Chapter 35 Chapter 33 International Marketing, A Share of the Global Market

International marketing, like domestic marketing, requires corporate culture integration, market research, market analysis, market segmentation, marketing mix, implementation of target marketing, and a series of strategic determination and tactical implementation of the marketing process.After determining the correct market positioning, formulate an appropriate marketing mix plan to meet the needs of the international market, so as to realize the profit of the enterprise.International marketing must adapt to both the domestic environment and the international environment. Compared with domestic marketing, international marketing has greater and more differences, complexity and risks.

The global marketing concept (Global marketing concept) began in the 1990s. It regards a group of national markets as a unit and classifies potential buyer groups with similar needs into a global market segment. As long as the cost is low and culturally If feasible, formulate a marketing plan for standardization. After joining the WTO, China's economy is fully integrated into the global economy, so it is urgent to speed up the research, development and dissemination of global marketing in China. Nestle Foods is considered one of the most successful operators in the consumer packaged food and beverage industry in the world today. In 1994, its sales in Asia reached 4.41 billion US dollars, becoming the well-deserved overlord of the industry in Asia.In order to maintain and continue to expand its leading edge, Nestlé mainly focuses on the following three aspects:

First of all, Nestlé has a long-term strategic outlook in many countries.Nestlé makes great efforts to analyze any possible market opportunity and develop the best food accordingly, and then strive to make it a successful long-term investment project.Nestlé has been in protracted negotiations to enter the Chinese market, and it took 13 years of talks before it was granted access to China's Heilongjiang province to help boost the dairy industry there. In the Japanese market, Nestle has invested a lot of money. It employs 2,300 people in Japan, operates 4 factories, and has 20 cooperative production enterprises, including contract production for Nestle to produce food according to certain standards. factory.All of this suggests that Nestlé wants a long-term presence in these countries.

Second, prevent competitors from seizing the market by extending products.In order to meet the different preferences of consumers, Nestlé produces commodities of different specifications, forms and brands.This allows the Nestlé brand to take up more space on the shelves, preventing competitors from invading unoccupied markets.For example, in Thailand, Nestle has improved its bear brand condensed milk and developed a new bear brand concentrated milk with honey.Since honey is an uncommon food in tropical countries, this product extension strategy has achieved great results, with an annual sales growth of 15%. contain.

Finally, apply sustained pressure on competitors or resort to retaliatory tactics.Because Nestlé entered most of Asia earlier than other companies, it has an advantage in competition.Nestlé has been selling products in the Japanese market since the 1880s and opened its first branch in Japan in 1913, followed by its first factory in 1933. Nestlé was also able to achieve economies of scale and streamline its production across Asia.This way it can cope with the intrusion of large retailers entering the area.But at some point, Nestlé will also face strong challenges from some big competitors.As one of its managers in Thailand puts it: "In Thailand, there is a lot of American-style competition."

Global businesses operate by viewing the entire world as a single market, keeping products roughly consistent in design, function, or style, and competing on the basis of the best combination of price, quality, and delivery of those products.However, when carrying out specific global marketing, we will encounter many problems and risks that domestic marketing does not or rarely encounter.Such as different languages, customs; different units of measurement; different trade methods, payment methods; different laws; interest rate changes, exchange rate changes, political risks and so on.Simply summed up, it can be briefly discussed from three aspects: target customers, marketing environment and marketing management issues.

1. Changes in target customers.Global marketing will face domestic and international markets at the same time, and consumers in different countries have different consumption behaviors, characteristics, hobbies, and demand states.This means that marketers can have more marketing opportunities, but the same product may not be able to meet the different needs of the public at the same time. 2. The marketing environment is different.Although the marketing environment factors are political, economic, cultural, technological, social, legal and other factors, they are quite different from the sub-factors that make up these factors.For example, in the legal environment, global marketing requires not only understanding of domestic laws related to foreign sales and export control, but also foreign laws and international laws, and making full use of the differences between laws in various countries to maximize the interests of enterprises in the world.

3. The complexity of marketing management issues.Due to the many and complex changes in the goals and environment, the marketing management problems that may arise in global marketing will also be many and complex.For marketers, he needs more updated global marketing knowledge and skills, such as language issues, currency issues, information issues, risk issues, etc., in order to better formulate global marketing strategies and achieve corporate goals.The following problems are common in global marketing: High foreign debt. The government is unstable. Foreign exchange fluctuations. Tariffs and other trade barriers.

Corruption. technology plagiarism. High costs of adapting products and communicating information. When a global company operates in more than one country's market, it has more cost and credibility advantages than a purely domestic company in research and development, production, logistics, marketing and finance. International marketing is the same as domestic marketing, starting from market needs, formulating appropriate marketing mix strategies, and meeting the needs of customers in the international market with appropriate products, prices, channels and promotion methods to achieve the company's profit goals.Therefore, compared with domestic marketing, international marketing has the same purpose, means, guiding ideology, and functions.

However, international marketing and domestic marketing each face different marketing environments, problems to be solved, and strategies to be formulated. There are still differences between the two. International marketing has its own characteristics, and companies need to pay attention to the differences when marketing. In 1992, the highly anticipated Euro Disney finally opened in Paris, France.Due to the previous success in the United States and Japan, Disney's market developers believe that it is enough to apply the previous business model to the European market.In order to seize the time to implement the strategy, Disney did not even do market research in the European market.

