Chapter 53 Chapter 50 Living and Traveling

Dwelling is also divided into nest-dwelling and cave-dwelling due to the difference in climate and terrain. "Li Yun" said: "In winter, you live in a camp, and in summer you live in a nest." (see the previous chapter) "Mencius" also said: "The bottom is a nest, and the top is a camp." ") Mostly warm places are nests.A dry and cold place is a camp.Nest-dwelling, the savages of today, still have their rules.It is to connect the branches and leaves of the big tree so that people can be accommodated on it, and the trunk is chiseled into layers so that it can go up and down.There are also those who can build ladders.After people walk by, they put away the ladder. "Huainanzi·Ben Jingxun" calls "putting the baby on the nest", and it is exactly like this.Later, the trees will be cut down, planted at will, and then many timbers will be placed horizontally on them, which will become the backbone of the house.Cave dwellings can be divided into two types: (1) Those who originally lived in natural caves. (2) Later, if you improve, you can dig a hole in the ground and live in it. This is called a hole.The official in charge of construction in ancient times was named Sikong, which is because of this. (3) Going further, the soil can be piled up on the ground like an earthen kiln, and a hole is opened on it, which is called and repeated.Then it evolves and can be built, which becomes the origin of the wall.With the pillars as the bones and the walls as the muscles, the so-called palace is formed.So until now, architecture is also called civil engineering.

The Chinese nation probably lived in lakes at first. (1) Places that can be lived in water are called continents, and places where people live together are called states. Although Zhouzhou has different languages, it is actually the same language, which is obvious (the ancient Zhoudao has the same pronunciation, and the word Zhou is the word for island). (2) In ancient times, there was the so-called Mingtang, which was extremely mysterious in nature.All government orders come from here (you can see from Huidong's "Ming Tang Dao Lu").Ruan Yuan said: This is due to the simplicity of ancient times. All ceremonies were performed in the residence of the emperor, and then the rituals were prepared and the land was divided ("Jing Jingshi Ji Ming Tang Shuo"), which is not bad. "Historical Records Fengchan Shu" contains the "Ming Tang Picture" on the jade belt. The water surrounds the palace wall, and there are towers on it. It enters from the southwest. It is called Kunlun, which is the image of the island residence.Mingtang is the university, also known as Piyong.Pibi has the same character as the water ring palace wall.Yong is the current word for choking, choking, and Peichou, both of which refer to the increase of soil, just like islands in a lake. (3) The six lines on the Tai hexagram say, "The city is restored to the god". "Erya·Explanation": "God, gully also." Gully is a lowland without water.The meaning is the same as huanshui.However, not only the original buildings, such as Mingtang, were based on Huju, that is, the later building of the city must be surrounded by Haogou, and it was degenerated from the legacy of Huju.

After the advancement of culture, one can live on the mainland without using water as a defense.Si Shi borrowed the mountain to think it was dangerous.Read Chapters Forty, Forty-fourth, and Forty-fifth to see.Zhang Binglin's "Taiyan Anthology" includes "Theory of the Son of Heaven Living in the Mountain in the Theocracy Era", which can be referred to.Further progress, the city must be built on a relatively flat land, and it must be protected by the surrounding mountains and rivers. To make up, it is called Guo.What Guo Zhi specialize in is the Great Wall.The city is solid and can be defended, but Guo Ze's project is not solid, and it occupies too much land, so it cannot be defended.Therefore, in ancient times, there was only guarding the city, and there was absolutely no such thing as guarding the country.The same is true of the Great Wall.In the past dynasties of China, the Great Wall was built in several periods. (1) Before the Warring States period.The State of Qi built a Great Wall on its south side, and the Three Kingdoms of Qin, Zhao, and Yan also built a Great Wall on its north side.Later, Qin Shihuang connected it, which is called the Great Wall as the saying goes.At this time, the Huaiyi in the south and the Xiongnu in the north were small tribes.In the Han Dynasty, the Xiongnu became powerful, and those who entered the fortress often rode thousands of horses, which was definitely beyond the reach of the Great Wall; and after calling Hanxie twice, the Huns were subdued again, so in the four hundred years of the Han Dynasty, they did not hear about building the Great Wall.During the Wei and Jin Dynasties, the north was in turmoil, so naturally there was no grand scale of defense.During the period of Tuoba Wei, six towns were set up in the north, and there was no need to build the Great Wall with the help of troops. (2) However, in the last years, the situation was quite different.In the Sui Dynasty, it was built repeatedly.This is the second period of building the Great Wall.At the end of the Sui Dynasty, the Turks became powerful, but they were beyond the reach of the Great Wall.The same is true for Huihe and Khitan later.So the Tang Dynasty did not build the Great Wall. (3) After the fall of the Khitan, the nomadic tribes in the north could not be unified, and became a situation of petty fighting and looting.Therefore, the Jin Dynasty had to build another side wall, starting from Jingzhou and going northeast, reaching the old land of Jurchen.This is the third period of building the Great Wall.The Yuan Dynasty naturally had no need to build the Great Wall. (4) In the Ming Dynasty, Mongolia could not be conquered, and Mongolia could not be unified for a while.From the end of the Han Dynasty in the Yuan Dynasty to the rise of the Dayan Khan, Mongolia did not invade China, but only in the nature of robbery, so the Ming Dynasty built the Great Wall for defense.The modern Great Wall is probably left over from the Ming Dynasty.All in all, for small bandits and robbers, stationing troops to guard against them is not free of labor costs, and it is impossible to prevent them.Building the Great Wall is really the most economical way.Some people who read history in the past said that Qin Shihuang built the Great Wall, which could protect the barbarians and Xia for thousands of generations, which is certainly a dream.Some people say that he wastes people's money and money, which is also nonsense.Chao Cuo said that the Qin Dynasty attacked Hu raccoon dogs in the north and placed them on the Saihe River, but he was referring to the new land opened by Meng Tian when Qin Shihuang envoyed him.As for the rest of the Great Wall, due to the oldness of Qin, Zhao, and Yan during the Warring States Period, it was repaired without much effort.So it can be successful in a short period of time.Otherwise, no matter how tyrannical Qin Shihuang was, he would not be able to build the Great Wall that stretches for more than ten thousand miles in a short period of time.People in the Han Dynasty attacked the tyranny of the Qin Dynasty a lot, which is exaggerated, but they rarely mentioned the Great Wall, which is a proof.

