages of geographical location have a decisive influence on the development of Venice's history.Modern writer Thompson said: "As long as we look at the map, we can also see at a glance that Venice is the closest port to the center of Europe. Germanic merchants first contacted the coast here, and Middle Eastern merchants also transported their goods to the market from here. The nearest place.” In fact, this advantage is not limited to short distances in a straight line.Where the northern tip of the Italian peninsula meets the main body of the mainland, there are only a few key passes.Connected with Germany and Austria in the east is the Brenner Pass (Brenner Pass), from this highland to the sea is a large slope without obstacles, leading directly to Venice.In the west, the St. Bernard Pass leads to Geneva and the Champagne province of France (Cham-pagne), whose medieval market often attracts the attention of international merchants.Once the local goods are transported south by St. Bernard, they can also flow into the sea along the Po River, and it is also close to Venice. Another advantage of Venice in the Adriatic Sea is that it avoids invaders at sea.Italy was once known as "the most invaded country in the world".Let’s exclude the land invaders, the sea invaders usually come from the southwest coast, such as the Normans in France, the Aragons in Spain, and the Saracens in North Africa. , but not as far as the North Shore.In this way, after Venice controlled Dalmatia (that is, the aforementioned Yugoslav coast), it had the advantage over other free cities that it had not been continuously developed for the first few hundred years.The forests of Dalmacia also became an indispensable material for Venice's future shipbuilding. The Crusades came at a time when Venetian ships were advancing toward the eastern Mediterranean.The early Eastern Expeditions took land routes, but they could not lack the support of sea transportation. At the same time, the Crusaders gained a foothold in the Middle East, and various merchants who followed the soldiers also marched to the Holy Land, and the worship of the Holy Land by Catholics supported a new kind of tourism.The background of these things is the economy of Western Europe. After a long and slow development, it suddenly became cheerful after the eleventh century.As a result, conditions favorable to Venice's business were gathered for a while.The goods she exported to