Disney believes that the population of Europe is much larger than that of the United States. The United States has 41 million people who visit Disneyland every year. Based on the same proportion, it is reasonable that the new park should receive more than 60 million tourists every year.At the same time, since Europeans take longer vacations than Americans, they will definitely stay in Disney for a while, and high-end hotels and restaurants are of course essential. However, the calculation of all these figures did not go through detailed market research. After subjective speculation, Disney invested 4.4 billion US dollars, occupying more than 2,000 hectares of land east of Paris, and built ultra-luxury restaurants and hotels inside. However, the business results of Disney's new park, which has spent huge sums of money, are far below expectations. First of all, the Walt Disney Company did not anticipate that wealthy Europeans could be very frugal.Many of the tourists who come to the park bring their own food and do not eat or live in the park at all. Even those who live in hotels are not like Disney tourists in the United States, who stay for 4 days at a time.They will only stay for two days at most. Many tourists come to the park early in the morning, stay in the hotel at night, check out the next morning, and then return to the park for the final adventure. Disney originally banned tourists from drinking alcohol in the park, but Europeans have the habit of drinking alcohol at lunch and dinner. For this reason, many Europeans gave up their visit plans.In the end, Disney had to be forced to cancel this provision. Disney also misunderstood that Europeans don’t eat breakfast. An employee recalled: “We heard that Europeans don’t eat breakfast, so we reduced the size of the breakfast supply, but we found that everyone needed a breakfast. We only had one breakfast a day. Prepare 350 breakfasts, but there is a demand for 2,500, and the line to buy breakfast is very long." It is a major event that such a large amusement park has a long line because of the supply of breakfast. mistakes. In addition, Disney has found that the number of tourists has a peak period and a trough period, and the difference between the number of the two is as much as 10 times. However, due to the regulations on inflexible time in France, they cannot reduce the number of employees hired during the trough period of tourists, which will greatly reduce the number of employees. increased expenditures. ... Although Disney attracts nearly 1 million tourists every month, and although Disneyland Paris is the amusement park that makes Europeans spend the most, the originally imagined profits have never appeared.By September 30, 1993, Disneyland had lost $960 million.By the end of December 1993, a total of 6.04 billion French francs had been lost. Because Disney ignored the risks in the international market and invested blindly, it can only be said that it suffered the consequences of its own failure in the end.Since international marketing activities are carried out in different countries, the marketing environment they face is more complicated than that of domestic marketing, and companies must treat it rationally.Generally speaking, international companies face three risks: political, legal and foreign exchange. 1.political risk It includes three aspects: political risks within the target country, mainly referring to political instability, policy discontinuity, social unrest and riots, etc. in the target country; political risks outside the target country, such as border disputes, threats of war, etc.; The political risks caused by the friction between the domestic marketing activities and the goals of the target country, such as the conflict between the business activities of the domestic enterprises and the economic development goals of the target country, etc. 2.Legal Risk The industrial and commercial laws, regulations and management systems of various countries in the world are not completely consistent, so that companies engaged in international marketing are in many different legal environments. Once the company has determined the applicable laws, changes in relevant laws are likely to cause losses to the company.For companies engaged in international marketing, legal risks are particularly prominent. 3.Foreign exchange risk It mainly refers to the loss that may be brought to the enterprise due to the change of the exchange rate between the two countries in the international marketing activities.It mainly includes: transaction risk, which refers to the risk of loss caused by changes in the ratio between the foreign currency and the domestic currency in transactions denominated in foreign currency; economic risk, which refers to exchange rate fluctuations caused by unexpected economic factors, Reduce the economic income of the enterprise in a certain period in the future; accounting risk, that is, in accounting calculation, the value of certain items on the enterprise's balance sheet decreases due to exchange rate changes. In addition to the above-mentioned risks, enterprises engaged in international marketing activities will also encounter risks in taxation, language, characters, customs, transportation, etc., which should be paid enough attention to by enterprises. While companies need to enter and compete in foreign markets, the risks are high: huge foreign debt, shifting borders, unstable governments, foreign exchange issues, tariffs and trade barriers, graft and technology theft.However, we believe that companies selling products