There are two kinds of houses in ancient times, the residences of common people and the residences of scholar-bureaucrats.The residence of scholar-bureaucrats, the front is the hall, and the back is the room.The left and right of the room are the rooms.The hall is only a place to perform rituals, and people live in the room (the door of the room is in the southeast, the door is in the southwest, and there is also a door in the north, which is called the north door. , It is called Austria. The northwest corner is the place where the light enters, which is called the house leak. The northeast corner is called Huan. The Huan Yang also is hidden for food and drink. The southeast corner is called Lu, which also means deep hidden. The center of the room is called it. Sliding in the middle, slipped in by the rain. This is the remains of caves in the age of cave dwelling. The opening of the cave is on the top. The ancient window is now the window, which is opened on the wall. The so-called window is opened on the roof, and today it is called skylight ) The residence of common people, according to Chao Cuo's "Immigrants' Book of Immigrants", said: "In ancient times, when they migrated to a distant place, it was real and empty. Inside, the second room." This is the three-bay house today.According to this, compared with the residence of scholar-bureaucrats, the residence of common people is one hall less.This is still the case.In the home of scholar-bureaucrats, there is a hall in front, which is what the ancients called a hall.There are no civilian homes.One room in the middle is used to treat guests, and the left and right rooms are used for living, which is the system of one hall and two interiors.In short, it is to regard the room as the hall, and the room as the room.In ancient times, a house was called a palace. "Book of Rites Nei Ze" said: "From a man of command and above, father and son are in different palaces", so a pair of adult couples have an independent house.Not so in later generations.A house often contains many halls and interiors, but there is only one hall in front.This is a lot of rooms and rooms, sharing one hall and contained in one palace, which is more than the ancient economy.This is probably because the ancient land was vast and the land was not very valuable, but it was not the case in later generations.Also, in ancient architecture, technology has little to do with it, everyone can do it for themselves, and the home of a scholar-bureaucrat can also be used by slaves.In later generations, architecture became more and more specialized, and it was necessary to hire people to do it ("Lunheng·Measurement Chapter": "A carpenter who can cut columns and beams; a carpenter who can drill holes and ridges." In the Han Dynasty, folk architecture, There are also dedicated people) This is also one of the reasons why people who build houses want to save money.

The technology of ancient man-made buildings seems to be very clumsy.Therefore, the place to look at must be above the city gate.Que is a hut on the wall next to the gate.There are also some on the palace gates of the princes of the emperor.Because it can climb high and look far away, it is also called the view. "Book of Rites · Li Yun": "In the past, Zhong Ni and Yu Labin, after finishing their affairs, went on a trip to watch", which refers to this.The so-called county law resembles Wei in ancient times, that is, its land.Wei and Wei have the same word, probably because of the tall buildings, so it is called Wei.Xiangzi should refer to Xiangyan, which has nothing to do with architecture.Because Wei is the place of the county law, when monosyllabic words become polyphonic words, it is called Xiangwei. "Erya Shigong": "The four sides are tall and tall, called a platform. Those with wood are called pavilions. The ones that are repaired in Shaanxi are called buildings." It is to rebuild a square wooden house on the earthen platform.Lounaixie is another name, but its shape is different from square modification. This is a place for sightseeing, not for living. "Mencius · Devotion Part II": "The Teng of Mencius is in the upper palace." Zhao's "Notes" said: "The upper palace is the building." This sentence may not be true.Because of the clumsy skill in building buildings, Chinese architecture develops on the plane rather than on the sky.The so-called big house is only a large site, many houses, many houses are connected, and there are very few two-story and three-story high-rise buildings.This is also related to the materials used in construction.Because Chinese buildings use very little stone, and all they use are earth and wood. The supporting force of wood is not strong, and the earth is especially prone to collapse.Refined soil, that is, bricks and tiles, is better, but its development seems to be very late. "Erya·Shigong": "Lingzhou is called the Tang Dynasty." "Miaozhong Road is called the Tang Dynasty."Bo is a brick. "The Book of Songs·Chen Feng" said that "there were scorpions in the middle Tang Dynasty", and the bricks were only used to pave the road.Its walls are probably made of earth.The earthen walls are unattractive, so the rich are decorated with brocade.We now give gifts of silk and satin to people on weddings, funerals, birthdays, etc., which are called banners, and this is still a legacy; and papering walls is also a degenerate from this. "Book of Jin Helian Bobo Zaiji" said that he steamed the earth to build a unified city, which shows that there were very few bricks at that time.Otherwise, why use bricks instead of temporarily steamed soil?No wonder the rich in ancient times could only use earthen walls to build houses.Building materials, mostly civil engineering, are also related to the inability to preserve ancient buildings.Because it is not as durable as stone.Using too much wood can easily cause fire.Hangzhou in the previous generation and Hankou in modern times are its Yin Jian.