the East included towels, wood, and metals, among which copper and silver were the most popular in the Middle East.Materials imported from the East included silk, sugar, perfume, kapok and seasoning spices.The latter includes pepper, cinnamon, cardamom, etc., which come from the Far East. They are usually small in size and do not take up much space in the cabin, so the price per volume is high. They are necessary for storing meat before the invention of freezing. There are no other sources in the West, so they are the most expensive. important. The supply of grain was also an important part of Venetian commerce.Until the fifteenth century, Venice had no intention of being a producer of food.Her food came from southern Italy, Sicily, and even as far as Asia Minor and the Black Sea.Venice would rather be a re-exporter of grain, and take advantage of the different climates, crop surpluses and shortfalls, and grain price fluctuations to make profits, rather than manage agriculture by itself.This is very different from the Chinese bureaucrats who plan for self-sufficiency in food everywhere, do not encourage local professionals to develop their expertise, and ignore the organization of distribution and transportation.The attitude of Venice greatly affects the social psychology of the West. The slave trade was an important link in the early commercial chain. Venice's participation in it was taken for granted, and it did not leave traces of conscience reproach in various records.One of the ideas of Christians is that believers do not make their fellow believers slaves (because according to their belief, a person must be baptized to be a real child before God, otherwise he is still a barbarian, let them serve in unpaid labor Labor, not too much).Even this kind of creed is a way to avoid it. For example, the people of the Byzantine Empire belonged to the Greek Orthodox Church, and Venice, which nominally belonged to the Catholic Church, could forcefully say that they were all heretics.Captives are only one of the sources of slaves. Most of the slaves are kidnapped by locals. There are also specially organized companies in Greece that specialize in this industry. They traffic the captured human beings to other people.Furthermore, since the Middle Ages, there has been no substantial difference between navy, sea merchants, and pirates.Armed merchant ships suddenly appeared on unsuspecting shores, and women and children