in global industries have no choice but to operate internationally. When an enterprise conducts global marketing, the marketing stage can be divided into primary stage and advanced stage.The initial stage of global marketing often only realizes globalization in individual functions, such as procurement or production; while the advanced stage of global marketing realizes globalization in almost all links that may generate competitive advantages, and establishes a global network. The division of important functions such as procurement, production, research and development, information scanning, and human resources worldwide is relatively specialized, but they are highly dependent on each other. Coca-Cola is the most well-known international brand in the world.In recent years, Coca-Cola has made a truly localized brand operation in the Chinese market through the cooperation of public relations activities and advertisements: in 2002, the company launched a new image of the clay doll "Ah Fu" in the Chinese market.Ah Fu invited the children to cut paper together, drink Coke, and celebrate the New Year with the couplet "Longteng is auspicious, the horse is more joyful".Since then, Coca-Cola has continued to use the image of Ah Fu. In 2003, it launched the "paper-cut chapter", in 2004 it launched the "skiing chapter", and in 2005 it launched the "Golden Rooster Dance New Year" chapter.Let the strong Chinese flavor and the image of "Ah Fu" be deeply engraved in the hearts of Chinese consumers. Coca-Cola is the first in the world to put forward the localization idea of ​​"Thinklocal, Actlocal".And it has really embarked on the road of localization with characteristics all over the world.The Spring Festival is the most important festival and custom for Chinese people. Being able to integrate into this Chinese culture will not only bring the sales of beverages to a peak during the Spring Festival, but also an excellent opportunity for brand localization.Coca-Cola decided to downplay Coca-Cola's American complex and American-style communication methods, and pay more attention to how to adapt to Chinese culture.Through the survey, it was found that the image of Xiao Fu, who is wearing a red doudou and a small tuft of hair on his head, is one of the most popular Chinese New Year mascots loved by consumers, fully in line with Coca-Cola's "Thinklocal, Actlocal" strategy. Therefore, during the Spring Festival from 2002 to 2005, Coca-Cola launched a series of brand campaigns for Xiao Fu and Xiao Gillian New Year greetings for four consecutive years in combination with the folk customs and ethnic habits formed in China over thousands of years—these have a strong Chinese flavor. The public relations activities and advertisements combine Coca-Cola with the folk culture and elements of the traditional Chinese Spring Festival (such as firecrackers, Spring Festival couplets, twelve zodiac signs, etc.), and convey the traditional value of the Chinese people with progressive themed public relations and promotional activities The concept - happy new year, family reunion, realizes the perfect combination of internationalization and local Spring Festival folk customs. One of the most frequently faced questions in global marketing is to what extent to choose a standardization and differentiation policy.After all, although there are many similarities between the needs of consumers in various countries, there are also considerable differences.Global marketers typically place more emphasis on the commonalities of consumer needs across countries than their differences.Although they will make some adjustments to the global standardized marketing mix according to the differences in the market, they will not adapt for the sake of adaptation, and only make changes where they can actually increase the interests of customers.Moreover, global marketing firms will always require absolute uniformity in some elements of the marketing mix.For example, McDonald's golden arches logo and service standards, Coca-Cola formula, trademark patterns and colors, and so on.These standards and links are designed and controlled by the company headquarters. Global marketers also take an "isometric perspective" when viewing domestic market opportunities as well as foreign market opportunities.But the biggest difference between global marketing and multi-country marketing is that the marketing activities of global marketing companies in every corner of the world must serve the company's overall strategic goals, and the choice of each foreign market opportunity is not just based on its own profit potential. Rather, it is determined by considering its role and position in the process of realizing the company's overall goals. For example, some companies may not make money in a certain foreign market, but a small amount of investment in this market may play a role in containing their major global competitors; another example is that some foreign markets themselves have little demand for a certain product, but the company However, it invests and builds factories in the country, which may be because the company wants to use the country as a production base to supply the markets of neighboring countries. From the perspective of subdividing the global market, typical global marketing and multi-country marketing can be regarded as two extremes of a continuous system. The difference lies in the extent to which national boundaries are used as the primary variable for subdividing the global market.Multi-country marketing regards national boundaries as the primary variable