Chapter 46 Chapter 43 Election

In order to achieve its goals, the state has set up many organs, and these many organs must be presided over by people.How can the people in charge of these organs be obtained?This is the question of elections. Elections are the opposite of hereditary.In the hereditary law, if there is a vacancy in a position, there will be a legal successor, which cannot be chosen.The law of election is not the same, it is unlimited, and those who have the right to vote can choose the most suitable person to serve.This refers to pure election and heredity; there are also two aspects that are not very pure, for example, although it is optional, it is still limited to certain people.But even impure election is better than pure hereditary.A Western historian once compared the history of the Han Dynasty in China with that of Rome. He said: All the reasons for the decline and fall of Rome are found in China.But there is one thing that is owned by China and not in Rome, and that is elections.Looking at this, we can see how important the electoral system is.

The electoral system, three generations ago, was parallel to hereditary.In Yu Zhengxie's "Gui Si Lei Manuscript", there is an article "Theory of Prosperity and Talents in the Countryside", which is the best. He said: In ancient times, elections were limited to those below the scholars, and above the officials were the world officials.What is the reason?Chapter 40 has already said: Primitive politics are always democratic, and later, autocratic politics gradually emerged. If a country is composed of conquering and conquered tribes, the high-level position naturally cannot be conquered The family is involved.Even if they belonged to one clan, and since autocratic politics flourished, those who held power gradually separated from the masses.Therefore, the election is limited to the soldiers below.

The elections below the ranks of scholars are left over from the system of ancient tribes before the rise of autocratic politics.Its relics can be seen in "Zhou Guan".According to "Zhou Guan": All officials subordinate to the township officials have the responsibility to examine their morality and morality.In the three-year competition, the sages and capable ones will be cited, and "the book of sages and abilities will be presented to the king." "Zhou Guan" said: "This means that the people are promoted to be virtuous, and the envoys are governed; the people are invigorated, and the envoys are long." Yu Zhengxie said: "Envoys are used to govern them, and they are used as village officials (that is, the leader of the party of the Bilu tribe." , see the previous chapter); it is good to serve as the commander of the envoy.Bilu Party, etc., should be the inherent organization of democratic tribes, and its leaders are all publicly elected by the masses.After the rise of the autocratic regime, a powerful organization was only added to it, but the inherent organization of these groups was not destroyed. Therefore, its leaders are still elected by the public, but the autocratic government also needs to be matched. It is nothing more than the intervention and interference of the government (for example, although it is publicly elected by the local government, it is still necessary to present the book of talents and talents to the king).

In the early days of the feudal regime, the character of the superiors, such as monarchs and officials, might have been relatively good, but later on, they gradually deteriorated.Due to the corruption of the superiors and the progress of the inferiors (see Chapter 40), those in charge of state affairs, for the sake of political rectification, have to gradually use members from the lower ranks. The system mentioned in "Book of Rites·Royal System".According to the "Royal System", it is said: He is a scholar of the countryside, who is promoted to the situ, called the selection of scholars.Situ talked about those who selected the best scholars, and they were promoted to various schools, and they were called excellent scholars.Once promoted to school, he is called a scholar.Da Le is talking about the excellence of the scholars, and they will tell the king, and they will be promoted to the Sima, and they will be called Jinshi.Sima discussed the official talents (officials refer to various institutions, which means distinguishing their talents and abilities, and which institutions are suitable for working in them), and discussed the sages of Jinshi, so as to inform the king, and then use them according to their talents.According to "Zhou Guan", the secretary is in charge of the version (name book) of the officials to govern his government orders, and the number of his profits and losses is recorded at the age of the year, and he is also a subordinate official of Sima. "Book of Rites Sheyi" said: In ancient times, "the princes paid tribute to the emperor, and the emperor tried it in the She Palace. Its capacity is compared to rituals, its festival is compared to music, and those who are more, get it from sacrifice. Its capacity is not comparable In terms of ritual, its festival is not compared to music, and those who are small in number cannot be used in sacrifice." The amount of the middle is determined by whether it is suitable for sacrifice or not. It can be seen that the She Palace is in the Taimiao.In ancient times, the regulations were simple, and in the whole country, there was only one exquisite house, which was called Mingtang.That is, the ancestral temple, the imperial court, the palace where the monarch lives, and the school where he lectures. Later, these many institutions were gradually separated and became separate buildings (see Chapter 51 for details).Looking at the articles in "Zhou Guan", "King Zhi", and "She Yi", we can know that in ancient times, the tribute scholars in various places specialized in martial arts.Later, the rule of culture gradually emerged, so the talents selected were not limited to one path (so Sima had to distinguish official talents. At this time, Sima was elected based on military positions and divisions, not military affairs as the election standard).This is the gradual expansion of elections, that is, the gradual erosion of hereditary.

By the time of the Warring States period, the world was becoming more and more urgent, and the corrupt nobles could no longer support the current politics.Moreover, the status of the nobles in ancient times was forced by the monarch, but it was not the case when they started from lonely people. If the monarch wanted to rectify politics and expand his power, he had to use tourists.Scholars also have sharp weapons in their arms and want to strive for fame.There are also people who are in dire straits and want to lend a helping hand to save lives and people.So the monarch and the traveler joined forces to attack the nobles, and the more promising nobles had to use the traveler.The situation of elections is more and more prosperous, and the hereditary system is getting weaker.However, at this time, the traveler still has to rely on his superiors to quote him.By the end of the Qin Dynasty, when heroes rose up and died in Qin Dynasty, all the political power fell into the hands of the lower society, let alone the confrontation between nobles and tourists.This is the situation of commoner generals in the early Han Dynasty ("Twenty-two History Notes" has this article, you can refer to it), under this situation, the employment is naturally regardless of family status, and the hereditary situation ends here.