Architecture in China is not considered developed.Of course, when studying the history of world architecture, China is also one of them (Oriental architecture, there are three major systems: (1) China, (2) India, (3) Islam. Press release).Famous buildings of past dynasties, such as Afang Palace in Qin Dynasty, Jianzhang Palace in Han Dynasty, Linchun, Jieqi and Wangchun Pavilions of Emperor Chen, Xiyuan of Emperor Yang of Sui Dynasty, Genyue of Emperor Huizong of Song Dynasty, Yuanmingyuan and Summer Palace of Qing Dynasty , as well as private gardens, etc., are also a lot of attention.However, in China's big words, it is a drop in the ocean.Architectural techniques can be found in books such as "Building French Style" in the Song Dynasty and "Tiangong Kaiwu" in the Ming Dynasty.Although it is also impressive, it is not commendable when compared with other civilizations.Here are the reasons: (1) Because (a) the building of houses in ancient times was done by the slaves, and it was a tyrannical thing to abuse the power of the people. (B) In ancient times, etiquette was the most important thing, and there were certain norms in life. Gou was not a king of innocence, even if he had more than enough material resources, he would not dare to be too extravagant.Therefore, it has been passed down in politics that the humble palace is a good talk, and civil engineering is a great precept. (2) The magnificent architecture of Chonghong must be related to superstition.The Chinese are not deeply superstitious about religion.Worshiping the gods is only a temporary altar or removal of the ground, and there is no building at all.Although the sacrifices to the ancestors are solemn, the system of sleeping in temples is roughly the same.The establishment of family temples in later generations is also restricted by ancient rituals and cannot be extravagant.When Buddhism came to the East, it was not restricted by ancient rituals, and its teachings were very capable of inducing people to donate property.Because of this, Taoism also engaged in imitating temples and temples, and became famous for its architecture. Indian architecture was also imported into China because of this.In the four hundred and eighty temples of the Southern Dynasties, there were many towers in the mist and rain, and they were quite grand for a while.However, such superstitions gradually faded away after the rise of the Song School.Although there are many Buddhist temples and Taoist temples, they are still not as good as those in Myanmar, Japan and other countries.There are very few very magnificent buildings, but because most of them are in famous mountain resorts, they are appreciated by people. (3) A place for recreation, which was called a garden in ancient times.The garden has only plants and trees, while the garden has both animals and animals.All of them set aside a natural area and impose a ban on it. They shoot and hunt in it for entertainment and harvest their fruits for profit. There are no buildings at all.Therefore, it can be as large as tens of miles (the square of King Wen is seventy miles, the square of King Xuan of Qi is forty miles, see "Mencius · King Hui of Liang Part II").As for the private garden, it originated from the garden.The garden is a place for planting fruit trees. It is not a luxury to build a few houses for rest by stacking stones to pierce the pond.Afterwards, although things continued to flourish, there were not many people who deliberately managed them, and their scale was not large.All of the above are the reasons why China's architecture is not very developed.The origin of Kuijue is due to (1) more clear politics, (2) less superstition, and (3) more economic equality.In terms of material civilization, although it is unavoidable to be ashamed compared with other countries, in terms of culture, it is enough to be proud of.

Zhu Xi said: "Teaching is like helping an intoxicated person. He will fall from side to side after being helped up." The same is true for personal learning, and so is the culture of society.As for the disadvantages of extravagance, although China is better, it is also rudimentary. "Rizhilu · Museum House" said: "Reading Sun Qiao's "Shu Baocheng Post Wall", you know that there are swamps, fish, and boats. Reading Du Zimei's "Qinzhou Miscellaneous Poems", you also know that the post has There are forests and bamboos in the pool. Today’s post houses are almost in the wall of the scribes. I see that if the state in the world is ruled by the old Tang Dynasty, its walls must be wide and the streets must be straight. The houses are created by the old Tang Dynasty. The bases must be vast. Those placed after the Song Dynasty will be less well established when they are closer.” There are many footprints of Tinglin, and he is a very careful observer, so his words should be very credible.There is no excuse for thrift in such shabby living.What is the reason?Ting Lin said: It is because "the state takes the wealth of the prefectures and counties, and all the rich and wealthy return to the top, but the officials and the people are in trouble, so there is no capital for repairs."This is certainly a reason.I thought (1) the labor law was gradually abolished, and public buildings could not be recruited, but had to be hired. (2) The ancient municipal regulation still existed before the Tang Dynasty, and gradually broke down after the Song Dynasty (as mentioned in Chapter 11, there was still a fixed land for the establishment of the city in the Tang Dynasty, and there was a fixed time for the opening of the market, and it gradually became different after the Song Dynasty, which is also a proof). is also an important reason.