in subdividing the global market, and then further subdivides and selects the target market according to other variables in each country's market, and develops a business specifically to meet the needs of target customers.The typical global marketing does not regard national borders as the primary indicator of market segmentation at all, but instead uses certain non-national variables in terms of demographics, psychology, behavior, etc., and then develops a unified business for similar target markets in different countries to meet their common requirements. When a business decides to enter a foreign market, it needs to determine the best way to enter that country's market. Firms can enter the international market through different means such as export, contract and direct investment.The entry method chosen by the enterprise reflects the interests that the enterprise wants to obtain in the target market and the strategy adopted in order to obtain such interests.Therefore, understanding the characteristics of various entry methods can help enterprises make the right choice.Konka Group's experience in entering the international market is worth learning. The internationalization path chosen by Konka is a typical gradual development route, that is, from product agency export to self-established agency export, and then to foreign direct investment. From 1980 to 1983, Konka mainly produced tape recorders. In 1984, Konka began to produce color TV sets. However, because it did not obtain a domestic sales license, by the end of 1987 Konka's color TV sets were all exported through foreign parties.Afterwards, Konka began to enter the Chinese domestic market, but the export volume of color TVs was still very large. In 1990, Konka's color TV exports accounted for 20% of the country's total, of which mainframes accounted for 6.2%, earning 145 million US dollars, ranking first in the national electronics industry. By 1995, Konka's color TV domestic market share reached 9%, ranking second in the same industry, and some were still exported. At the beginning of 1996, Konka took Australia as its key market, designed products specially for this market, and sold them in more than 30 retail outlets in Melbourne.This export is very different from the past: in the past, Konka relied on the channel of the joint venture foreign party and used the foreign brand to export products. This time, Konka built its own sales channel and used its own brand to export products. By 1995, almost all Konka products were exported through foreign agents.Since 1996, Konka has established its own sales agencies in Australia, Russia, India, the United States, Hong Kong, South Africa, the Middle East and other countries, and its products are exported to local markets through these overseas sales agencies. Product export and foreign direct investment are two ways and two stages of international management. Before 1997, the main way of Konka's internationalization was to export products and introduce foreign brand enterprises. After 1997, Konka began to directly invest and build factories in Australia, Russia, the United States and other places, and implemented local sales of products, which achieved great success. There are many modes to choose from to enter the international market, such as export entry mode, contract entry mode, direct investment entry mode and so on.Konka adopts two modes of export entry and direct investment. Konka starts to enter the international market by setting up its own export department, which is the most commonly used internationalization route for latecomers.After Konka developed to a certain scale, the company adopted the direct investment model. The advantage of this is that the company can adjust its marketing strategy according to the local market characteristics, thereby creating marketing advantages.Specifically, the three modes of export entry, contract entry, and direct investment entry have the following characteristics: 1. Export and entry.According to Kotler, the easiest way to intervene in foreign markets is to export products.Export can be divided into indirect export and direct export. Indirect export refers to the use of middlemen in the country to export products.Through indirect export, enterprises can start exporting products without increasing investment in fixed assets, with low start-up costs, low risk, and no impact on current sales profits. And direct export means that no middlemen in the country are used, but middlemen in the target country can be used to export products.Under the direct export method, a series of important activities of the enterprise are completed by itself. These activities include: researching the target market, finding buyers, contacting distributors, preparing customs documents, arranging transportation and insurance, etc. 2. Contract entry.The contractual entry mode is a long-term non-equity relationship between an international enterprise and a legal entity in a target country, and the former transfers technology or skills to the latter.There are mainly the following modes: 1.License Entry Mode The cost of the license entry model is very low, and it can bypass import barriers, such as avoiding the troubles of the tariff and quota system.Manufacturers can use the licensing model when exporting is no longer profitable due to increased tariffs, and when quotas limit the quantity exported.When the target country's currency depreciates for a long time, the manufacturer can switch from the export model to the licensing contract model. 