were often taken captive.African blacks can be transported north, Slavs can be transported south, Greeks and Tatars can be transported west, there is no definite pattern, and there is no consistent host.Most of the slaves in Italy were domestic servants, and some were also concubines.Some were eunuchs in the Middle East, and they were included in the army in Egypt.It is the habit of the various tribes in Turkey to collect young slaves, train them to become special cadres, and reserve them as future senior generals.It seems that the source of slaves was abundant at that time, so the Turks took advantage of this environment to make these young people without family relations die for them, and they also received the effect of interracial marriage in the future.However, most of the slaves were sent to Crete and Cyprus (Cyprus) to farm and cut sugar cane.Until about 1000, Venice was the largest slave market in Europe.It was not until 1366 that Weicheng banned the public auction of population.However, there are still sporadic slave trades.This kind of incident and the development of Venice in the Adriatic Sea only show that when the capitalist countries first emerged, they accumulated capital by any means, and sometimes it was difficult to avoid the so-called Chinese saying "to be rich without benevolence is to be benevolent and not to be rich". From the outset, the Crusades conflated capitalist adventure with religious piety.Although the participants were fighting the Muslims desperately, they were also taking advantage of the fire to invade the Byzantine Empire and covet the Greek territories in the Middle East, including today's cities and towns along the coast of Syria and Israel.The three city-states on the coast of Italy, namely Venice, Genoa and Pisa (Pisa), were often in conflict.Their dispute still involved the development of the Aegean Sea and the Black Sea and the priority of doing business in the Byzantine Empire.In short, it is to fight for hegemony on the issue of sea dominance in the Mediterranean. The deeds are already complicated.And the legend of the plot in it is close to absurdity, and none is more than the Fourth Crusade of the Crusades.Its absurdity is what one historian calls "shameful glory." The leader of the Fourth Crusade was Marshal Geoffrey de Villehardouin of Champagne.The Count of Champagne was also the nephew of the kings of England and France, so he launched the Fourth Eastern