After the importation of Western European civilization, the technique of architecture has greatly improved compared with the past; the materials used are also different; this is indeed a gift of civilization progress.However, housing, food and clothing are related to people's livelihood and are equally important.The comfort of the majority must be taken into account everywhere, and the minority should not be allowed to do whatever they want with their means, and the same goes for other things.The ancient residents originally had certain plans. The so-called "Wangzhi" "Sikong governs the land, the residents are in the mountains and rivers (see the terrain), and the four seasons (see the climate)." It is its legacy.The main point is that "the land, the city, and the dwellings must be obtained by participating in each other."The land is the field.As many fields as there are, and as many people as people, build the cities you want to guard and the houses you need to live in.From this point of view, the congestion in the metropolis is something that cannot be controlled and should not be let go.The hierarchy and restrictions of palaces have existed in all dynasties (please refer to the palace system recorded in "History of Ming Dynasty Yufu Zhi").Restrictions based on grades are not imitated now, but restrictions should still exist.Looking at the outside is not tied to the extravagance of the building.If foreign envoys come to visit and demolish the houses where the poor live, this behavior will become the second emperor of Sui Yang.

Now that you have finished talking about the palace, please briefly talk about the use of the utensils in the room.The utensils in the room are most important, such as tables, chairs, beds and so on.This is why it is used as a place for people to live in, and it has the same function as the palace.The ancients sat on the ground.Its sitting is slightly similar to today's kneeling, but the waist is not straight.To straighten the waist is to kneel, and to stand down is to sit.Therefore, there are many times when ancient rites kneel and walk.Because it is more convenient for erect reflex.According to Ruan Chen's "Ritual Map", it is five feet long, one foot wide, and one foot two inches high (quoted from "Book of Rites Zeng Ziwen").It is lower than the current stool, and there is a bed for sleeping.So it is said: "It is the bed for the birth of a man." Later, the bed was also used for sitting.Therefore, "Gao Shi Zhuan" said: Guan Ning lived in Liaodong, sitting on a wooden couch for more than 50 years, and he had never tasted a skip, and his couch was worn at the knees (quoted in the "Note" of the biography of "Three Kingdoms Wei Zhi").Looking at this, you know that sitting is also kneeling.Sitting with one's feet hanging down is the habit of barbarians.Imported from the Western Regions.The bed on which you sit is also called the Hu bed.After importing from the Hu bed, tables and chairs and other things gradually emerged.In the ancient people's room, a fire was also lit to keep warm. "Hanshu Shihuozhi" said: "Since the winter people have entered, the women will follow each other in the same alley at night." That’s why the fire is warm.” This kind of fire is probably a burning fire, and it looks like a poor house. "Zuo Shi" said in the tenth year of Zhaogong, Song Yuangong (when he was the prince), evil eunuch Liu, wanted to kill him.When Yuan Gong's father died, Yuan Gong succeeded to the throne, and Liu waited on the place where Yuan Gong was going.In the third year of Dinggong, it was said that Zhuzi threw himself into the bed and wasted in the charcoal of the furnace ("Notes" "waste, fall also"), and then he died.Charcoal is used for heating in the noble houses, and kangs are never used.Said: ""Old Tang Book Dongyi Koryo Biography": In winter and moon, a long pit is made, and a fire is set down to keep warm. This is today's Tukang, but it is a pit character." This custom originated from the Northeast Yi.Probably imported into northern China with the Jurchen, it is really not hygienic.

After discussing the residence and the utensils used, it is also necessary to briefly discuss the burials of the past dynasties.There are two kinds of burials in ancient times: what Mencius said, "If one's own relatives die, they will be entrusted to the gully." (Part 1 of Teng Wengong) It was done by the people who covered the fields and hunted. "Book of Changes Xici Zhuan" said: "The ancient burials were paid with thick clothes, and they were buried in the wild", which is the custom of farming.A nobleman has his public burial place.A city also has its designated area for burials. "Zhou Guan" said that the tomb man controlled the cemetery, and the tomb doctor controlled the area of ​​Fanbang's tomb.People of later generations said: The ancients valued the spirit and not the form.The reason: it is not a tomb sacrifice in ancient times.However, Mencius said that there are sacrifices between Dongguo and Qiong in Qi ("Li Lou Part II"), that is, tomb sacrifices.It is also said that after Confucius died, Zigong "built a house in the field, lived alone for three years and then returned" ("Teng Wengong Part 1"), which is the tomb of later generations. "Book of Rites·Qu Li": "When the great officials go to their country, they stop and say: how can they go to the tomb?" " He also said: "The Grand Duke was enshrined in Yingqiu, and when he reached the fifth generation, he was buried in the Zhou Dynasty instead." The ancients regarded the tomb as insignificant.Probably the lower the level of knowledge, the more one believes in nothingness.The higher it is, the more you must hear and see, and then believe it.Therefore, with the civilization of society, the superstition of the soul is increasingly shaken, and the emphasis on the body is increasing. "Tan Gong" said: "Yanling Jizi is suitable. Compared with it, the eldest son died and was buried between Yingbo." Returning to the earth is life. If the spirit is the soul, then there is nothing wrong with it, and everything is done.” This is enough to show that the spirit is valued and the body is underestimated. I am afraid that it is because the Wu Kingdom was relatively late.In this way, wealthy families and those with power will try their best to bury them generously.The meaning of lavish burial is not only to love the dead, but also to show off the living, and the excavation of graves follows.We can know by reading "Lu Lan·Jie Mian" and "An Shi".At that time, Mohists advocated light burials, while Confucianism opposed him. However, compared with popular customs, Confucian funerals can only be described as light burials.Scholars' claims, in the end, cannot restore the popularity of popular customs.Since the Han Dynasty, there have been countless books on the matter of burials.Moreover, the burial of the dead involves the blessings and misfortunes of the living, and there is a superstition called Feng Shui.The dead have no end (Han Liu Xiang "Admonition to Emperor Cheng Qi Changling Shu"), everyone wants to preserve their coffins, as for infinity, it is absolutely impossible.When Buddhism came to the East, the custom of cremation was once popular (see the article "Rizhilu Cremation"), which is actually the most reasonable.It is a pity that after the Song Dynasty, the opposition of Neo-Confucianism gradually weakened again.Now in some places, cemeteries are set up.There are those who advocate deep burials.However, the cemetery still takes up a lot of land, and the deep burial requires too much manpower, so it seems that it is still not as good as cremation.However, the customs are old-fashioned and cannot be changed for a while.