2.Franchise Entry Model This model refers to a business (licensor) licensing commercial systems and other property rights such as patents, trademarks, packaging, product formulas, company names, technical know-how and management services to independent companies or individuals (licensors).The franchisee uses the franchisor's intangible assets to operate, and follows the policies and procedures formulated by the franchisor.In return, in addition to paying the initial fee to the franchisor, the franchisee also pays a certain percentage of sales regularly. 3.contract manufacturing entry model The entry mode of contract manufacturing refers to a way in which enterprises provide parts and components to foreign enterprises for assembly, or provide foreign enterprises with detailed specifications and standards for imitation, and the enterprises themselves retain marketing responsibilities. Using the contract manufacturing model, the enterprise transfers the work and responsibility of production to the other party of the contract, so as to concentrate on marketing, so it is an effective way to expand the international market. 4.Manage Contract Entry Mode The management company undertakes part or all of the management tasks of another company in the form of a contract, and receives management fees, part of the profits, or purchases the company's stock at a certain price as compensation, which is called the management contract entry mode. 5.Turnkey contract entry model This model refers to the way that enterprises enter foreign markets by signing contracts with foreign enterprises and completing a large-scale project, and then delivering the project to the other party.The responsibility of the enterprise generally includes the design and construction of the project, and providing services after the project is delivered, such as providing management and training workers, and preparing for the other party to operate the project.In addition to taking place between enterprises, many turnkey contracts are signed with foreign governments for certain large-scale public infrastructure such as hospitals, highways, and docks. 3. Direct Investment Entry Direct investment means that foreign companies purchase the equity of local companies or directly invest in setting up factories by themselves.Foreign investment can be divided into two forms: joint venture and sole proprietorship. 1.joint venture It refers to the partnership between enterprises and local investors to form a company, jointly operate, share equity and management rights, and share risks.The way of joint investment can be that a foreign company acquires part of the local equity, or a local company purchases a foreign company's local equity; it can also be jointly funded by both parties to establish a new enterprise, sharing resources, sharing risks, and distributing profits in proportion. 2.sole proprietorship This means that the enterprise alone goes to the target country to invest and build factories for production and sales activities.The standard for a sole proprietorship is not necessarily 100% ownership of the company, mainly having complete management and control rights, and generally only needs to own about 90% of the property rights.A sole proprietorship can be a simple assembly or a complex manufacturing activity.It can be formed by buying local companies or directly building new factories. The attractiveness of certain countries' markets depends on the product, geographic factors, income and demographics, political climate, and a number of other factors, and some vendors may also have a particular preference for certain types of countries or regions of the world. International marketing also requires examining the country's economic environment.The economic environment mainly refers to the social and economic system, economic development level, industrial structure, labor force structure, material resource status, consumption level, consumption structure and international economic development trends of a country or region, and also includes inflation rate, exchange rate, bank General economic environment such as interest rates, government monetary/fiscal policies, tax rates, unemployment rates, etc. John Dunning divided a country's economic development into four stages according to the gross national product: the first stage, the per capita GNP is below US$400; the second stage, the per capita GNP is between US$400-1500 In the third stage, the per capita GNP is between US$2,500-4,750; in the fourth stage, the per capita GNP is above US$5,000.He believes that the difference in GNP has a direct impact on international investment activities: when a country is in the first stage, the country has only a small amount of foreign direct investment and no foreign direct investment, with the growth of per capita GNP, a country's The gap between foreign direct investment and foreign direct investment goes through a process of first widening and then narrowing, and finally realizes positive growth in the country's foreign investment in the fourth stage. But in practice, this theory still has serious shortcomings.According to Dunning's theory, the more the economy develops, the greater the per capita net foreign investment will be.However, some low-income countries have neither foreign investment nor foreign investment, and their per capita net foreign investment shows a balanced state; while in some developed countries, their foreign investment and foreign direct investment have a certain scale, relative to the per capita net foreign investment. The investment value is not high.So Dunning's