Expedition, and warriors from all over Europe responded enthusiastically.Vihatauin signed a contract with Enrico Dandolo, the commander of Venice, and it is scheduled to participate in the Eastern Expedition with 4,500 knights, 9,000 cavaliers, and 20,000 horses and infantry. On June 24, 1202 Assembled at Venice, which provided for a year the provision of ships, at a price of 84,000 silver marks.Venice itself is equipped with 50 more armed ships at no cost, but if the leader is obtained in the Eastern Expedition, Venice will have to share half of it. Before the scheduled collection, this agreement was already quite strange.In view of the previous experience, the figures who participated in the Crusade believed that the only way to completely eliminate the influence of Muslims was to continue southward and completely attack Egypt.Venice, on the other hand, has a secret treaty with Egypt because of commercial interests, and does not intend to commit crimes in the south.Venice had its eyes set on the north, and suspected that the Byzantine Empire and the Muslims also had a secret agreement, and it was true, they had joined in the back. On the face of it, however, Venice had fulfilled her contract, and in 1202 everything was ready.There are more than 200 transport ships, some of which are specially newly built, with hatches at the bow for horses to get on and off.In addition, there are more than 100 oarsmen in the centipede ship of armed ships. When the oars are stretched out, they look like reptiles with many legs. fighting.Venice has 50 centipede ships, and at least 6,000 oarsmen are needed. Although some of them can be recruited from the Slavic areas on the northern coast of the Adriatic Sea, a city-state with a population of only 100,000 can complete such a reorganization in time. It can also be said that he has tried his best. But Vihartoin couldn't fulfill his contract.The Eastern Expedition is scheduled to have 33,500 people, and only 10,000 people are ready to gather at that time. At the same time, they have no way to raise the supply fee of 84,000 silver marks.The leaders repeatedly asked patrons to donate, but they only got together 50,000 silver marks.Venice insisted on the terms of the contract, which cannot be halved or partially implemented.The 10,000 expeditionary force was stationed on an outlying island of Venice, unable to advance or retreat. The leader, Dandolo, was over 80 years old