Chapter 45 Chapter 42 Official System

The official system is the most complicated one in the political system. (1) There have been many officials in the past dynasties, and (2) there have been changes from time to time. (3) Its changes are not caused by reviewing the inconsistencies between the facts and the system, and systematically correcting them, but by allowing them to change.So there are things that have a name but no reality, and there are things that have a reality but no name.Since the name does not match the reality, it is impossible to know the reality by following the name.And there is no theory to follow in the division of duties of various officials.It is not easy to seek to understand the truth.However, the official system is, after all, a political program.For the state to achieve its purpose, there must be people to carry it out.Those who do this are the so-called officials.Therefore, knowing the officials established in a certain era, one can know the politics of that time.For the official system of the past dynasties, if we can know its changes, we can also know its political changes.

People's views are always a little behind the times.The era is only new, but what people know is limited to the old.The way to deal with the future is always calculated according to the past situation.So in any case, it cannot be fully combined.The system has only been established, that is, it is no longer suitable for use.The system can't hold back the facts, (1) it cannot be done if it is not qualified, and (2) it exists in name only. This is true of all systems, and the official system is no exception.The official system in our country can be roughly divided into six periods: (1) Since before the Zhou Dynasty, it was the system of the times of various countries. (2) The system of the unified era of Qin and early Han was conceived at the end of it. (3) Because it generally degenerated from the age of nations, it is not very suitable for the unified era, and it will change soon.The results of changes in various aspects are extremely mixed and uneven.It was not until the Tang Dynasty that it was sorted out and became a systematic system. (4) However, as soon as the collation is ready, it does not match the facts.After the middle of the Tang Dynasty, there were changes, and the Song Dynasty followed it. (5) Yuan used a foreign race to rule the Central Plains, and its facilities have their own special features.The Ming Dynasty followed it.The system of the Qing Dynasty roughly followed the Ming Dynasty.However, due to the different actual situations, the systems of the three dynasties had their own great contradictions and differences. (6) At the end of the Qing Dynasty, due to the change of the political system, the official system also changed accordingly.But it didn't take long, and the effect was not obvious.To this day, it is still in turmoil.The general outline of its changes has been briefly mentioned above, and a brief explanation will be given below.Due to time constraints, we can only reveal its outline.

Officials are divided into internal and external.The internal officials are the officials of the central government, who are divided into tasks and governed.The government affairs of the whole country are gathered here, classified according to their nature, and one official manages a class of things.There is also the so-called prime minister who decides the policy of administration based on the overall situation.Foreign officials divide the land and rule.Within its boundaries, in principle, everything should be managed.If it is outside the boundary, everything will be ignored.Local divisions are divided into sizes according to grades.A large upper-level division contains several lower-level smaller divisions.In administration, subordinates must obey the orders of superiors.This is the general rule of the official system in the past dynasties.