theory has some truth to it, but it doesn't explain everything. Foreign countries generally use two classification methods to analyze and divide the economic environment of various countries: 1.Classified by Techno-Economic Structure Self-sufficiency economy.This type of economy is a typical form of a relatively backward, closed agricultural country.For example, some countries in Southeast Asia, Africa, Latin America, and Pacific islands have backward economies, slow development, and deformed economic structures to varying degrees.These international markets are small, with limited purchasing power, poor import and export capabilities, and products lack competitiveness in the international market.Marketing to these countries has great potential and broad prospects for development, but trade is currently subject to considerable constraints. developed country economy.Developed countries mainly refer to North America, Western Europe, Japan, Australia and other countries.These countries have a high level of science and technology, a developed economy, a solid import and export base, strong purchasing power, and strong demand. They export a large amount of industrial products and capital, and import a large amount of raw materials and semi-finished products.These countries have a large market capacity, a sound economic system, and a high level of consumption. They are the best markets for mid-to-high-end commodities, but the competition is fierce. newly industrialized economy.Countries and regions with this type of economy are mainly the "Asian Tigers", Thailand, the Philippines, Malaysia, Indonesia, Brazil, Mexico, etc.They have all developed rapidly in the past two decades, and their foreign trade volume has generally shown a trend of substantial growth. Both imports and exports are booming, and there is a large demand for raw materials, fuels, advanced technical equipment, and high-end consumer goods. Raw material export economy.This type of economy is mainly based on the export of raw materials, one or several of which are the foundation and pillar of the national economy. The economic structure is single, the industry is relatively backward, and the economic development has great tendencies and limitations. The level and purchasing power are not necessarily low.For example, the economic lifeline of the Middle East is oil, and industrial development and import and export trade are mainly related to oil. The per capita income of these countries has always been among the highest in the world. Good market for general industrial goods. 2.Classification by Gross National Product and National Income Level The level of national income is another important factor in analyzing the economic environment of a country. According to Kotler's method, the level of national income of a country can be divided into the following four categories: · Very low family income; Most families with very low income; ·Family income is polarized, with great disparity between rich and poor, but most of them have low income; ·Family income can be divided into high, middle and low, but most families are middle-income. The amount of consumption income directly affects the purchasing power of consumers, thus determining the market capacity and consumer spending patterns.Calculating consumer income from the perspective of market analysis usually analyzes three situations: personal income, personal disposable income and personal discretionary income.In countries with low household personal disposable income, residents spend a large proportion on daily necessities, and rarely have excess disposable income for luxury purchases; while in countries with high household personal disposable income, there will be a group of Customers who buy high-end luxury items exist.In addition, the social class in the international market, and the differences in the income of people of different ages, occupations, genders, and religious beliefs in different regions should also be highly valued by enterprises. Sometimes when making a choice, psychological similarity is also very important. With the development of the market economy and the integration of the international economy, the international competition is becoming more and more fierce. If an enterprise is only satisfied with the development in the local market, it is bound to be eliminated by the market.Therefore, enterprises should assess the situation, place local enterprises in the context of internationalization, formulate corresponding strategies, and seize opportunities to promote enterprises internationally. Before entering the international market, it is first necessary to conduct research on the environment of the country to be entered.When conducting environmental research for international marketing, it is much more difficult than domestic marketing research. If you are not careful, you may lose everything. No matter how good the domestic and overseas record was, H.J. Heinz suffered a failure in Brazil, which was regarded as the largest and most promising market in South America. Heinz chose to form a joint venture with Citrosuco Paulista, a large orange juice export company, because of the possibility of acquiring the profitable company in the future.It still sells Heinz products, including ketchup, but this time it seems to be hitting a bottleneck. Heinz company conducted in-depth marketing research.The first problem revealed by the survey results was that Heinz lacked a strong local sales system. Heinz lost control of sales because it was operating on consignment sales, which had less than 