and was blind. He was also a legendary figure in various records. Some historians speculated that he had already predicted that Weiha Taoyin would not be able to fulfill the contract, so he was confident.However, at this time, Chara, with the aid and instigation of the Hungarian king, rebelled against Venice again, and became a new opponent, and possibly a competitor among the Adriatic sea commerce.Moreover, the location is on the way to the east of the Venetian ships, which is also a threat to future safety. Dandolo suggested that if the samurai on the Eastern Expedition would join him in suppressing Chala's rebellion, the spoils obtained would not be difficult to calculate as the supply fee in the contract.The warriors of Western Europe had no intention of applying to the Slavs the plan of fighting the Turks and Egyptians, and this change of plan required them to attack their fellow Christians, but the ships and supplies were in the hands of the Venetians, and their garrisons were not far from Venice. Across the sea and swamp, in short, he had no choice but to listen to Dan Duolo. 十字军不费气力的攻占查拉，已是1202年的11月，而且这地方一被占领，拉丁的武士即与威尼斯海军队伍因争夺战利品发生冲突，双方经过制压之下，没有酿成大变，但是严冬快要降临，于是决定在查拉过冬，明春再向圣地进发。 此时即有所谓阿鲁修士皇子（Young Alexius）出现。阿鲁修士皇子是现下拜占庭皇帝阿鲁修士三世的侄子。据他称叔父篡位，并且又对十字军的运动毫无贡献。如果威哈陶因的10000人和威尼斯的海军帮他进军君士坦丁堡，赶走篡位的叔父，他自己登上拜占庭大宝之后，当立即打开国库，尽量的支援东征，甚至还派兵10000人参加战役。十字军的武士既已在查拉有了一次的改变路线，再迂回一次，也无碍大局，况且他们也早闻名于君士坦丁堡之富裕，所以除少数的武士不同意而中途退出，大部分船舰人马，放弃了东征的路线，而移戈北向。 经过一场战斗，君士坦丁堡被十字军占领，但是在纷乱期间阿鲁修士三世出走之前，已将国库金银及珍宝携走一空。阿鲁修士皇子虽登极为阿鲁修士四世，他的政令还不能奉行，他颁布的新税也为人民反抗。他自己率兵企图擒获在逃的叔父，也没有结果。此时十字军已退出城外驻扎，他们向阿鲁修士四世讨账，从夏至冬毫无结果，有一次还几乎为拜占庭人设伏所害。 1204年年初拜占庭帝国里的希腊人发生政变，他们将阿鲁修士四世处死，又立了一个新皇帝，称阿鲁修士五世。新皇帝对西方联军毫无负担债务的表示，却一心着手修理君士坦丁堡的防御工事，于是丹多罗和威哈陶因商量，决心推翻整个拜占庭希腊人的政府，另推选西方来的一个贵族作皇帝，也另派一个威尼斯人做君士坦丁堡的主教。事成之后新皇帝管辖国都与国境1／4的地方，其余3／4，由威尼斯和十字军的统率人对分。这就是日后威尼斯占领君士坦丁堡3／8面积的由来。 第二次攻城战发动于1204年4月，以威尼斯战舰出力最多，这些战舰上面装设着攻城工具如掷石机和云梯。其桅杆上则装有平台，当船舰行驶至靠海的城墙边上时，平台上的战士缘着绳索跳上女墙，又再援引其他的战士登城。第一座碉堡被占领，其他的工事也望风瓦解。城破之后战胜者执行传统的奸淫掳掠三日。联军统帅命令所有的物品缴纳集中均分，据称财物值40万银马克，又有甲胄一万副。十字军人的回忆录都认为威尼斯统领丹多罗为全部经过之主宰。他的筹谋不见诸文字。很可能他认为契约与债务必须严格信守，如果国家的首长不负责，可以责成全民负责。 可是如此一来，十字军恢复圣地的目的全部置之脑后。将希腊瓜分只能在纸面上为之，然则事实上除了君士坦丁堡之外，西方的武士也在重要区域及据点布置了不少的藩属地带。而以威城占领的地区最为广泛。在君士坦丁堡，所辖包括码头和港口。她又付出一部分现金，获得克里特岛全岛的所有权。在爱琴海则取得一座叫黑桥（Negroponte）的港口，在希腊半岛的东南则又控制了莫登（Modon）及柯仑（Coron）。这些据点再加以威尼斯原已控制的查拉和拉固沙，和中东海岸基督教徒原已据有的亚魁（Acre），内中也有威尼斯的居留地，就造成了地中海上商业王国的立足点，与近代英国之控制直布罗陀、马尔他岛、亚力山大港及苏伊士的情形类似，只是威尼斯先动手了600年。同时她又与拜占庭的拉丁皇帝订有条约，凡与威尼斯作战国之人民不得来帝国经商。