The world where the nations stood side by side, by the Spring and Autumn Period and the Warring States Period, was already close to the system of the unified era.Because during this period, several counties and counties were already included in the big country.But in itself, it is still only equal to the largest political region in later generations.The official system of various countries: Today's writers often talk about Sangong, Jiuqing, Twenty-seven Doctors, and Eighty-one Yuanshi.But this is just Jue, and he didn't say his duty.According to modern writers, the three princes are Sima, Situ, and Sikong.Jiuqing has no clear text.Ancient writers said that Taishi, Taifu, and Taibao are the three princes.Shaoshi, Shaofu, and Shaobao are the three orphans.Zhongzai (Heavenly Official), Situ (District Official), Zongbo (Spring Official), Sima (Summer Official), Sikou (Autumn Official), and Sikong (Winter Official), are the Six Ministers (Xu Shen's "Five Classics").According to the three gongs mentioned in this article, they match heaven, earth, and people (Sima masters heaven, Situ masters, and Sikong masters land).The six ministers mentioned in the ancient Chinese are matched with heaven, earth, and four seasons.In addition, there are also sayings such as matching the five sense organs with the five elements (see "Zuo Zhuan" in the seventeenth and twenty-ninth years of Zhaogong. "Spring and Autumn Fanlu·Five Elements Comparing Chapter").This is nothing more than taking ancient officials, picking a few at random, and arranging them to conform to the order of the theory.It may not be consistent with the ancient facts.The important officials in ancient times are not limited to these; it is not that these few officials are particularly important, but these few officials are also important.Sima is in charge of the military, Situ is in charge of the people, and Sikong is in charge of construction affairs.In ancient cave dwellings, a hole was dug on the ground, so it was called Sikong (Kong is the Chinese character for Kong used today). "Zhou Guan" Dong Guan was lost, and later generations used "Kao Gong Ji" to supplement it (in fact, this sentence is also unreliable. The nature is not the same, but it can be supplemented? However, "Kao Gong Ji" also talks about the official system. And "Kao Gong Ji" "Zhou Guan" is similar in nature, the ancients regarded it as the same kind of books, and they were compiled together, and later generations mistakenly thought it was just a supplement). "Zhou Guan" did not mean that Sikong was in charge of fortifications. Later generations imitated "Zhou Guan" and set up six parts, but used the Ministry of Industry to imitate Sikong.Zukazai, the president's hundred officials, is also in charge of the affairs of the palace. He should have been the leader of the group of servants in the first place.Therefore, there are also butchers in the doctor's family.As for the sons of heaven and princes, they are actually the same.The institutional differences between the Son of Heaven and the feudal lords, and between big and small countries, are so neatly stated by the writers, and may not be completely consistent with reality.The Zong Bo palm ceremony has the least relationship with politics, but in the ancient superstitious world, rituals such as sacrifices were considered quite grand.Si Kou is in charge of criminal law, and he was originally a military judge (see Chapter 46 for details).The three princes sit and discuss the Tao, and the three solitary are the deputy, and they have no duties.According to "Book of Rites Zeng Ziwen" said: "A man in ancient times had a father inside and a loving mother outside." Those who are gentle, courteous and thrifty, prudent and taciturn, should be teachers, followed by loving mothers, and then babysitters." Taishi, Taifu, and Taibao are just like the three mothers of Shi, Ci, and Bao.Gu Fu also taught Fu, and the two characters cover the original language, which cannot be called a woman, so it is changed into classical Chinese.However, the Sangong in the ancient text was originally the personal attendant of the emperor, and had nothing to do with political affairs, so he had no duties to speak of. "Zhou Guan" talks about sitting and discussing the Tao, which is collected from "Kao Gong Ji". "Zhou Guan" was actually misused.All in all: the ancient theories of modern texts are all theories of the Spring and Autumn Period and the Warring States Period, and may not be closely related to the facts of ancient times.Then the people who set the system in the world mostly use the scriptures as the blueprint.Therefore, although it is not an ancient fact, it is the origin of the system of later generations.

The regional divisions of the ages of the nations were as large as the villages and towns of later generations.There are also two sayings: "Shangshu Dazhuan" said: "In ancient times, eight families were neighbors, three neighbors were friends, three friends were miles (seventy-two families, see the previous chapter), five miles were towns, ten A town is a capital, ten capitals are teachers, and a prefecture has two teachers." This is what Jinwen said. "Zhou Guan" compares the township with five families, and the ratio is long.The five ratios are Lu, and Lu has Xu.Four Lu is a family, and the family has teachers.The five ethnic groups are the party, and the party has justice.The five parties are the state, and the state has a governor.The five states are townships, and there are doctors in the township.So the five families are neighbors, and neighbors have elders.The five neighbors are the neighborhood, and there is a slaughter in the neighborhood.The four miles are 酂, and the 酂 has length.Wufeng is contempt, and contempt has a teacher.Wuji is the county, and the county has justice.The five counties are Sui, so there are doctors.This is the ancient saying.Of these two statements, the former is consistent with the well-field system, and the latter is consistent with the military establishment, which should have existed in ancient times.Later, the Jingtian system was destroyed, so the Shiwu system still existed, and the organization mentioned by modern writers was no longer visible.