After the Han Dynasty, the path of elections, the most important ones, are roughly as follows: (1) Recruitment: This is when the emperor admires someone's talent and virtue, and specially names him to invite him to Beijing.There are often very respectful procedures such as dowry. (2) Piju: In the Han Dynasty, the Xiangfu and other institutions, the bureaucrats were mostly used by themselves, which is called Pi.The people who are appointed do not have certain qualifications. People who have been high-ranking officials or even civilians are fine. (3) Recommendation: It has a wide range of prospects.Those who are officials can recommend their own subordinates, or those who have not tried it but know that it is useful.Even civilians who are not officials, know who is good, and have never been unable to write a letter for recommendation, and they can write a letter for self-examination.These are legally limitless, but in fact there are very few.

(4) Clerk: This refers to someone who first served in various agencies, or because of the provisions of the law, or the sponsorship of the chief, changed from an official to an official.Officials in various agencies, according to the law, can have a way out.But the way out is good or bad, which is different from time to time.Generally speaking, the ancient times are good and the later generations are bad. (5) Renzi: To be an official at a certain level, or to be a special favor of the superior, you can sponsor his son and get a family background. Wait).The original meaning of Ren is to protect, but in fact, it is just a kind of grace. The person who is protected may commit a crime, and the person who protects him may not bear any responsibility.Let it be called the shade in later generations.After the Ming Dynasty, there was another case where Yinzi was imprisoned, even if he was admitted to the Guozijian to study.It is very good that the state can grant favors and not allow unlearned and incompetent people to fill in the elections.It's a pity that going to prison to study is just for the name.

(6) Specialized technical personnel: the transfer of such personnel is limited to one route.Their skills are either promoted by the state through self-study, or they are developed in this institution.Such as astronomy, calendar, medicine, etc. (the origin of this system is very ancient. "Royal System": "Those who practice skills to do things better, do not do things differently, and do not transfer officials", that is). (7) Donation: This is to pay for an official.In the ancient books, it may be called the selection, but it is actually wrong.Two years after the selection of "Hanshu·Jingdi Benji", because he was afraid of the corruption of officials, it was assumed that rich people should be less greedy, so they were limited to the amount of money they had, so they could be officials.This is just a condition for being an official, and has nothing to do with paying for an official.Youjue is just an empty name, so selling a jue cannot be counted as selling an official.Selling officials secretly is just corrupt politics, not allowed by the law, nor can it be counted as a way of elections (see below for the story of selling officials in the past dynasties).

All of the above are ways to get into office.But as far as the legislators of the past dynasties think, these can only be obtained by ordinary talents, and those who hope to obtain extraordinary talents are still in (8) schools and 9) imperial examinations.Schools are detailed in Chapter 51.The imperial examination can be further divided into (A) Xiang Gong and (B) system subjects.Township tribute originated from the prefecture-state elections in the Han Dynasty.Taking the population as the proportion, a number of people will be selected by the guardian.In the system of subjects, the Han Dynasty often issued an imperial edict to mark a subject name, such as virtuous and upright, outspoken and extremely admonishing, etc., to be recommended by internal and external officials (what kind of official has the right to be elected, and there is no certainty, and it is temporarily designated by the imperial edict). There is no limit.It is not certain whether it will be held or not.It was not until the Tang Dynasty that the name of the system was established.

Employers in the Han Dynasty had no class distinctions.In Tang Liufang's discussion of the clan, it was said that "the former princes, dukes and ministers should use their talents, and discard them if they are not talented" (see "Book of Tang Liu Chong Biography"), but (1) the power of the nobles was originally lurking; (2) it was time. There were many disadvantages in the election, so it became a system of nine ranks, which made the nobles regain their arrogance in the election.What about the electoral malpractices at this time?From the surface, (A) is like a nobleman's request.For example, "Hou Han Shu Zhong Hao Biography" says: Henan Yin Tianxin, nephew Wang Chen is a famous acquaintance.Xin Zhizhi said: "Now we should promote the six filial pieties, and the more you get the orders from your relatives, you should not violate them. If you want to use a scholar for yourself to repay the country, help me to seek it." It can be seen that the morals at that time were bad.However (b) the entrustment of nobles is actually due to the running of scholars.Read "Theory of Qianfu" ("Wuben", "Lunrong", "The Difficulties of the Virtuous", "Knowledge of Achievements", "Benzheng", "Qiantan", "Shigong", "Communication", etc.), "Shen Jian" ("Current Affairs"), "Zhong Lun" ("Testing Forgery", "Condemnation"), "Baopuzi" ("Shen Ju", "Communication", "Name and Facts", "Han Guo"), etc. It can be seen from the book.The way out for scholars in the Han Dynasty was either to be requisitioned, or to be used by the prefectures and counties, or to be recommended by the princes and prefectures.Therefore, they either act aggressively to make a name for themselves; or they form a party, flaunt each other, and run around for sports.Because of the large number of followers, he has also become a kind of power, and some officials are afraid of him; on the positive side, they make friends with him to make progress.So there are people who neglect political affairs to cater to them.There are also plenty of places to eat and drink, and generous hospitality to perfunctory them, and the officials are badly damaged.There are many people who are lacking, and there are still people who are running sports.Some people, because they failed to achieve success in the first year of life, spent their family resources and returned home without face, so their guests died outside.This is really not a matter, and it is really necessary to stop them from floating outside.And because the election at that time paid attention to character, and character can only be seen in the hometown, so the candidates must come from the village, and the nine-rank Zhongzheng system can survive.