25% penetration.A related issue is that Heinz sells primarily from small adjacent stores, a strategy that has been successful in Mexico.However, according to marketing research, 75% of grocery sales in São Paulo are carried out in supermarkets rather than small shops.Although Mexico and Brazil appear to be culturally and demographically similar, consumer behavior differs significantly. If Heinz could conduct deeper and more rigorous market research on Brazil's food distribution system and consumer behavior, the failure could have been avoided.However, Heinz Company did not do so, thus also missed the chance of success. As the Heinz case shows, many international marketing efforts fail precisely because relevant contextual factors are not considered.For example, for the marketing of soft drinks, different cultures and environments need to be considered in different countries.In many Asian countries such as India, only water is generally consumed with meals, while soft drinks are usually served to guests or on special occasions.Thus, the marketing research problem translated from the business problem of increasing the market share of a particular soft drink is different in India than in the United States.Therefore, before marketing internationally, marketers must independently examine the culture and environment of the country. The behavior of people in different countries is deeply influenced by culture. Under the same income conditions, people living in different cultural environments have different consumption behaviors.To truly understand the extent to which culture controls human behavior, it is necessary to know all aspects of cultural composition, mainly: 1.Tangible culture.Material culture refers to the material products created by people and the methods, technologies and techniques used to produce products.Material culture has a strong influence on lifestyles and consumption formulas.The telephone made communication between people more extensive, and television made it possible for people at home to learn about changes in different parts of the world; The gap between China and the world is shrinking day by day, and the way of shopping and the mentality of consumption have undergone tremendous changes. 2.Languages.The most direct obstacle to global marketing comes from language, and the main channel to contact foreign cultures is language.Language contains a wealth of history, knowledge, emotions and attitudes.It is never easy to fully understand the true meaning of a foreign language. 3.aesthetics.Aesthetics includes the appreciation and judgment of music, art, color, architecture, style and shape.Differences in aesthetic perception are more regional than national.For example, people in western countries prefer classical music and popular music; while the architectural styles of Southeast Asia are closer to those of China and Japan.For global companies, understanding the differences in aesthetics in different regions is of great significance to better grasp the appearance, packaging and advertising of products. 4.educate.The level of social education is closely related to consumption structure and purchasing behavior.Generally speaking, consumers with a high level of education have a stronger ability to identify new products, are more rational when purchasing, and are more likely to accept the influence of text propaganda; while those with a low level of education are the opposite. 5.Traditional habits.Traditional habits are one of the factors that can best reflect the differences in culture and cause differences in people's behavior.Several US companies with sole proprietorships in the UK have tried to get British employees to ditch the tea break habit, resulting in widespread dissatisfaction among employees.For this reason, companies that implement global marketing must understand the traditional habits of all parts of the world. 6.religion.宗教和宗教团体都有各自的教规和戒律，影响宗教信徒们的生活方式、价值观念、审美观和行为准则，甚至日常生活的每一个细节。从全球营销的角度来看，宗教不仅仅是一种信仰，更重要的是它反映了有关消费者的生活理想、消费愿望和追求的目标。 7.态度价值观。态度价值观是指人们对于事物的评判标准。如对时间的态度、对成就的态度、对变革创新的态度等等。价值观念是消费者追求利益的性质，不同文化背景下的人们的价值观有相当大的差异。价值观念的形成往往与消费者所处的社会地位、心理状态、教育水平有密切的关系。 8.社会组织结构。社会中人与人之间联系的方式就是社会组织结构。人类实行团体生活才得以形成社会。家庭、宗教组织、学校、各自工作单位、社会阶层、社区组织等等，有些是有形的，有些是无形的。不同的文化体系中，社会组织对营销有不同的影响。 一国对不同商品和服务的接受程度和它作为一个市场对外国公司的吸引力主要取决于它的经济、政治法律和文化环境。 在进行国际营销时，一个不可否认的关键事务是：在某一个国家开展业务的批准权握在该国政府手中。分析在国外经营的政治气候时，决不能忽视这个基本点，即每一个独立国家都拥有允许或者禁止外国公司在其政治边界之内开展业务的正当权力。 东道国政府能够对外国公司的活动实施控制或限制。外国公司必须以客人的身份行事，一切都取决于东道国的意愿。即使，公司希望作为一个全球企业在世界进行营销活动，但仍不得不承认这一点。 让当地消费者对一个陌生的国外品牌产生好感，是取得市场胜利最基础也是最关键的步骤。TCL每个海外分公司都非常注重维护好与中国使馆和当地政府的关系。在越南，TCL与越南共青团一起，成立了“青年基金会”；在俄罗斯，中国驻俄罗斯大使馆商务部为TCL在当地的正常经营提供了帮助。就在前不久，菲律宾总统来华访问，其间专程接见了袁信诚、易春雨等TCL集团海外事业部的高层。 2004年12月26日，东南亚发生海啸，给当地民众带来了巨大伤害和损失。27日，TCL海外事业本部通过了《TCL东南亚海啸温情公关方案》。28日，相关人员被立即派往相关分公司落实项目。29日，TFE新兴市场与中国两大利润中心，共同递交了赈灾公关方案。31日，TCL集团在广州召开新闻发布会，宣布向东南亚海啸受灾国家捐赠300万元，成为所有国际著名电子企业中反应速度最快的一家。 后来，TCL泰国分公司除了发动员工捐款，还在泰国开展彩电“义卖”活动，所得款项将捐助受灾儿童，并召开当地新闻发布会，邀请全泰国12家主流媒体参加，同时联系中国驻泰国使馆及泰国皇室；给每位经销商写了《致经销商的一封信》，与之紧密配合，共同将本次温情公关效应发挥到最大；在印度及印尼，TCL向当地人民赠送食品、衣服，并发动员工捐款，融入当地社会，承担起了一个国际化企业所应承担的社会责任，提升了TCL在国际上的品牌形象。 一家企业决定在某一个国家开展业务之前，应以相当的努力来分析该国的政治气候。对于外国公司的基本政策和态度会由于政府改变实现国家目标的途径而发生剧烈的变化。如果不能正确估计东道国政府在其业务成败中所起的作用就会犯下错误。影响全球性公司经营的主要因素有： 1.government 政府的类型取决于公民形式和表达意愿的程度以及他们的意愿在多大程度上能够控制政府组成和政府的决策。对于外国公司至关重要的是：现行政府是保守的？激进的？现在的商业气候是否有利于自由企业制度？对于这些问题的回答，可以在分析政党的政纲中得出。 2.政党体制 一个国家的政党体制可以分为四类：两党制、多党制、一党制和一党控制制。两党制包括两个强大的政党，一般是由此两党互相接替控制政府。两党纲领不同，它们之间的交替对外国企业的影响往往比对本国企业的影响更大。 在多党制国家，没有哪一个政党强大到足以控制政府的程度，因此由多个政党联合组成的政府。与两党政府不同，多党制联合政府经常发生更换，因为每一个联合政府的寿命都取决于参加各方的合作态度，而各方的政纲又往往是互相冲突的。 与多党制形成对照的是一党制——国家只存在一个强有力的政党，由该党控制政府。 