Transportation and communication have always been indiscriminate.In fact, there is a difference between the two.Traffic means transporting people, and communication means transporting people.It has its own method of communication, and the meaning of future generations can travel alone without its body, which saves a lot of energy and material resources.Since the invention of the telegraph, the transmission of ideas can be faster than the transportation of people, and the time saving is particularly large. The development of transportation depends on the terrain.Water and land are its big difference.Among waterways, rivers and seaways are different.Among the seaways, there are differences between coastal and ocean navigation.That is, the land is also different because it is a mountain, flat land, desert, etc.In the barbaric era, the tribes were often suspicious of each other, not only did not seek the convenience of transportation, but deliberately blocked the transportation. At that time, the land where the tribes lived was probably quite dangerous.The access to the outside world is only a winding and rugged path, and it is difficult for people of different tribes to find and use it. "Zhuangzi Horseshoe Chapter" said: In ancient times, "mountains have no tunnels, and rivers have no boats and bridges".It refers to this era.When people's wisdom advances a little and they are able to lower hills and house soil, the traffic situation will gradually be different from the past. Chinese culture originated in the southeast and developed in the northwest.There is more water in the southeast, so the waterway transportation is more developed in the south than in the north.There are many lands in the northwest, so the land traffic has been considerable very early.The development of land transportation is mainly due to the use of oxen and horses and the invention of carts.Both of these can greatly save manpower. "Book of Changes Xi Ci Zhuan" says "serve the ox and ride the horse, lead the way to the far", although it is not sure when it is, but its text inherits the Yellow Emperor, Yao, and Shun's clothes and the world is ruled, it is conceivable that the Yellow Emperor, Yao, and During Shun's time, the use of chariots must have been very common.There are two kinds of carts: one is a cart, which is drawn by oxen and used for transportation.One is a small chariot, that is, a military chariot, and people can ride on it, and they are driven by horses.It is called a chariot that is pushed and pulled by human power. "Zhouguan" Xiangshi "Notes" quoted "Sima Fa", saying that in summer it was called Yu chariot, with a total of twenty people; .This is for wartime transportation, so there are many people there. "Shuowen": "Chariot, also pulls the chariot. From the chariot." Training parallel, although not necessarily two people, but the number of them must not be too many.This is for civil transport.Nobles sometimes ride in the palace. "Zhou Guan" towel chariot, the five roads of the queen, there is a kind of chariot chariot, which is its object.This system is still in practice in later generations. Road: In the city, it is quite tidy. "Kao Gong Ji": a craftsman, the nine tracks of Jingtu in the middle school.Wild Tu also has nine tracks.Huantu (the road around the city) has seven tracks. "Book of Rites King System": "The road, men from the right, women from the left, and cars from the center." It can be seen that it is broad.In ancient times, there was a kind of road with a very flat surface, which was called Chidao.If you don't go straight, you can't be flat.The way of the country should be the way.Not so in the wild.In ancient times, the roads in the fields were called rice paddies, which went hand in hand with ditches.Therefore, "Book of Rites·Yue Ling" and "Notes" said: "In ancient times, there were roads in the ditch."Although it is also due to the natural terrain, it may not be completely in line with the standard, but it must be relatively straight.However, what is mentioned in the book is an ideal system, but in fact it may not be as good as it is. "Zuoshi" In the fifth year of Chenggong, Liangshan collapsed, and the Marquis of Jin summoned Bozong.Xing Pi heavy (to make way for vehicles carrying loads).Chongren said: "It's not as fast as Jie to treat me." It can be seen that two cars cannot run parallel on the post road. "Rituals·Jixi Li": "Shangzhu holds the meritorious cloth, and uses the imperial coffin to hold the cloth." "Note" says: "If there is a way to look up and down, the cloth is used as the festival of left and right, so that those who lead and those who hold the cloth know it. ""Book of Rites · Qu Li": "Funeral funerals do not avoid scribbling", which shows that the road is not smooth.Later generations boasted how wide and flat the ancient roads