The system of Jiupin Zhongzheng originated from Chen Qun, Minister of the Ministry of Officials of Cao Wei.All prefectures set up large Zhongzheng, and each county set up Zhongzheng.According to character, the people in charge are divided into nine categories: Shangshang, Shangzhong, Shangxia, Zhongshang, Zhongzhong, Zhongxia, Xiashang, Xiazhong, Xiaxia, etc.This is because it has always been about people and attaches great importance to township reviews, so it has been dealt with politically.But (1) the so-called good people in the township commentary are good people in society. They only need to be virtuous, and those used in politics must also have talents.Therefore, even if a person of integrity can be impartial to everyone, what makes him a good person may not necessarily be suitable for politics. (2) What's more, people who are upright may not be able to be impartial. (A) Favoring love and hatred, (B) Quickly enmity, (C) Deterrence, (D) Fear of misfortune, etc. Disadvantages will inevitably follow?As a result, what Liu Yi said at the beginning of the Jin Dynasty, "You can only know who you are, and you can't distinguish who is wise and stupid", so that "there is no poor family in the upper class, and no family in the lower class".Because the aristocratic family is a powerful family in the local area, it is not easy to offend him. As for the poor family, they are content with being humble, and it doesn't matter if they offend him.This is only after the local people openly criticize the local figures, which is bound to be the case.Nine grades of justice, everyone knows that it is a bad system.However, it was not until the Kaihuang reign of Emperor Wen of the Sui Dynasty.Three hundred and forty fifty years before and after.This system was created by the powerful class, and its power to maintain the powerful class is also great, because after some systems, no matter in the central government or local government, the use of aristocratic families and poor families is absolutely different (such as the system of the late Wei Dynasty. , there are nine grades of scholars, and beyond the nine grades, there are seven grades for officials of villains. Another example is that Cai Xingzong guarded Kuaiji County, and he cited Kong Zhongzhizi as a watchmaker, and Jia Yuanpingzi as Wangxiao. Zhongzhi Gaomen, Yuan Ping and one state went to the end, and then they were enemies, and they thought it was a different number at that time). After the nine-rank Zhongzheng system was abolished, the imperial examination gradually rose.The imperial examination system is relatively fair and practical in selecting scholars. This is recognized by everyone. Why did it rise so late?The conditions for employing people, the first is virtue, the second is talent, and the third is knowledge.This is a logical result in theory, and no one doubts it in fact.Exams are all about knowledge.This is not to say that talents and virtues can be ignored, but knowing that talents and virtues cannot be tested, rather than exempting them from the test of their knowledge because they cannot be tested, it is better to test them based on their knowledge. .This kind of view can only be obtained after accumulating considerable experience.Therefore, the examination system must not flourish until the Tang and Song dynasties.The examination system has a long history.Before the Western Han Dynasty, there was no such thing as examinations (the countermeasures of Chao Cuo, Dong Zhongshu, etc. were to ask for advice because they were knowledgeable, not to suspect that their intentions were preposterous, and to test them. Therefore, it is not certain whether the policy is not certain, and the meaning of a policy is not complete. You can make three more strategies, see "General Examination of Documents").Until the reign of Emperor Shun in the Eastern Han Dynasty, the people selected by the county and the state were too outrageous.Zuo Xiong was the order of the Minister, and he suggested that "all the students test the family law, and the literati test the notes" (family law, referring to the learned scriptures and words), which is said in history. Got the test effect.But since then, the law has not been seriously implemented.From the Wei, Jin, Southern and Northern Dynasties to the Sui Dynasty, the principle of not trying is still used.The imperial examination system flourished in the Tang Dynasty, and there were many subjects (xiucai was the highest subject, and it was stopped after the second year of Emperor Gaozong Yonghui. In addition, there were Junshi, Mingfa, Mingzi, Mingshu, One History, Three History, Kaiyuan Li, Daoju, Tongzi and other disciplines, see "Tang Shu·Electoral Records"), and Ming Jing and Jinshi are often practiced.The Jinshi Department began in the Sui Dynasty, and its origin and historical records are not very clear.According to Yang Wan: At the beginning, it was a test of strategy, but at some point, it was changed to poetry and prose.By the Tang Dynasty, the sound and light of this subject was very good.This is caused by the atmosphere of advocating diction in society.In the Tang Dynasty, although Jinshi subjects also tried classics, meanings and strategies, the emphasis was on poetry and prose.Mingjing emphasizes posting scriptures and ink meanings.Although poetry and prose have nothing to do with politics, whether Confucian classics are useful in politics is also questionable from today's perspective.It is naturally impossible to say this to the people of the past, but the test of Tie Jing and Mo Yi is just memorization (the style of Tie Jing and Mo Yi, see "Tong Kao" for a while. It means that Tie Jing is silently written by nobles For the scriptures, Mo Yi wrote the biographies silently, which is the same as the examination method in today's schools that is dedicated to memorizing textbooks), and its uselessness was obvious even in that day.Why is there such a strange examination method?This