直到1261年拉丁皇帝被推翻，威尼斯实际上独霸着东地中海的领海权56年。但是东罗马帝国成为一个被分割的殖民地，有些历史家认为是不出200年后土耳其人占领君士坦丁堡的先声。 读者看到这里也可充分的了解威尼斯的政府不是我们平常心目中的政府。它凡事都以威城商业兴趣为转移。有人曾说历史上的威尼斯是“一个没有领域的城市”和“一个商人共和国”。“它的政府即是一个股份公司。它的统领就是它的总经理。而参议院，就是它的董事会。它的人口，就是它的股份持有人。”虽过于简化事实，却给一般读者一段直接的概念。 从丹多罗的事迹看来，威尼斯的统领出将入相，可能掌握相当的权力，不过这权力逐渐地被检束，否则一个半世纪之后，华立罗就用不着采取兵变方式夺取政权了。这后面的背景，也是人文发达，商业组织趋繁复，大凡有技术性的问题，委员会的处置比寡头政治来得有效。在此条件下，威尼斯的贵族逐渐抬头，他们一方面凌驾于一般平民之上，一方面也就减缩统领的职权。 威尼斯的统领系终身制。最初的统领由拜占庭帝国任命，从11世纪以来，都由本地人士选举产生。自西元726年至威尼斯1797年灭亡，全部统领的名单仍在，共119人，所以在1071年的历史里，平均任期为九年。这统领的职务也是世界上依选举制而产生之最久者。 统领名单也表现威尼斯初期政治中大家巨阀的力量显著。例如西元811年至942年之131年中，帕底西巴扎（Participazio）家任统领的7人，西元887年至979年之92年中堪定诺（Can-diano）家任统领者5人。自1096年至1172年之76年间，有62年之内统领的职务不出于麦其尔（Michiel）及其女婿之家里。以后遗传的力量仍是雄厚，例如康大黎尼（Contarini）家有统领8人，摩洛西尼（Morosini）家出统领4人，即丹多罗家也有4人任统领。不过同一家的统领，不集中于一段紧凑的时间内，表示威尼斯这些有声望的家庭始终在岛上保持他们的门第，只是最高的权力不为任何一家垄断而已。 统领虽为终身制，但被弹劾的情事亦经常有之，像华立罗被判死刑虽算特殊，但是威尼斯的统领被暗杀、被罢免和被流放者重见叠出，不足为奇。吊诡（paradox）的是在此种情形之下，威尼斯政局只历经极短时间的颠簸，仍能保持长期的稳定。像华立罗事件之迅速而有决定性的处理，即未产生任何余波，其后面之背景是：威尼斯之贵族（大约200家），代表着1000多人的大会议，始终不放弃对局势之掌握。 防制统领大权独揽，威尼斯采取种种办法，有些甚为离奇。 统领之选择以秘密投票方式由41个选举人决定之。但是这41个选举人自身却经过一个极为复杂而又琐碎的办法产生。自1268年之后，首先在扩大会议有资格的会员内抽签而产生30人，次在此30人内抽签淘汰而为9人，此9人即开始选举40人。此40人又不是选举人，再用抽签的方法淘汰为12人，此12人又选举25人。再用抽签的方法淘汰至9人，此9人再选举45人。此45人经过第三次抽签淘汰为11人，这11人才选举出来上述的41个统领选举人。全部程序一共抽签5次，提名投票4次，有如“三跪九叩首”，还只产生了41个选举人。 另外一个防制统领擅权的办法，叫做“统领的誓辞”（promissione）。这种誓辞由来已久。最初不过是一种形式，由就职的统领自己拟稿，表示他愿意尽力履行他的职责。可是后来越来越复杂，11世纪之后，新统领就职前，由一个特别委员会草拟誓辞，另外一个委员会检阅前任统领的记录，如果发现以前没有防范得周到，使前任统领得以自由行动的地方，可以在此时提醒草拟委员会注意，将防制的办法添入誓辞之内。于是誓辞等于一件合同。在1229年威尼斯责成统领翟波罗（Giacomo Tiepolo）的誓辞，新统领除了他的薪水和附近城市所进贡他份下所得苹果、樱桃和螃蟹之外不得在职务内有法外之收入，他主持自由捐款，尊重国家秘密。不能单独与教皇、东西罗马帝国的皇帝或其他国王有私人文书来往。他接收的礼物有极严格的限制。他不能提出统领的继承人。1275年统领康大黎尼（Jacopo Contarini）的誓辞，则禁止新统领（时年81岁）未得扩大会议同意与外国人结婚、他和他的儿辈不能在威尼斯所辖地域之外购买地产、不得承购政府的公债、他们在威尼斯殖民地内的地产限于统领就职一年内转让与人。他的儿辈除任驻外大使或船长外不得在政府内接受任何职务。 威尼斯之成为一个城市国家，初时接受希腊罗马传统，最低限度在外表上，政府的权力由全民大会（general assembly）产生。全民大会本来就没有严格的形式，不过在产生新统领和宣布重要国策时，群众聚集于圣马可广场，有些则栖身船上。通常一声叱喝，算是在民意上获得表决。在社会进化、政府组织越趋向技术化的条件之下，扩大会议（great council，Maggior Con-siglio）在13世纪成为真正权力的基础。这会议囊括威尼斯所有重要的家庭，当初也包含着在大陆上领有土地，可追溯到以前家世的贵族和城中重要的绅商。可是其间的界限，越来越含糊。1297年后，扩大会议固定其会员资格，限于以前曾任会员。1323年会员之资格可以世袭。不久之后所有会员及其婚姻子孙记入“金谱”（Golden Book）。其中男性之成年人，通常1200人至2000余人，为扩大会议之会员，凡是威城政府之重要职务，无不被他们揽纳。因为扩大会议最重要的职务为选举，通过选举权，此机构也是全市权力的基础。我们所说威城的贵族，在13世纪之后，也纯粹指金谱上有名之人士，很多专靠祖先经商起家。不过这并没有完全截斩社会的流动性，金谱之世袭由父系决定，没有不能与平民结婚的限制。平民也仍能经商致富，超过金谱有名的人士。以后少数的贵族，有些沦落到极为穷困，目不识丁，靠救济金生活。亦间有平民也被升迁为贵族。例如1381年威尼斯击败热那亚来犯之后，有平民30家包括一些小商人和工匠因军功升为贵族。 