第四种政党体制与一党制不同。在一党控制的国家，占统治地位的政党引导其他政党配合它对政府进行控制。 在一党制和一党控制制的政党体制下产生的政策一般不会因政府的更替而频繁变更。 3.政府政策的持续性 对于外国企业而言，东道国政府政策的稳定与否关系巨大，因为这种稳定直接影响到对企业适用的各项政策的持续性。外国公司主要关心的是政策是否会突然发生剧变，从而造成不稳局势。不稳局势通常是政体的变更或者牵头执政党的交错造成的。这些变更隐含着指导思想的改变，而指导思想的改变又会导致对外国企业政策的急剧调整。 4.Nationalism 现在席卷全球的经济民族主义浪潮是本世纪内对国际商业影响最大的政治因素。如果不很好地处理，这种“以维护民族经济自治为中心目标”的民族主义，无论其根源于工业化国家还是欠发达国家，都会对全球营销产生巨大的障碍。 全球营销者必须注意中国达成入世协议后可能执行的一些新的法律，因为这可能是政府试图控制过度发展的金字塔营销方法。 进行国际营销时，进入一国的市场，不能忽视的是该国该地的法律环境。国际营销时面对的法律环境主要是各国对外贸易政策和其他的政策法令对市场的左右和影响。 发达的工业国家早已重视经济立法，加强进出口贸易和国际市场营销的限制管理，而发展中国家的贸易管理也正在走上法制化道路。世界各国贸易立法的内容一般也包括进出口贸易法、反托拉斯法、反倾销法、消费者利益保护法、计量法、经济合同法等。但各国贸易法规的内容差别很大。企业开展全球营销，必须先了解各国的有关法律、法规、条例和制度，以避免出现法律上的无谓纠纷。 中国彩电在20世纪80年代开始出口欧洲，但在此后因受到欧盟反倾销的影响，基本被排挤出欧盟市场。 为恢复欧盟市场，在中欧双方的共同努力下，2002年8月，欧委会与我国7家企业签订价格承诺协议，7家企业在不低于最低限价的情况下，在配额限量内对欧出口彩电可不被征收反倾销税，其他未签订价格承诺的企业的反倾销税率仍为44.6%。 价格承诺签订后不久，由于受彩电成本降低、国际贸易市场变化和欧元升值等因素的影响，这7家企业实际对欧出口彩电远未达到欧方给予的年配额总量水平。签订价格承诺的7家企业自愿提出撤销价格承诺的请求，表示愿意恢复承担与其他企业相同的税率。 根据欧盟反倾销法规，价格承诺撤销后，原参加价格承诺的7家企业将自动恢复被征收同其他企业相同的44.6%的反倾销税。 康佳集团在一份声明中指出，欧盟与中国彩电业贸易摩擦的根源，在于欧盟拒绝承认中国的市场经济地位，不公平地对待中国彩电企业。 我国彩电业在欧美市场遭遇只是众多反倾销案中的一例。对于全球企业而言，在全球进行营销必然会面临许多非常琐碎的法律细则。营销专家认为，进行国际营销的公司主要讲面对以下法律风险： 1.外汇管制 一个国家实行外汇管制的原因是由于该国外汇短缺。一个国家面临着外汇短缺时，就会限制所有资本流动。或者有选择地对那些政治上最易受到攻击的公司的资本的流动加以限制，以便保持一定数量的外汇，供应最基本的需要。 在那些收支极度困难的国家里，政府可能会对企业的收入和资本实行长期冻结。货币兑换是一个一直存在的问题，因为绝大多数的国家都有货币管制的规定。尤其是当一个国家的经济或外汇储备发生严重问题时，政府就会立即对外汇兑换加以限制。 2.进口限制 对原料、机器和零件的进口有选择地实行限制是政府迫使设在本国的外国公司去购买本国产品，从而为本国工业开辟市场的一种最为常用的策略。 3.税收管制 作为控制外国投资的一种手段，有时东道国政府会突然提高税率，向外国投资征收高额的利税。在那些经常为资金短缺而发愁的欠发达国家里，对经营成功的外国企业征收重税似乎是为这些国家经济发展筹措资金的一种最便利、见效最快的办法。由于当外国公司的业务达到一定的规模时，提高税率会大大降低他们的利润，因此对税收的管制也应属于法规风险的范畴。 4.价格管制 一些关系到公众利益的必需品，如医药、食品、汽车等经常受到价格管制。在通货膨胀时期，利用价格管制可以控制生活费用的上涨。如我国政府通过统一粮食收购价来稳定粮食价格，避免挫伤农民的积极性而导致的粮食供应减少。 某些产品必须不断地改变，以适应多样化的市场需求。 国际市场竞争激烈，进入国际市场的企业不仅要生产出高质量的产品，还应考虑目标市场的需要及企业本身的条件，采用不同的产品策略。 日本“丰田”进入美国市场后，针对美国市场的特点，对产品策略进行了积极调整。丰田公司在美国主要生产高质量、小型化，具有便利性、可靠性和适用性的小轿车，其目的在于使日本轿车作为一种交通工具，为美国广大消费者所接受。 丰田轿车造型优美，内部装修精致典雅。舒适的坐椅，柔色的玻璃，发动机的功率和性能比大众汽车公司提高一倍，甚至连汽车扶手的长度和腿部活动的空间都是按美国人的身材设计的。由于适合美国大众消费者的口味，花冠车一进入美国市场，很快就建立起较高的质量信誉，每销售100辆中顾客有不满意见的，从1969年的4.6辆下降至1973年的1.3辆。 丰田汽车进入美国市场并被美国消费者接受后，他们迅速采取产品扩张策略，即不断地改进产品，满足更大的市场需要。 产品扩张策略依赖于劳动生产率的提高和产品质量的不断完善。丰田公司连续追加投资，建立拥有最先进设备的工厂，培养一流的工程技术人员和训练有素的一线工人，强化科学管理，为大幅度提高劳动生产率和规模经济效益奠定了物质基础。 科特勒认为，产品在国际市场中，主要有几种产品营销策略： 1.产品直接延伸策略 产品直接延伸策略是指现有产品直接满足国际市场需要，而无须作较大的改变。由于国内和国际市场所经销的产品是同一产品，因而可利用原有生产条件，扩大生产规模，降低成本，无须扩大资本，产品开发费用少，促销变动比较小。采用这种策略的产品往往是本国名优产品，有传统特色，投入国际市场可发挥品牌扩散效应，吸引慕名购买者。目前，矿产品、名烟名酒、香水、时装、机电产品、传统食品、电子计算机等使用该策略的较多。 2.产品创新策略 产品创新策略是指针对某一目标市场消费者需要多样化、人性化、个性化的大趋势，精心设计“标新立异”的产品，在强手如林的国际市场竞争中以新取胜。该策略能更好地满足目标市场顾客的更高要求和特殊要求，但企业会增加产品研制费用，增加生产设施的投资，其定价、促销等营销难度也将随之增加。 3.提高产品档次，创立名牌，增加附加值策略 国际市场营销的产品数量与收入不是等比变化的。经济发达国家消费者偏好档次高、功能多的名牌产品，国际营销企业应适应国际市场的这一需求，采取提高产品质量和档次，增加产品功能，加速品牌商标的建设与管理，以优质名牌、多功能、高附加值产品获得更多的营销收入和利润。 4.提高产品的适应性 进入国际市场的产品，要不要对其进行更改。在国内销售的传统产品，如果能够毫不更改地进入国际市场，或者在几个国家的市场上可以销售同一种产品，即将产品标准化，这是最理想的。然而，现实是，除少数产品可以实行产品标准化之外，大多数产品进入国际市场时，随着市场环境的变化，在产品的某些方面必须做相应的变更。一般来说，产品的主要更改包括： 功能。功能的更改是产品更改的最主要内容在不同的国外市场上，由于各国政治、经济发展水平，自然环境和文化习俗的不同，在同一种产品上，往往需要增加或减少一部分功能。 外观。不同的国家长期形成的生活习惯和审美观点的不同，对产品的颜色和造型的要求也就不同。如白色在欧洲象征纯洁，而在亚洲一些国家则与丧事有关；蓝色在荷兰象征着温暖柔和，但在瑞典则代表冷酷和刚性。 包装。国际市场与国内市场相对，对包装的要求可能会相差很远。企业应根据不同的市场需求，选择不同的包装策略。 Label.在不同国家的市场上，要用不同的文字表达。有些国家(如加拿大、比利时、瑞士等国)因使用多种语言，因而要求在同一标签上至少要用两种文字说明。标签的更改，不仅有语言方面的原因，而且还要符合各国政府对标签的规定和要求。 品牌和商标。企业在国际市场上销售产品面临着采用统一的国际牌号，还是不同的国家牌号的选择。 跨国公司在国际市场上推销产品时，必须处理好价格方面面临的问题。 在国际市场上，企业的定价目标与在国内市场上相比，会有很大的变化。产品进口不同的国家，其成本组成也就不同。国际营销与国内营销某些相同的成本项目对于两者的重要性可能差异很大，例如运费、保险费、包装费等在国际营销成本中占有较大比重。而另外一些成本项目则是国际营销所特有的，例如关税、报关、文件处理等。因此，企业在国际市场上进行产品定价需要与国内市场区别对待。 日本汽车刚进入美国市场时主要采取了竞争性渗透低价策略，其目标在于能快速地进攻入市场，获取一定数量的市场份额，建立起长期的市场统治地位，而获取高额利润则在其次。 为了进入市场，争取潜在顾客群，丰田汽车制定的价格大大低于竞争对手的价格，将近期的利润损失作为开发长期广阔市场的一种投资。随着市场份额的扩大，刺激有效需求的增加，单位成本的降低，即使价格不变，也能保证长期求得一个相对稳定的利润总额。 丰田花冠车在进入美国市场时售价不到2000美元，而后来的花冠车不到1800美元。在小汽车技术差距已经消除的20世纪70年代，同类车型和功能一样的轿车，丰田车比美国车低400～1000美元。这种进攻型的低价策略，加上质量高、性能好、批量大和维修费用低等优势，产生了一种滚雪球效应，为丰田车树立起物美价廉的良好形象，使丰田汽车在美国市场上获取了大片的市场份额。 丰田汽车通过合理的定价建立自己物美价廉的形象，从而取得在美国市场的成功。一般来说，企业在制订产品国际营销价格时可以有以下策略： 全球统一定价。如可口可乐公司就曾长期采取全球统一定价策略。这样做的最大好处是简便易行；便于答对各国海关的询问，不会惹麻烦；也可防止中间商利用地区差价在各国之间转移商品，牟取不正当利润。缺点是同一价格，在穷国就是高价，为开拓市场设置了障碍；在富国则是低价，也未必有利于企业形象。 根据各国成本定价。这也是一种可行且相对简便的办法。一些大公司通常在世界各国使用统一的成本标准加减给产品定价。缺点是在成本高的国家，这种定价方法可能使企业失去市场，且有一般成本加减定价固有的缺点。 根据各国市场的需求或消费者的承受能力定价。这种做法突出了需求导向，同时也适当考虑竞争因素，能够针对各国具体情况制定使总收入达最优的价格；缺点是忽视了各国之间实际成本的差异。 从理论上讲，根据各国市场定价是最科学的，因消费者需求、偏好、市场竞争状况、企业定价目标的不同客观存在，大多数企业也确实为同一产品在不同国家制定了不同价格。但从发展看，随着各国经济往来日益密切，并伴随高度发达的信息系统、销售网络和人员往来，加上各国政府和海关的作用，又要求企业在国际营销中采取统一价格策略。结果通常是，企业两方面都要考虑，尽力使之协调，在可能的情况下，使同一产品在不同国家的价格尽量靠近。 国际公司对于将产品送至最终消费者手中的分销问题，必须有一个整体渠道的观点。 国际市场的分销渠道决策同样是国际营销中的难题。一般来说，国际营销的分销渠道较国内营销要复杂得多，企业须从整体的观念看其渠道决策。 丰田公司在美国的渠道策略主要以进攻为主，以保证其产品畅通无阻地进入目标市场，完成产品从生产到消费领域的惊险跳跃。 提供良好的维修和售后服务。在发动每次销售攻势前，建立广泛的服务网点，提供充足的零配件，为销售成功筑起牢固的支撑点。因此，1965年丰田投放花冠车于美国市场前，丰田公司已有384家代理商和价值200万美元的零配件储备。 选择重点销售市场。集中全部销售力量对目标市场重点进攻，在对重点市场基本渗透之后，再进攻下一个目标市场。丰田汽车打入美国市场主要选择西海岸的四个城市：洛杉矶、旧金山、波特兰和西雅图，当建立起滩头阵地后，便开始对美国市场全线进攻。实践证明，这一策略对观察整个市场态势，及时发现和纠正错误，积累国际市场营销经验是十分有益的。 严格筛选代理商。1969年，丰田公司尽管只有一种车型，而汽车代理商中的44%为丰田服务，为丰田汽车进入并占领美国市场铺平道路。 用丰厚的利润扶植和激励经销商。丰田公司进入美国市场时以每辆181美元的利润让给经销商，这一数额大体与经销一辆大型轿车的利润相等，在有些人看来简直不可思议。而短短的几年时间，丰田便跻身于世界汽车销量最大公司行列之中，这和它的这种激励政策就密不可分。 丰田公司在美国市场运用有效的渠道策略，为丰田汽车的销售提供了有力的渠道保障。一般来说，企业在国际市场上制定国际营销渠道策略应从以下几方面着手： 1.了解国际的营销组织结构及行为方式 如以大型零售商店占主导地位、渠道短而宽为特色的美国企业在进入日本市场时，曾很不习惯层次多而复杂的渠道结构。在一些国家，几乎所有批发商都在全国范围经营。而在另一些国家，由于政府法令的限制、市场分散、运输落后，几乎没有全国性的批发商。 比如，独家分销在美国常被视为垄断市场的行为；日本的分销系统多是由某家金融机构以财务关系将生产企业、进口商、分销商联结在一起，其零售商地位较高，常对厂家和批发商提出较高要求，如给予融资便利、无条件接受退货；而在有些国家，不允许国外企业设立自己的销售机构，进入这类市场只能利用各类中间商。 2.了解国际消费者的地理分布和购买行为特点 如人们的购买行为受其经济及文化传统影响，超级市场在欧美发达国家深受消费者欢迎，体现为降低成本、开架售货、一次购齐，节约了购物时间。但在一些发展中国家却不符合人们的购买习惯，那里的人们收入低，习惯每天