is because the imperial examination is regarded as a grand ceremony for talents, in other words, it is regarded as the only way to select talents in terms of officials' ascension to mediocrity. I am afraid that it was a matter after the Song Dynasty.Therefore, although the Jinshi at that time were valued by the lay people, in politics, not many people were recruited, and they were not used seriously (the number of Jinshi recruited in the Tang Dynasty was only twenty or thirty, and they still had to be released by the officials. The brown test, or being recommended by others, can only be admitted to an official, and the official is no more than a lieutenant; see "Rizhilu·Chinese Amount" and "Born to Officials").It can be seen that the early rise of the imperial examination, but a gradual change along the lines of the previous generation, does not have any grand meaning, and deep expectations exist during it.So what I tried were only poems, scriptures, and ink meanings.The test of Tie Jing and Mo Yi is probably the established method of governing the scriptures at that time, and the poems and prose are suspected to be from the Sui Dynasty.Emperor Yang of the Sui Dynasty was good at Ci, and the Jinshi department he set up may be just Hongdu School of Emperor Lingdi of the Later Han Dynasty (gathered a group of people who can write Fu and calligraphy, and some of them are of very mixed grades, see "Later Han Book" Benji and "Cai Yong Biography").Entering the soil science department and then becoming a talented person is just like the Hanlin who first lived in miscellaneous streams and later became Qingyao.This is a change in the system itself, and it is not possible to discuss the original system after the fact.Although the things tested in the imperial examination are not enough, the method of selecting scholars is indeed progressive and memorable.In the Tang system, all applicants are expected to "list themselves in the prefectures and counties".The prefectures and counties try it first, and then send it to the province (Shangshu Province).At the beginning, it was "collected and read" by the household department, and the meritorious service examiner Wailang tested it.When Emperor Xuanzong opened the Yuan Dynasty, because the meritorious service examiner Wai Lang looked down on him, the scholars refused to accept it, so they transferred the matter to the Ministry of Rites.During Song Taizu's time, some of the people who knew the tribute were sued for unfairness, and Taizu retested himself in the court.Since then, in addition to the provincial examination, there has been a palace examination.In the previous county elections, the power was entirely in the hands of the electors.He obviously has the talent to be elected, but the election is not as good as it is, and there is nothing like him.When it comes to the self-listing of ultimatums, all those who come to vote for ultimatum, even if they are disliked by the state and county, have to take an examination, and a few people are selected from them; The ability, even if you want to do it, you can't.Those who exercise the right to vote are greatly restricted, and the right to be elected is expanded accordingly.From then on, the people in the white house can rise to the top; those with power can't control their status, all of which are given by this system.So its system is memorable.The gradual tightening of examination rules also contributes to the fairness of the electoral system.In the Tang Dynasty, examiners and scholars could not help communicating with each other.It is not illegal for examiners to use reputation, for scholars to entrust others to spread their reputations, or to pay homage to their own words.After the late Tang Dynasty, the rules gradually became stricter, and systems such as banning coercion and changing names and changing books gradually emerged.Following the Ming and Qing Dynasties, examinations and defenses became increasingly strict.This seems to be detrimental to personality, but in the way of profit and fortune, both the test taker and the test taker must cheat, and in fact it is unavoidable. All of the above are the system of rural tribute.As for the system of subjects, it is decided by the emperor himself, and the subjects are marked at any time.It is not certain whether it will be held or not.For the stories of the Tang Dynasty, see "General Examination of Literature · Election Examination" for details. The emphasis on imperial examinations was more important in the Song Dynasty than in the Tang Dynasty, so the voice of reform also started in the Song Dynasty.There are two disadvantages of the imperial examination: (1) what you learn is not what you want to use, and (2) the people who take the test are short and long.It has been proved from experience that no scholar can get it, but those who are really learned may be left behind.For the first disadvantage, it is only necessary to change what is tested.As for the second disadvantage, non-part-time schools will not work.Otherwise, it is impossible to investigate whether a person who comes to take the exam has ever been engaged in learning or not.Fan Zhongyan's reforms during the reign of Emperor Renzong aimed at these two disadvantages: (1) Stop posting scriptures and Mo Yi, and take the general examination of poetry, prose and policy theory (the Jinshi in the Tang Dynasty also tried posting scriptures and policies, Ming Confucian classics are also tried and tested, but people's talents are limited, and they can only specialize in one subject, so the examiners only pay attention to one, and the rest are just perfunctory. In the Ming and Qing Dynasties, those who took the imperial examination could only do Four books, also because of this). (2) Those who take the test must be in school for 300 days, and those who have taken the test for 100 days.His method was very opposed by the people at that time, and the method was abolished soon after he