were, which may not necessarily be true.Most of the ancients were very clumsy in building roads.The road surface is like today's roadbed, just a dirt road.So it needs to be repaired from time to time.If it is not cured, it will be "impossible to practice Taoism". Waterway: When there were boats in the first place, it was just a so-called canoe now. "Book of Changes Xici Zhuan" says "cut wood for a boat, and shovel wood for a boat", and "Huainanzi Shuo Shan Xun" says "the ancients know the boat when they see the wood", all of which refer to this thing.After a little progress, you will know that the boards are gathered as a boat.Said: "As far as it is deep, it is the boat of the square." "Shu" cited the cloud: "Li crossing the big river, riding a wooden boat is empty." It also quoted "Notes" saying: "A boat is called a collection board. Now a boat is empty and a big tree is called a virtual , and the general name is Zhou.” According to the characters of Fang, Bang, Bi, and Bin, the ancient homonyms were common.The famous boat is square, because it is more than wood.This is the character of Fang in later generations.It is easy to make progress if many woodblocks can be gathered to form a boat.The method of crossing water is generally narrow water, and bridges can be built when it falls shallowly.The bridge is also made of wood.That is to say in "Mencius" that "the year is eleven months and the beam is formed" ("Li Lou Part II") "Erya · Shi Gong": "Stone bars are called leaning." It also said: "The embankment is called the beam." "Notes" says: "It is also the bridge. Or it is said: the stone cuts off the water is the beam, see "Shi Zhuan." Later, stones were also used.On the wider water, many boats crossed in succession.This is the "Emperor builds a boat" mentioned in "Erya", and later generations call it a pontoon bridge.There are also people who use boats to cross it, so it is said, "Who says the river is wide, and a reed hangs it."However, there are still many wading in vain.Looking at "Book of Rites · Jiyi", it can be seen that a filial son "does not follow the path, and boats do not travel".In the art of navigation, the south is superior to the north.According to "Zuo Shi", there are only thirteen years of Duke Xi in the north, and the hunger of the Jin Dynasty begged for millet in the Qin Dynasty. Very little.In the south, Wu and Chu had frequent water battles, and in the tenth year of Duke Ai, Wu Xu Chengqie led a boat division to attack Qi from the sea.It can be seen that not only inland rivers, but also coastal traffic has already begun. "Yugong" Kyushu tribute roads all have waterways. "Yu Gong" should be a book of the Warring States Period, and you can get a glimpse of the traffic conditions at that time. The development from flat land to mountainous land is an improvement in land transportation, which can be characterized by the development of horseback riding.Ancient books rarely see horse riding.Later generations said that the ancients did not ride horses, but only used them for driving. "Zuo Shi" Zhaogong twenty-five years, "Zuo Shizhan will return on a horse." "Shu" quoted Liu Xuan as saying that he thought it was the beginning of riding a horse.This is wrong.The reason why ancient books seldom see riding horses is because (1) because they contain many stories about nobles, most nobles ride in chariots. (2) Because of the traffic at that time, it only reached the level ground.Said: "In the Spring and Autumn Period, the people who lived in the middle of the Xia Dynasty were mostly in the valleys, and the soldiers and chariots could not reach them. Qi Huan and Jin Wen only rushed to them, and those who could not go deep into their lands used chariots. Bank of China Muzi defeated Di in Dalu, and gained him by destroying his chariot and adoring his soldiers. However, Zhi Bo wanted to defeat Qiu You, so he left a big bell to open his way, which is not conducive to chariots. It is clear that the situation has to be changed to cavalry. Riding and shooting , so it is the valley. Hufu, so it is riding and shooting.” Although this is about the situation of military affairs and transportation, it can also be used for reference.All in all, the wider the area covered by traffic, the more roads are in disrepair, and the convenience of using a car is not as good as riding a horse.The matter of riding is becoming more and more prosperous day by day. "The nature of water makes people pass, and the nature of mountains makes people blocked."Water is flowing, although it can hinder people from passing through, as long as you can use it, it can help you move and save your labor.The mountain is not the case, it will cost you more resistance.Therefore, in later generations, water transportation was far more developed than land transportation.It is because of this that