大会议人数太多，不能主持经常性的事务，于是授权于参议院（senate）及四十人委员会（council of forty）。这两个机构有司法及立法权，有时也合并开会，四十人委员会对刑事案件有复审权，有时像最高法院，有时又起草重要的法案，也像一个委员会。此外统领也有统领委员会，似同内阁。前述的十人委员会，则完全是一个公安机构，所辖如国家保密局。不过威尼斯1000多年的历史内，这些机构的性质常有变动，并且很多政治上的问题以幕后征集意见解决。各种临时委员会（zonta）也多得不可胜数，如判决华立罗死刑之法庭，即系一个临时委员会。通常一个带活动性的政客，同时兼摄好几处的职务，如海军高级将领也出席参议院的会议，舰队的司令官则由统领和四十人委员会的头目商询后委派。总之各种任务互相牵连重叠，没有一个机构能独行其是。一般各机构的任职为一年，连选得连任，被选人一定要服务，不许推辞。 以今日看来，我们可以觉得威尼斯的体制，让人口内6％至7％的贵族去垄断政治经济社会各方面的活动，无乃专制之甚。可是这在中世纪即算役有十分的民主，也已算开明。因为全民自治事实上不可想象。在几个小岛上，以一两千人主持国政，也包括了大致上应该缕列的人物。欧洲在中世纪趋向近代时，占有土地之贵族（landed nobility）和新兴的绅商常发生冲突。威尼斯没有封建的传统，也不设陆军，在大陆上作战通常以雇佣军（condottieri）为之，抽税则以间接税（如关税、货物转口税、食盐公卖等）为主。在这种条件之下，避免了上述的冲突，即在15世纪之后，在大陆上拥有相当多的领土，威城人士经营的农场仍只以收入为主，其财富不特别造成一种政治上的势力。 威尼斯名义上信奉天主教，但是她不受教皇约束，是另外一种独特的现象。威城有60个到70个教区，每个教区的神父由区内房产所有人推举，然后由主教任命。主教及其他高级的僧侣，由参议院提名后由统领通知教皇，教皇可以不同意，但不能自推候选人。威尼斯有她的圣主（patron saint），此人即是圣马可，其意义有如中国之城隍。威尼斯圣马可教堂与统领之官邸毗连，等于统领的附属教堂。于是全城的宗教事宜也带有独立的气派，一般僧侣受贵族监视，有如各种文官组织。于是引起一位现代学者说：“威尼斯之处置教会事宜，好像罗马简直就不存在。” 当神圣罗马帝国与教廷长期斗争之际，威尼斯能够在两方之间左右逢源，由来已久。1177年她曾以和事佬的身份邀请神圣罗马皇帝及教皇亚历山大三世在城中会面。中世纪以来，教廷与各处侯王及国王冲突时，教皇执有一种可怕的武器，即是“开除教籍”，此处分加于国家首领及于全国全城。当施行时，对被处分者之从属关系及所作誓辞与契约及义务，一律取消无效。天主教的神父也不得为他们主持养生送死的仪式。凡婚姻关系遗产转让等之受教规决定者，也失去凭籍。被开除教籍的人旅行于异域，即可以被本地人拘捕，他们的船只和货物也可以听由掠取没收。历史上有名的事例，曾牵涉到神圣罗马帝国之亨利四世及英王约翰，均在这种处分下不得已向教廷屈服。威尼斯受开除教籍的处分不只一次，前已述及。1308年威城干涉费瓦瓦（Ferrara）王子之继承，而后者是教廷利益所在，因此被开除教籍。一时费瓦瓦附近的城镇联合抵抗威尼斯。威城不支，最后向教皇道歉赔款了事。但是如此事情只产生外界的困难，没有引发内部真正的危机，也仍归功于威尼斯之有力管制域内长老僧侣。 自12世纪以来，在今日德国境内之王室贵族，分为两个党派，其影响所及也波及于意大利。保皇党（Ghibellines）支持神圣罗马帝国之中央集权，其幕后多为各地之大地主及有历史地位的贵族。亲教廷派（Guelphs）多数赞成本地公民自治，通常代表新兴之社会经济势力（32）。这种争执酝酿至13及14世纪，使无数的意大利城市陷于分裂的局面，而威尼斯始终没有介入，这也仍是由于此地地主型的贵族不足构成独特的政治势力，而宗教方面之人员都已归并于城市中薪水阶级之故。 威尼斯之属于资本主义的体制，大部分由于商业资本垄断了政府的功能，有如“提供资本的人操纵了工业的很多部门，而主要提供资本的人则是经商的贵族”。而这体制，也是由于此城市特殊环境及特别机缘而产生。韦伯所谓资本主义的精神出诸清教徒，宋巴特谓之出诸犹太教（详第一章），与威尼斯的情形都不符合。说到宗教，我们还可以提出自中世纪以来，天主教对于“高利贷”（usury）有极广泛的解释，甚至一般的贷款收息，也属于usury，不仅禁之于僧侣，也及于一般信徒。威尼斯首先不顾这种禁例，后来教堂的申饬比较严格，威城表面服从，也颁布了一些防制高利贷的法令，实际则留下技术上的漏洞，放贷收息进行如故。 这城市国家的人民，曾被称为“文艺复兴期间最唯利是图、顶贪婪而特别注重物质生活的人民”。不论其公平与否，只是这种气氛与其追究于任何宗派，不如说是人类的共通性格。通过一种特殊的机缘，才表现发挥无余，也更显示其卑劣的一面而已。威尼斯的犹太人，划住在大陆的禁区，只准业医，他们放贷给一般市民，禁不胜禁，这城市国家对付他们也有左右不定的形势。有时候让他们来岛上居住，过一时候又全部驱逐。后来又让他们来城中，更定下规则，每次逗留不过15天，胸前要缝缀黄色的圆圈，而且他们不得在岛上置地产开学校。所以犹太人纵在不同的时间内给了这城市不同的影响，却始终无法取得主动的地位。威尼斯社会上的商业性格，还是要追究于本身的历史与地理。 只是其社会的上层已有清一色的形态，而且统治阶级的经济力量又和他们的经理能力互为表里，其管制下层的条件也比较容易得心应手。在此条件下，她处于海沼之特殊地位仍属重要，否则即不能确切的掌握人口。这城市曾经历传染病严重的灾害，1348年全城约一半人口死于黑死病。以后经移民填补，大部分来自意大利大陆。这些移民既为威城的工资吸引而来，初来时一定小心翼翼的希望被接受，就没有蠢动生事的趋向与动机了。 威城本身没有农业人口，这城市里的工业生产也比较简单。除了造船之外，她不能算作一座重要的工业中心。