was dismissed.It was not until Shenzong Xining, Wang Anshi was the chancellor, that reforms were made.The method of Anshi: (1) Discard all subjects and save Jinshi alone.This is due to the social atmosphere, which emphasizes Jinshi and despises various subjects. (2) Scholars stopped examining poems and Fu, and changed to examining theory and policy.For Tie Jing and Mo Yi, try Da Yi (Tie Jing is dedicated to memorizing, Da Yi is to explain the meaning and express opinions). (3) Don't set up a new law to treat scholars who can't change their careers. (4) An Shi advocated that the school should support scholars, so he rectified the Taixue and established the law of three combinations, and the ranks were promoted step by step.If you are promoted to Shanghesheng, you will be exempted from the examination of the Ministry of Rites and the Ministry of Rites, which is a special gift.The Xining tribute law was also opposed by the old party.Their reasons are: (1) It is easy to understand the sound of poetry and Fu, but it is difficult to know the theory and theory, so it is difficult to read the papers.There is no reason for this.Poetry and prose are useless studies, so what is the use of seeking justice? (2) But they are also like what Su Shi said, saying that academic theory, classics, strategies, and theories seem to be more useful than poetry and prose.In terms of reality, poetry and prose, policy, theory, and scriptures are all useless.Whether you win someone or not depends entirely on whether you know people or not.The method of selecting scholars, such as the imperial examination, has nothing to do with it at all, but there must be such a method.This is also wrong.It is true that imperial examinations cannot win everyone, but the meaning of the legislation is only to say that this is a method of selecting scholars. It does not say that after this method, the balance of appointment and the examination after appointment can be ignored.What's more, other ways of obtaining scholars in the country focus on experience; or although they focus on knowledge, the only uncommon methods are schools and imperial examinations, which are common methods for cultivating and promoting learned people.It is true that knowledgeable people may not be able to do things, but there are many places where knowledge is needed to do things (probably dealing with personnel affairs, knowledge alone is useless, and decision-making policies, etc., all rely on knowledge). "People must know what they are doing, and then have the heart to do it well." Therefore, knowledge and morality also have a considerable relationship.The wisdom of weighing and learning depends entirely on the monarch, but the monarch must not seek it from the people of the whole world, without standards, like washing sand.In the end, there must be a method first, which is to take some people out of the whole, and then make a simple selection among them.This is the method of taking out some of the people from the whole. Only the imperial examination pays attention to knowledge, how can we take it too lightly?Confucianism, policy, and theory are nothing more than empty talk on paper, but how can they be regarded as equal to poetry and prose because of their close relationship with the knowledge required to be an official?Therefore, the arguments of the old party are actually unreasonable.However, at that time, since it became a force, it could not be restrained from raising its head.So in the age of Yuanyou, the law of Xining was abolished.Although the law of Gongju in Xining was abolished, the old law cannot be revived.Because the examination is the way of birth of scholars in the past, and the examination is not what they have learned. Those who practice the imperial examination must oppose it.When Xining reformed, there were so many opponents, and this was the reason.When Yuanyou wanted to restore the old law, another group of people who were only accustomed to the new law wanted to oppose it.So during the compromise, Jinshi was divided into two subjects: Poetry and Fu, and Confucianism.After the Southern Song Dynasty, it became a custom.Even the systems of the Liao and Jin Dynasties were also influenced by it (in addition to Jin Shifu and Jingyi, there is also the law department. Established by Sejong. Subjects of Liao and Jin must pass the three examinations of the township, government, and province. The provincial examination is presided over by the Ministry of Rites, that is, the Ming and Qing Dynasties. Yuan, Ming, and Qing Dynasties, there are only the provincial examination and the provincial examination). The modern imperial examination method started in the Yuan Dynasty and continued in the Ming Dynasty.The imperial examinations in the Yuan Dynasty were divided into two lists: Mongolians and Semu people, Han people and Nan people.There are two exams in Mongolian and Semu people: the first one is classics and the second one is theory.There are three exams for Han people and southerners: the first one is classics and righteousness, the second one is ancient Fu and edicts, edicts, and tables, and the third one is policy theory.This is (1) combining the scriptures and poems into one subject. (2) All scriptures are mainly based on the theory of the Song people, and (3) the examinations of the township examinations are the same, and they are all followed by the Ming and Qing Dynasties.Ming system: the first test is the meaning of the Four Books and Five Classics, the second test is the judgment, and the third test is the imperial edict, the imperial edict, and the external internal medicine.Qing system: the first test is the four scriptures and one poem, the second test is the five classics, and the third test is also tried.The genres of the scriptures tested in the Ming and Qing Dynasties have a certain style. (1) Make a statement on behalf of the sages. (2) Its literary system is relatively paragraph by paragraph, which is