The official system in the early Han Dynasty was inherited from the Qin Dynasty.The Qin system followed the era of other countries.The highest official in the central government is the prime minister.Qin has left and right, and Han usually has only one prime minister.The deputy of the prime minister is Yushi Dafu (officials in the central government, who are all divided into tasks. Only Yushi is the emperor's secretary, and he is omniscient in everything, so in fact he becomes the deputy of the prime minister. When the prime minister was vacant during the Han Dynasty, Often promoted by Yushi doctor), the military officer is commonly called Wei.The highest military officer in the central government is called Taiwei.This is the system of Qin and early Han Dynasty.After Jinwen Jing said it, the Taiwei was changed to Sima, the Prime Minister was Situ, and the Yushi doctor was Sikong.And Yi Taichang (real name Fengchang, in charge of etiquette of the ancestral temple), Guang Luxun (real name Lang Zhongling, in charge of the palace, palace, and tuck gate), Wei Wei (in charge of the palace gate and guard troops), Tai Pu (in charge of horses), Ting Wei ( In charge of Xingpi, changed to Dali), Dahonglu (real name Dianke, Zhang Guiyi barbarian), Zongzheng (hand relative), Da Si Nong (real name Zhi Su Nei Shi, palm Guhuo), Shaofu (Zhang Shanhai Chi Ze's tax), for Jiuqing.This is nothing more than a paraphrase, and has no other meaning.There is no theoretical basis for the Jiuqing of the Sangong Branch (Taichang, Guangluxun, and Weiwei belong to Sima, Taipu, Yanwei, and Dahonghe belong to Situ, Zongzheng, Da Sinong, and Shaofu belong to Sikong).There are still major issues to discuss.In the later Han Dynasty, Sima was still called Taiwei.Situ and Sikong both removed their big characters, and the rest remained the same.

Foreign officials: In Qin Dynasty, counties were governed by prefectures.In addition, there are supervisors and censors in all counties.The Han Dynasty did not send the censor, and the prime minister sent an envoy to divide Chazhou (the state is not the name of the area at that time, and later generations have no name for it, but it is called the state. Therefore, until Emperor Cheng changed to the state animal husbandry, the state was just a mouthful. title, not a legal term).At the time of Emperor Wu, there were thirteen assassins in the Ministry, and six imperial edicts were issued to divide the prefectures. Fifth, Tiaocha's children are lawless, and they are all exclusive to the prefect. Sixth, Tiaocha's prefect Afu Haoqiang).At the time of Emperor Cheng, according to He Wu's words, it was changed to state animal husbandry.In the reign of Emperor Ai, he became the governor again.Later it was changed to state pastoral care.The later Han Dynasty was still the governor, but only twelve states, and one state belonged to Sili Xiaowei (Emperor Wu set it up to control witches, and later ordered him to divide and inspect some counties).According to the "Book of Rites King System": "The Son of Heaven made his senior officer the third supervisor, and supervised him in Fang Bo's country, and the country has three people." This may be attached to the third supervisor at the beginning of the Zhou Dynasty. In fact, the king of a big country sends envoys to monitor the small countries he seals or belongs to), then everything is possible.The rank of a doctor is definitely lower than that of Fang Bo.The head of the censor in the Qin Dynasty was no more than a doctor.The rank of the governor of the Han Dynasty is only six hundred stones, and the rank of the prefect is two thousand stones.Being humble and respectful must not be a specially created system, it must be accepted.In terms of facts, it is better to use young and new recruits as supervisors, and it is better to use experienced and prestigious people as officials, and the treatment is also very appropriate.He Wu said: "In ancient times, those who governed respected the humble, and did not regard the humble as superior", which is not only inconsistent with the matter, but also does not understand the scriptures.The restoration of the old system is due to Zhu Bo, whose arguments are contained in the "Hanshu", which is much more accessible than He Wu.Taishou, originally named Shou in the Qin Dynasty, was renamed by Emperor Han Jing.Qin also set up lieutenants in various counties, and Emperor Jing also changed it to Duwei.The land of the capital was ruled by internal history in Qin Dynasty.Emperor Wu of the Han Dynasty changed its name to Jingzhao Yin, and divided its land into Zuo Fengyi and You Fufeng, which were called Sanfu.The kingdom of the kings has the same official basis as the Han Dynasty.There is also internal history to govern the people.After the Seven Kingdoms Rebellion, Emperor Jing ordered the princes and kings not to govern the people, and changed the name of their prime ministers to prime ministers, so that they governed the people just like county guards.The rank of county chiefs is based on the number of households.More than 10,000 households are called orders, and those who are dissatisfied with 10,000 households are called leaders.This is due to the fact that ancient politics was humanism rather than territorialism.The level of the Hou country is the same as that of the county.The county where the empress dowager and the princess eat is called Yi.The county also has the so-called Tao of barbarians.This is also the color of feudalism and humanism.