她出口的毛织品大部分来自西欧及意大利之路卡（Lucca）及米兰。16世纪之后她的纺织业曾一度抬头，以漂染丝织品为盛，其生产方式大部分依赖“外放分工办法”（putting-out system），经理人将工作分派于海沼内外及大陆边缘各地，并无集中之工厂。其他如玻璃、镜子、肥皂、金属装饰品之制造，当日半属奢侈品，也无从大量的生产。造船和制币用人较多，则经过政府人员密切的监视。 各种作业，另有他们的同业公会。威尼斯一共有百余家同业公会。同业公会除了维持制造的标准，厘定学徒的经历出身外，还有周济本行孤寡穷困的义务，会长由同业推举，并向政府特派的三位法官负责。威尼斯最大的行业是海员，但是海员不许组织公会。此外我们认为是自由职业者（profes-sionals），如律师及公证人（notaries），也没有公会。对外贸易的商人更无需组织公会，因为整个威尼斯的政府就像他们的一个大公会。 威尼斯被历史家一致认为效率高、长期稳定的主要原因，还是内部的结构，自然而然的近于一元化。商业并没有被少数人全部把持，平民仍可参与。即匠工寡妇，稍有储蓄，也可以参加股份（colleganza）的投资。此城市行征兵制。征兵的方法为预先将壮龄男子组成12人的集团，各人派有自1至12的次序，有需要时按次序征召入伍。但是征兵不作陆战之用（陆战用雇佣兵，前已提及），而全部用于海军。在长期间内，威尼斯又常采取战时体制，商船组织护航队，有些尚为政府所有，因此商业舰队与海军之间，出入甚微。总之，他们的活动即为全城安全与生计之所在。这些条件都足以养成上下人心团结。专政的贵族，既没有留给一般平民必须生事造反之动机，又能确切的管制各公会，因之能造成一个长期稳定的局面。但是这方面的成功不能掩饰威城强调特务政治的缺点。密探活动频繁，对劳工谋反的处置过度的严厉。也不能掩饰她的强硬对外政策引起反感的另二缺点，局势不利的时候，便使自己陷于困窘。而特别在这种尴尬的局面之下，统治阶级猜疑满腹，也就在这种时期之中，可能发生华立罗事件之类疑案与阴谋。 从上面的缕叙看来，我们认为威尼斯属于资本主义的体制，已经不容疑义。可是这种论断，仍不能推翻当前的一个问题：资本主义是19世纪创用的名词，我们将之施用于13世纪和14世纪的局面上去，是否在一出一进之间，还没有把疑难之处解释得很清楚，却又产生了新的疑难和误解？ 这也就是缕叙至此，我们还不能决定何者是资本主义的共通性格，何者则是威尼斯岛国特殊的情形。除非将其他带有资本主义体制的国家或其代表作过一番类似详尽的缕叙，我们无法用归纳法将以往的事迹归并于现用名词之下，使之解答现有问题。资本主义首先出现于意大利，可以算为多数的学者和作家所公认。以威尼斯作意大利城市的代表，因为她的记录最详尽，局势最显然，发展不仅不遭挫折而且历时最长久。至于其他意大利城市国家的情形也应该有一两段的概述，才能使读者相信威尼斯的发展已经一马当先，在初期资本主义形成时，确是个中翘楚。 先说佛罗伦萨（Florence）：这城市跨越亚诺（Arno）河上，曾先后被日耳曼民族和拜占庭帝国占领，在12世纪成为一座自治的市镇。此间商人力量之雄厚，早有历史根据。有些历史家相信最早的同业公会可能远在1100年或稍后的期间已开始活动，虽说现存文献只能推证到1182年。佛罗伦萨以纺织业和银行业著名。这城市起先输入英国及法兰德斯（Flanders，比利时及法国荷兰之一部分）之毛织品，加工染色之后卖出，以后径自输入羊毛，自织自造。在14世纪初期，年产毛布80000匹，雇用劳工30000人，是世界上最大工业中心之一。佛罗伦萨的银行业与路卡及塞纳（Siena）齐名。他们一部分的业务，是将各国的基督教徒什一捐汇给教会。其实各地早有包税人（tax farmers）包办，银行家接收他们的汇款后并不直接缴解。如英国各寺院的承包人，各银行即通过他们大批收买羊毛，再转送欧洲大陆其他国家或意大利本国发卖。银行之总行则先垫款与教廷销账。于是出进之间获收大利。佛罗伦萨的银行以高利贷著名。普通借款年利30％至40％，有特别风险之利息可至每年266％，所以也有借款倒账，银行关闭影响全城生计之事情。 前述保皇党和亲教皇派的冲突，由德国传入意大利，也使佛罗伦萨大受影响。1282年亲教皇派得势，立刻引起城中7个高级同业公会专政。这7个公会有两个代表毛织业（一个主持进口昵织品之加工，一个主持本地之织造），一个主持丝织品，一个主持银行业，一个主持医药及制肉香料之进口，一个代表法庭之裁判官及公证人，一个主持皮货之贩卖。其中前4个同业公会最为重要，他们挟有雄厚的资本，重要的公会，有私人组织的军队护送商业交往，在沿途设有栈居，能与外国当局协定关税，解决彼此争执，也备有法庭法警和监狱。 原来前述保皇党和亲教皇派的冲突，所谓保皇党代表乡镇封建制度里遗下的贵族（欧洲的封建制度本来就是一种农业社会的组织），亲教皇派代表城市中的重要绅商，此为一种粗枝大叶的解释，实际情形各时各地不同。佛罗伦萨在遭日耳曼民族和希腊的拜占庭帝国进攻后，神圣罗马帝国及教皇企图掌握这地方，两方都从封建制度的组织着手。当日风气败坏，主要的僧侣都私自成婚生子，于是也可能在各处拥有地产，遗传子孙。城市中的贵族则也多在封建制度之下获得不同的附属位置，所以也不算是白手起家。他们力量充实之后，就强迫近郊的骑士在城中备置房舍，最低限度一年之内，必有一部分时间居住于城市之内。这种低级贵族与城中绅商通婚的情形相当多。况且意大利人的家族都用大公司（corporation）的原则组成。有势力之豪族则在城中建立高塔，俯视下面的房舍。于是一段街市成为一座特别的塔垒社区（tower association）。 1282年佛罗伦萨人口有45000。过去同业公会的情形很少提及，我们只知道她于西元1000年前后，随着沿海城市如比萨及路卡发展商业，只因为据在亚诺河中游，又是陆路上的南北