called stereotyped writing (the nature of stereotyped writing is limited to this second language: (1) the words in the text are not counted as what you say, but as a more detailed speech on behalf of the sages. (2) ) is the so-called dual text, which is relative sentence by sentence, and this is relative paragraph by paragraph, so its style is special. There is also a limit to the length of eight-legged prose. In the Qing Dynasty, the length could not exceed 700 characters, and the short could not Less than 300 characters. Although there are minor differences in these rules, they are always followed in principle. Due to the condition (1), later events cannot be used in the article. reason).The formula was determined by Ming Taizu and Liu Ji, so it is also called Zhiyi.Its intention is probably to prevent scholars from competing for novelty (the number of candidates for the imperial examination is fixed, but there are many candidates. For example, in the late Qing Dynasty, the number of candidates for the Jiangnan provincial examination was less than 200, but the number of candidates exceeded 20,000. It is limited to a certain number of candidates. The topic, in a few texts, learned people can't see its strengths. Therefore, the texts are made to be weird, in order to impress the examiners. This disadvantage has been quite a lot in the Song Dynasty).The disadvantage of the imperial examinations in the Ming and Qing Dynasties was that scholars could only do a few essays on the Four Books, and the rest were all perfunctory, which was equivalent to not trying.The scholar then didn't know anything.This disadvantage is due to the lack of legislation.Because human ability is always limited, a person can only know one or two.Therefore, the examination methods of the past dynasties are all divided into subjects, and they are tested according to what they have learned.The sub-disciplines of classics, righteousness and poetry are equivalent to the Jinshi of Mingjing in the Tang Dynasty.It was not easy to combine the two.Since the Yuan Dynasty, the two have been combined into one.The strategy of the three exams has absolutely no scope.Therefore, if the imperial examinations of the Yuan, Ming, and Qing dynasties were to seek truth from facts, it can be said that no one could respond.In the affairs of the world, people are responsible for what they can't do, and people will not do what they can do. This is nothing to do.This is the reason why the imperial examinations in the Ming and Qing Dynasties caused fraud.The intention of reforming the imperial examinations in the Song Dynasty was to abolish poetry and prose while preserving the classics and theories. This approach was overturned by the systems of the Yuan, Ming, and Qing dynasties.The idea of ​​using both schools and imperial examinations was implemented formally in the Ming Dynasty.In the Ming system, students who were not from the Imperial College and students from prefectures and counties were not allowed to take the imperial examination (students from prefectures and counties who took the imperial examination had to pass the test of the inspector envoy first, which is called the scientific examination. Only those admitted through the scientific examination could take the rural examination. But later, most of them were recruited except for those who violated the rules of writing. Non-students, one or two were selected in the Ming Dynasty, so-called "filling Confucian scholars", and the number was very small).Therefore, "History of the Ming Dynasty" called it "the school stores materials to wait for the imperial examination".According to the imperial examination, it is only a day's length, so in fact, there is no learning, and those who are young and energetic and good at writing for the test are often easy to get, while those who are really knowledgeable are difficult.No matter how shallow and simple the school teaches, if you teach seriously, students will end up studying in school for a few years, and they will definitely not be able to take one of the imperial examinations.But things such as class examinations are very easy to have names in vain, and matters of learning are names without substance.The disadvantages of the time limit for graduation and completion have existed since ancient times, and it has not started since today.It is indeed a good system to make the two complement each other, but the system cannot hold back the facts.Those who enter the school and apply for the imperial examination, since their intention is to benefit and benefit, knowledge is only a tool (so those who applied for the exam in the past call the writing of the examination as a stepping stone), and benefit and benefit are the purpose.The sooner the goal is achieved, the better. (1) If the imperial examinations were to be held concurrently with the schools, young and energetic people would also prefer to take the imperial examinations rather than enter the schools. (2) Besides the examination fee and the travel distance, the distance is only a few months, and you can still make a living by yourself in normal times, which is not the case in school.Therefore, those who are poor scholars can also pass the imperial examination but cannot enter the school. (3) What's more, the school background is often not as beautiful as the imperial examination.For this reason, after the Ming Dynasty adopted the system of reserve talents in schools to wait for the imperial examination system, this situation resulted: (1) Guozijian had its own background, but its background was not as beautiful as the imperial examination, and those who were old and had no ambitions returned to the imperial examination. Of. (2) Schools in prefectures, prefectures and counties have no family background; if they live in schools, they can't learn much, so why do they bother to "study"?Those who are instructors also aim to gain salary.Since the ambition lies in gaining