the civilization in the Yangtze River Valley originally fell behind the Yellow River Valley, but later surpassed it.Liu Yan of the Tang Dynasty said: "All the rivers and lakes in the world are gathered by boats and sailings, bypassing Bahan, pointing to Minyue in front, seven lakes and ten villages, three rivers and five lakes, controlling and leading Heluo, including Huaihai, Hongge giant ships, thousands of axles and ten thousand. Ships, trade and exchange, the sun is dark." You can see its grand occasion. "Tang Yulin Addendum" said: "Every city in the southeast has access to water. Therefore, the goods in the world are profitable, and most of them are boats. The prosperity of boats and boats is all in Jiangxi. There are more than 80 pieces of cattail cattails for sails. Jianghu language says: Water does not carry ten thousand It is said that a large ship is only eight or nine thousand stones." Zheng He's sailing ships in the Ming Dynasty were forty-four feet long and eighteen feet wide, and there were sixty-two of them.You can see the size of Hongdae. Because of the great benefits of water transportation, so many canals have been dug in the past dynasties, and there are hardly any canals that are less than a thousand miles long.China's great rivers run from west to east, and the waterway transportation from north to south is very inconvenient.The excavation of the Grand Canal mostly aims to make up for this shortcoming. "Zuoshi" in the ninth year of Duke Ai, "Wucheng Han communicates with Jianghuai".This is the Huainan Canal today. "Historical Records Hequ Shu" said: "Xingyang leads the river to the southeast as a gap to connect Song, Zheng, Chen, Cai, Cao, Wei, and Ji, Ru, Huai, and Si." Although the remains of the gap cannot be fully studied, However, its nature is very similar to the current Jialu River, because it connects the river and Huaihe River basins.By the time of Emperor Ming of the later Han Dynasty: there was Bianqu from Xingyang to Qiancheng.Therefore, R&F at that time was mostly located in Shandong, so it was eager for the convenience of transportation in the East.After the Southern and Northern Dynasties, R&F was concentrated in the Jianghuai River, and the transportation route also changed.In the Sui Dynasty, the Jiqu Canal was opened, and water from the Guluohuai River was drawn into the river from the eastern capital.It also enters Bian from the river, and enters Huai from Bian to connect Hangou in Huainan.From the south of the river, it reaches Yuhang from the mouth of Jingkou, which is 800 miles away from the south of the Yangtze River.This is today's Jiangnan Canal.In the Tang Dynasty, Jianghuai Cao was transferred; in February, Yangzhou was promoted.In April, from Huai to Bian.Go to Hekou in June and July, and enter Luo in August and September.Since then, because of the danger of the three gates, it is said that it is land transportation.Bianjing, the capital of the Song Dynasty, had four rivers, east, west, north, south.The East River leads to the Jianghuai River (also known as the Li River), and the West River leads to Huai and Meng.Nanhe connects Ying and Shou (also known as Waihe. The current Huimin River is its relic), and Beihe connects Cao and Pu.Among the four rivers, the East River has the greatest benefits.Goods from Huainan, the east and west of Zhejiang, and the north and south of Jinghu Lake have all entered Bianjing since then.The gold, silver and fragrant medicines from Lingbiao were also transported by land to Qianzhou and entered the river.Goods from Shaanxi enter Bian from Xihe, and some go out from Jianmen, and goods from Sichuan enter Jiangling at the same time.The history of the Song Dynasty said that the Donghe River is connected, and there are two thirds of the world. Although it depends on natural arteries such as the Jianghuai River and Huaihe River, the contribution of the canal connection is also indispensable.In the Yuan Dynasty, Beiping was established as the capital, and the purpose of transportation was different.Naiyin Wenshui diverges from north to south, and now the Grand Canal is completed. For sea traffic, see chapter 11.During the Xiantong period of the Tang Dynasty, the transportation of troops to Hunan and Jiangxi was very difficult. Chen Funshi, a native of Runzhou, proposed shipping by sea.From the Yangtze River to Jiaozhi via Fujian and Guangzhou.A big ship can transport thousands of stones.There is no shortage of military supplies.It is the beginning of the country's grain transportation by sea.In the Yuan, Ming and Qing dynasties, although there were canals, they were still parallel to sea transportation.Sea freight costs less than river freight.Before modern steamships, the transportation between Hokkaido and South Hokkaido was very prosperous.Up to now, with Ningbo in the south