salary, according to the principles of economics, it is necessary to obtain the greatest effect with the least effort.If you don't teach, it won't hinder your profit. Why bother to teach people?As a result, Fuzhou County Schools are completely in name only.In the early Ming Dynasty, Guozijian was regarded with great solemnity.So even though it was corrupt later on, it still maintained a situation where it was not possible to attend school. By the Qing Dynasty, it was almost the same as the prefectural and county schools. In the Tang Dynasty, the system was extremely grand in name.But because it is very classic, its impact on society is not as profound as that of Xianggong.Since the Song Dynasty, it has been mostly used to select talents other than rural tributes, but those who are selected are no more than those who are longer than the rhetoric, or those who are more knowledgeable (the original intention of the subject, although it is not the case, but in fact it is nothing more than the case, see "Song History Elections" Zhi" can be known).In the eighteenth year of Emperor Kangxi of the Qing Dynasty and the first year of Emperor Gaozong's Qianlong reign, the Erudite Hongci Division was held twice, and the meaning was nothing more than that.In the 25th year of Emperor Dezong's Guangxu reign, the special department of economics was opened by edict. At the time of reform and reform, it was quite intended to recruit talents.After the coup, the imperial court had no intention of reverting to this. It was not until the twenty-ninth year that the candidates were tested, but it was just perfunctory. In the past, the imperial examination was really a civil service examination.The subjects tested should be suitable for official use.However, all the trials in the past dynasties have not been like this.This is a very strange thing.To understand the origin of this disadvantage, it is necessary to know a little about the development of this system in history.In ancient times, the employers only wanted to have the knowledge and skills of being an official (the word "wisdom" refers to the knowledge of routine office work, which is equal to the subordinates of later generations, and should not include extensive knowledge), and it does not matter about learning.Later, the society evolved, and it was known that in political measures, principles must be informed, and it is not enough to follow the rules.So learning began to influence politics, and people who talked about learning were mixed into the political circle.The Qin Dynasty's prohibition of "using the past rather than the present" and only allowing the study of "contemporary laws" and "to learn laws and regulations, use officials as teachers" is contrary to this trend.The appointment of Confucian scholars in the Han Dynasty followed this trend.This is of course an improvement.But knowing this, it is advisable to make officials who are knowledgeable, and not to divide officials and scholars into two ways and use them at the same time.However, the Han Dynasty has always been like this.As long as you look at the discussions at the time, you can know that Confucian scholars and civil servants were always mentioned together. "Continued Han Shu Baiguan Zhi" "Note" quoted Ying Shao's "Han Guan Yi", which contained the imperial edict of Emperor Guangwu of the later Han Dynasty, saying, "The story of the prime minister, four subjects to select scholars: (1) Said to have high morals and clean aspirations. ( 2) It is said to be a master of learning and practice, and a doctor of classics. (3) It is said to understand laws and regulations, enough to resolve doubts, to be able to answer questions in cases, and to be a censor in the text. Three auxiliary orders".The first is virtue, and the fourth is talent, both of which cannot be tested in words.The second type is Confucian scholars, and the third type is literary officials.The method of Zuo Xiong's examination is also in these two subjects.Discussions by later scholars, such as the "Shenju Pian" in "Baopuzi", strongly advocated the examination system, and also said that laws and regulations can be tested by the method of examining classics.As for the national system, Ming Law and Ming Jing were still in parallel in the Tang Dynasty, and what was followed was still the Han system.It's amazing that it hasn't changed for thousands of years.Later, because popular customs despised all subjects, all subjects were abolished, and the subject of Mingfa was also abolished. The intellectual skills required to be an official did not occupy a place at all in the civil service examination. (1) The political system is difficult to change; (2) The pedantic Confucianism has a view that as long as the Confucian classics are mastered, everything can be dealt with, and the laws and regulations are practical and do not need to be studied, so the system is fixed. up.There are many systems in history, and it is impossible to understand why they are based on speculation.It is necessary to examine its facts and observe its changes.The imperial examination system is only one end. The modern imperial examination system was actually established in the hands of Ming Taizu.However, Taizu was not a person who valued imperial examinations.Taizu's most important thing is recommendation, followed by school.At that time, all ministers and workers, big and small, both inside and outside, were recommended, and those who were recommended were recommended, and there were countless people from commoners to big bureaucrats.In the Guozijian, there are famous teachers with excellent etiquette, extremely strict rules, and extremely generous treatment of all students. In one day, sixty-four people were promoted to be two officials.The imperial examination was first set up in the third year of Hongwu, and it was suspended after the resumption, and it was resumed in the fifteenth year.At that time, the so-called combined use of the three