and Yingkou in the north, there are still many sailing boats. Although waterway transportation is extremely developed, land transportation is quite corrupt.Talking about the situation at that time: "The smears are all over the suburbs, and the filth is on the chariot hub." ("Street" article) also said: "The ancients erected trees to show the way." Willow is also a common poem." "In modern times, the government abolishes the law and relaxes, and let others cut it down. Zhou Dao is like a stone, and it is like washing it." ("Official Tree" article). ""Six Classics of the Tang Dynasty": There are four beams for boat building in the world, four beams for stone pillars, three beams for wooden pillars, and eleven giant beams. For the boatman, it is difficult to measure its size to determine its difference. Today, Jidian is barren and the bridges are broken. Between Xiongmo, the autumn water comes, and it is trapped every year. Pulling boats, rogues, use it as an excuse Li. Luhe Zhouzi extorted money from customers, to the point of annoyance. Sikong did not repair, and officials did not ask. It has been a long time. Li Yuyan: Every year the water rises and the weather is cold at the place where the ferry crosses in this government, the court builds a ferry boat to facilitate travel. He is a rascal, pretending to be famous and famous, builds a ferry boat privately, and seizes the property of the people who come and goes. Harm to the people. Beg for an order to patrol the censor, strictly prohibit it, follow it.") In the borderlands, it can be seen that there are seventy bridges on the west side of Huangkai under the rule of Zhao Chongguo, and the order can reach Xianshui and pass on the pillow mat Master?" (Article "Bridge") Looking at this, we know that road administration is not repaired, especially after the Song Dynasty.The reason is actually the same as the decay of architecture.It was not until the end of the Qing Dynasty that the roads in Beijing were repaired.This is exactly the same as Gu's so-called "smeared all over the suburbs, and filthy on the chariot".Except for the newly opened commercial ports in the whole country, there are not many streets that are relatively neat and wide.There are more waterways in the south, and more dry roads in the north, and they are all rough and flat.There are stone roads in between, and they have been in disrepair for many years.The road administration is so bad that it is no wonder that the rich and prosperous areas of the country tend to be along the river and coast. Due to the bad road administration, the power of animals cannot be used for traffic and more human power is used. "Historical Records Xia Benji": "Mountain travel is riding", "Hequ Shu" is "Mountain travel is bridge".According to the four years of Yucheng, see also "Lu Lan·Shen Shi", "Huainan·Qi Su Xun", "Xiu Wu Xun", "Han Shu·Gou Wei Zhi".In addition, "Shiji Jijie" quoted "Zizi" and Xu Guang said that the characters written are all different.Outside the mountain and the bridge, there are also 梮, 蔂, 樏, 欙, 蔂, 樏, and 欙, which are all one word, which is obvious.梮字见《玉篇》，云“舆，食器也。又土轝也。”雷浚《说文外编》云：“土轝之字，《左传》作梮（按见襄公九年）。《汉书·五行志》引作，《说文》：“，大车驾马也。 ”按《孟子》：“反蘽梩而掩之。 ”《赵注》云：“蘽梩，笼臿之属，可以取土者也。 ”蔂、樏、欙并即蘽梩，与梮并为取土之器，驾马则称为，亦以音借而作桥。后又为之专造轿字，则即淮南王《谏伐闽越书》所谓“舆轿而逾岭”。其物本亦车属，后因用诸山行，乃以人舁之。所以韦昭说：“梮木器，如今舆状，人举以行。 ”此物在古代只用诸山行，后乃渐用之平地。王安石终身不乘肩舆，可见北宋时用者尚少，南渡以后，临安街道，日益狭窄，乘坐的人，就渐渐的多了（《明史·舆服志》：宋中兴以后，以征伐道路险阻，诏百官乘轿，名曰竹轿子，亦曰竹舆）。 行旅之人不论在路途上，以及到达地头之后，均须有歇宿之所。古代交通未盛，其事率由官营。《周官》野庐氏，“比国郊及野之道路，宿息，井树。”遗人，“凡国野之道：十里有庐，庐有饮食。三十里有宿，宿有路室，路室有委。五十里有市，市有候馆，候馆有积。”都是所以供给行旅的。到达之后，则“卿馆于大夫，大夫馆于士，士馆于工商”（《仪礼·觐礼》）。此即《礼记·曾子问》所谓“卿大夫之家曰私馆”。另有“公宫与公所为”，谓之公馆。当时的农民，大概无甚往来，所以只有卿士大夫和工商之家，从事于招待，但到后来，农民出外的也多了。新旅客的增加，必非旧式的招待所能普遍应付，就有借此以图利的，是为逆旅。《商君书·垦令篇》说：“废逆旅，则奸伪躁心私交疑农之民不行。逆旅之民，无所于食，则必农。”这只是陈旧的见解。《晋书·潘岳传》说，当时的人，以逆旅逐末废农，奸淫亡命之人，多所依凑。要把他废掉。十里置一官，使老弱贫户守之。差吏掌主，依客舍之例收钱。以逆旅为逐末废农，就是商君的见解。《左氏》僖公二年，晋人假道于虞以伐虢，说“虢为不道，保于逆旅，以侵敝邑之南鄙”。可见晋初的人，说逆旅使奸淫亡命，多所依凑，也是有的。但以大体言之，则逆旅之设，实所以供商贾之用，乃是随商业之盛而兴起的。看潘岳的驳议，便可明白。无法废绝商业，就无法废除逆旅。若要改为官办，畀差主之吏以管理之权，一定要弊余于利的。潘岳之言，亦极有理。总而言之：（一）交通既已兴盛，必然无法遏绝，且亦不宜遏绝。（二）官吏经营事业，其秩序必尚不如私人。两句话，就足以说明逆旅兴起的原因了。汉代的亭，还是行人歇宿之所。甚至有因一时没有住屋，而借居其中的（见《汉书·息夫躬传》）。魏晋以后，私人所营的逆旅，日益兴盛，此等官家的事业，就愈益废坠，而浸至于灭绝了。 接力赛跑，一定较诸独走长途，所至者要远些，此为邮驿设置的原理。《说文》：“邮，境上行书舍也。”是专以通信为职的。驿则所以供人物之往来。二者设置均甚早。人物的往来，并不真要靠驿站。官家的通信，却非有驿站不可。在邮政电报开办以前，官家公文的传递，实利赖之。其设置遍于全国。元代疆域广大，藩封之地，亦均设立，以与大汗直辖之地相连接。规模不可谓不大。惜乎历代邮驿之用，都止于投递公文，未能推广之以成今日的邮政。民间寄书，除遣专使外，就须展转托人，极为不便。到清代，人民乃有自营的信局。其事起于宁波，逐渐推广，几于遍及全国。而且推及南洋。其经营的能力，亦不可谓之不伟大了。 铁路、轮船、摩托车、有线、无线电报的发明，诚足使交通、通信焕然改观。这个，诚然是文明进步之赐，然亦看用之如何。此等文明利器，能用以开发世界上尚未开发的地方，诚足为人类造福。若只在现社会机构之下，为私人所有，用以为其图利的手段，则其为祸为福，诚未易断言，现代的物质文明，有人歌诵他，有人咒诅他。其实物质文明的本身，是不会构祸的，就看我们用之是否得当。中国现在的开发西南、西北，在历史上，将会成为一大事。交通起于陆地，进及河川、沿海，再进及于大洋，回过来再到陆地，这是世界开发必然的程序。世界上最大最未开发的地方，就是亚洲的中央高原，其中又分为两区：（一）为蒙古、新疆等沙漠地带，（二）为西康、青海、西藏等高原。中国现在、开发西南、西北，就是触着这两大块未开辟之地。我们现在还不觉得，将来，这两件事的成功，会使世界焕然改观，成为另一个局面。