methods referred to (1) recommendation, (2) Jinshi tribute supervisor, and (3) officials (see "Rizhilu·Tongjing for officials").After being passed on repeatedly, the recommendation was abolished, the school was light, and the imperial examination was the only one.Therefore, recommending and employing people is close to breaking the rules, which is beyond the ability of the middle owner.The school can't handle it seriously, which is close to the so-called graduation period.The imperial examination (1) is emphasized by habit, and (2) there is still a day to rely on, so it is valued by the society.This cannot be said to be without reason.However, there are disadvantages in all things, not to mention the fact that the imperial examination itself is worthless?Ming system: Scholars are divided into top three.One and three people will be awarded Jinshi and rank.A few people in the second class were given Jinshi background.Several people in the top three were given the same background as Jinshi.The first person in Yijia was awarded to the Imperial Academy for editing and writing.The second and the third person are the editors.Both the second and the top three have to choose Shujishi.Shujishi is originally called Jinshi who observes politics in the Imperial Academy, Chengchi Supervisor and other yamen.In the early Ming Dynasty, the students of Guozijian were sent to practice in various yamen, which is called history.Scholars sent to practice in various yamen are called Guanzheng.It is very kind to make it experience practical things in addition to academic theory.Then it also became a text.Shu Jishi was not exclusive to Hanlin at first.At the time of Chengzu, he was ordered to be below the second-level Jinshi, and those who were excellent in arts and sciences were selected as Shuji scholars of the Imperial Academy. Since then, they have been selected by the Imperial Academy.Later, he returned to study Wenyuan Pavilion.Select Han (Hanlin Academy) and Zhan (Zhan Shifu) as official teachers.After three years of study, the exam is awarded to officials, which is called the dissolution of the museum.The background is particularly excellent.Qing system: Second and third-class Jinshi, also have to select Shujishi.The place where he studied is called Shuchangguan.Select one Manchu and Han bachelors to teach each other, which is regarded as a place for talent storage.However, what he has learned is nothing more than poetry, Fu and lower script.In the Song Dynasty, the township examination was only a test level, and it could not directly enter the official position.The beginning of the Ming Dynasty was also the way to become an official.Jugong is not only specific to miscellaneous streams, but Jinshi is also specific to Jugong.The so-called combined use of the three ways will become (1) a Jinshi, (2) a tribute, and (3) an official (see "Ming History Election Records").In the course of official career, offering tribute is also subject to contempt and exclusion, not to mention miscellaneous affairs.清制以科目、贡监、荫生为正途，荐举、捐纳、吏员为异途，异途之受歧视亦殊甚。然及末造，捐纳大行，仕途拥挤，亦虽欲歧视而不可得了。 卖官之制，起于汉武帝。《史记·平准书》所谓“入羊为郎”、“入财者得补郎”、“吏得入谷补官”、买武功爵者试补吏皆是。后世虽有秕政，然不为法令。明有纳粟入监之例，亦仍须入监读书。清则仅存虚名。实官捐，顺康时已屡开，嘉道后尤数，内官自郎中，外官自道府而下，皆可报捐。直至光绪二十七年才停，从学校、科举、吏员等出身之士，虽不必有学识，究不容一物不知，捐纳则更无制限，而其数又特多。既系出资买来，自然视同营业。清季仕途人员的拥塞，流品的冗杂，贪污的特盛，实在和捐纳之制，是大有关系的。 元代各机关长官，多用蒙古人。清朝则官缺分为满、汉、包衣、汉军、蒙古，这实在是一种等级制度（已见第四十章）。满缺有一部分是专属于宗室的，其选举权在宗人府；包衣属内务府，均不属吏部。 以上所说，大略都是取士之制，即从许多人民中，拔擢出一部分人来，给他以做官的资格。其就已有做官资格的人，再加选试，而授之以官，则普通称为“铨选”。其事于古当属司马，说已见前。汉朝，凡有做官的资格，而还未授官的，皆拜为郎，属于光禄勋，分属五官中郎将、左中郎将、右中郎将，谓之三署郎。光禄勋岁于其中举茂材四行。其选授之权，初属三公府，东西曹主其事。后来尚书的吏曹，渐起而攘夺其权。灵帝时，吕强上言：“旧典选举，委任三府。”“今但任尚书，或复敕用。”可见到后汉末，三公已不大能参预选举了。曹魏以后，既不设宰相，三公等官，亦不复参与政事，选权遂专归尚书。唐制：文选属于吏部，武选属于兵部。吏部选官，自六品以下，都先试其书、判，观其身、言。五品以上则不试，上其名于中书门下。宋初，选权分属中书、枢密及审官院，吏部惟注拟州县官。熙宁改制，才将选权还之吏部。神宗说古者文武不分途，不以文选属吏，武选属兵为然。于是文武选皆属吏部，由尚书、侍郎，分主其事。明清仍文选属吏，武选属兵。明代吏部颇有大权，高官及边任等，虽或由廷推，或由保举，然实多由吏部主其事。清代则内分于军机、内阁，外分于督、抚，吏部所司，真不过一吏之任而已。外官所用僚属，自南北朝以前，均由郡县长官，自行选用（其权属于功曹），所用多系本地人。隋文帝始废之，佐官皆由吏部选授。此与选法之重资格而轻衡鉴，同为一大变迁，而其原理是相同的，即不求有功，但求防弊。士大夫蔽于阶级意识，多以此等防弊之法为不然。然事实上，所谓官僚阶级，总是以自利为先，国事为后的。无以防之，势必至于泛滥不可收拾。所以防弊之法，论者虽不以为然，然事实上卒不能废，且只有日益严密。 用人由用之者察度其才不才，谓之衡鉴。鉴是取譬于镜子，所以照见其好坏；衡则取喻于度量衡，所以定其程度的。用人若在某范围之中，用之者得以自由决定其取合，不受何等法律的限制，则谓之有衡鉴之权。若事事须依成法办理，丝毫不能自由，即谓之依据资格。二者是正相反对的。资格用人，起于后魏崔亮的停年格，专以停解先后为断，是因胡灵后秉政，许武人入选，仕途拥挤，用此为手段，以资对付的。崔亮自己亦不以为然。北齐文襄帝做尚书时，就把它废掉了。唐开元时，裴光庭又创循资格。然自中叶以后，检校、试、摄、判、知之法大行，皆以资格不相当之人任事，遂开宋朝以差遣治事之端。明孙丕扬创掣签法。资格相同者，纳签于筒，在吏部堂上，由候选者亲掣（不到者由吏部堂官代掣）。当时亦系用以对付中人请托的（见于慎行《笔麈》），然其后卒不能废。大抵官吏可分为政务官和事务官。政务官以才识为重，自不能专论资格。事务官不过承上官之命，依据法律，执行政务。其事较少变化。用法能得法外意，虽是极好的事，然其事太无凭据，若都藉口学识，破弃资格，一定得才的希望少，徇私的弊窦多。所以破格用人，只可视为偶然之事，在常时必不能行，历来诋资格之论，都是凭臆为说，不察实际情形的。 回避之法，亦是防弊的一端。此事古代亦无之。因为回避之法，不外两端：（一）系防止人与人间的关系，（二）则防止人与其所治的地方的关系。在世官制度之下，世家大族，左右总是姻亲；而地不过百里，东西南北，亦总系父母之邦，何从讲起回避？地方既小，政治之监察既易，舆论之指摘亦严，要防止弊窦，亦正无藉乎回避。所以回避之法，在封建制度下，是无从发生的。郡县制度的初期，还毫无形迹，如严助、朱买臣均以吴人而为会稽守，即其明证。东汉以后，此制渐渐发生。《后汉书·蔡邕传》说：时制婚姻之家，及两州人士，不得对相监临，因此有三互之法（《注》：三互，谓婚姻之家，及两州人不得交互为官也），是为回避之法之始。然其法尚不甚严。至近世乃大为严密。在清代，惟教职止避本府，余皆须兼避原籍、寄籍及邻省五百里以内。京官父子、祖孙，不得同在一署。外官则五服之内，母、妻之父及兄弟、女婿、外甥、儿女姻亲、师生，均不得互相统属（皆以卑避尊）。此等既以防弊，亦使其人免得为难，在事实上亦不得不然。惟近代省区太大，服官的离本籍太远，以致不悉民情风俗，甚至言语不通，无从为治。以私计论，来往川资，所费大巨，到任时已不易筹措，罢官后竟有不能归家的，未免迫人使入于贪污，亦是立法未善之处。 选举之法，无论如何严密，总不过慎之于任用之初。（一）人之究有德行才识与否，有时非试之以事不能知；（二）亦且不能保其终不变节。（三）又监督严密，小人亦可为善，监督松弛，中人不免为非；所以考课之法，实较选举更为重要。然其事亦倍难。因为（一）考试之法，可将考者与被考者隔离；（二）且因其时间短，可用种种方法防弊；（三）不幸有弊，所试以文字为凭，亦易于复试磨勘，在考课则办不到。考课之法，最早见于书传的，是《书经》的三载考绩，三考黜陟（《尧典》，今本《舜典》）。《周官》太宰，以八柄诏王驭群臣（一曰爵，二曰禄，三曰予，四曰置，五曰生，六曰夺，七曰废，八曰诛），亦系此法。汉朝京房欲作考功课吏法，因此为石显所排。王符著《潜夫论》极称之，谓为致太平之甚（见《考绩篇》）。魏世刘劭，亦曾受命作都官考课及说略。今其所著《人物志》具存，论观人之法极精，盖远承《文王官人》之绪（《大戴礼记》篇名。《周书》亦有此篇，但称《官人》）。按京房尝受学焦延寿，延寿称“得我道以亡身者，京生也”。京房《易》学，虽涉荒怪，然汉世如此者甚多，何致有亡身之惧？疑《汉书》文不完具。京房课吏之法，实受诸延寿，得我道以亡身之说，实指课吏之法言之。如此，则考课之法，在古代亦系专门之业，而至后来乃渐失其传者了。后世无能讲究此学的。其权，则初属于相府，后移于尚书，而专属于吏部。虽有种种成法，皆不过奉行故事而已（吏部系总考课的大成的。各机关的属官，由其长官考察；下级机关，由上级机关考察，为历代所同。考课有一定年限。如明代，京官六年一考察，谓之京察。外官三年一考察，谓之外察，亦谓之大计，武职谓之军政。清朝均三年一行。考察有一定的项目，如清朝文官，以守、才、政、年为四格。武官又别有字样，按格分为三等。又文武官均以不谨、疲软、浮躁、才力不及、年老、有疾为六法。犯此者照例各有处分。然多不核其实，而人事的关系却颇多。高级的官，不由吏、兵部决定的，明有自陈，清有由部开列事实请旨之法，余皆由吏、兵部处理）。