The counties in the Qin and Han Dynasties were the ancient kingdoms, as you can see in Chapter 39.The county magistrate is the ancient monarch, who can only hold the political cardinal, issue instructions, and supervise his subordinates.It is impossible to ask him to do things directly.Therefore, real civil administration must rely on local self-government.The system of local self-government in later generations is being abolished day by day, so everything is abolished.It was not the case in Qin and Han Dynasties.According to "Hanshu·Baiguan Gongqing Biao" and "Continued Hanshu·Baiguanzhi": the system at that time was based on ten families, five families as a team, and a hundred families in one li. Supervisor.There is a pavilion for ten miles, and the pavilion is long.There are ten pavilions and one township. There are three elders in the township, and there are rank cowards and wanderers.The three elders are disciplined, and the system is the most respected.The stingy husband hears lawsuits and collects taxes, and his power is particularly important.There are some people who know cowards but don't know there are counties (see "Book of Later Han Yuan Yan Biography"), which is completely different from later generations.

The above is the system of Qin and early Han.It didn't take long for things to change.The prime minister in the Han Dynasty had a respectable system and wide authority.The so-called Shangshu is the one who manages the documents for the emperor, just like the one who manages the clothes is called Shangyi, and the one who manages food is called Shangshi.It was originally used as a scholar, but when Emperor Wu of the Han Dynasty went to the back court for banquets, he changed to use eunuchs, which is called Zhongshu Yezheling.After the death of Emperor Wu, this official could have been abolished, but since Emperor Wu, the general has become a high-ranking military officer.In the era of Zhaoxuan, Huo Guang took power as a general.At that time, the prime ministers were all useless or old people, and all political affairs came from them, and they were followed unchanged.When he became emperor, the eunuchs of Zhongshu were dismissed, but Shangshu was still the political book, which was divided into Cao Jianguang.In Guangwu of the later Han Dynasty, it is necessary to practice the art of supervision and responsibility.Because the prime minister is a person of high prestige, it is inconvenient to supervise him, so he is honored with a false name, and all political affairs are assigned to the minister.The power of Shangshu is greater.Emperor Wu of Wei seized power, abolished the three princes, and restored the posts of prime minister and royal doctor.At this time, the Xiangfu regained power, but it was only a flash in the pan.After Wei Wendi usurped the Han Dynasty, the prime minister's office was abolished and not established.From the Wei and Jin Dynasties to the Southern and Northern Dynasties, most people and ministers set it up when they are about to usurp the throne, and cancel it when they have usurped.At this time, Shangshu was selected for government affairs, but he was close to Zhongshu.Zhongshu was the secretary supervisor set up by Emperor Wu of Wei when he was the king of Wei. It was renamed after Emperor Wen usurped the throne, and he often discussed secrets with the emperor.So at the beginning of the Jin Dynasty, when Xun Xu moved from Zhongshu Supervisor to Shangshu Ling, and he was congratulated, he said angrily, "How can you congratulate me on taking my Fenghuangchi?"A servant is an official who serves the emperor in the palace confinement.In the early Han Dynasty, it was mostly named Confucianism.The children of noble relatives have always abused their positions.Emperor Wen of the Song Dynasty came to Li from Jingzhou, trusted the old staff of the palace, and made him a servant, and planned to kill Xu Xianzhi with him, so the servant also participated in the secret.In the Tang Dynasty, the three provinces of Zhongshu, Menxia, ​​and Shangshu were appointed as ministers.The master of Zhongshu takes the purpose, the master of the sect repudiates it, and the minister inherits it.Shang Shu Zhu Cao, after the Wei and Jin Dynasties, more and more extensive, all have Lang to handle affairs.Shangshu also has Cao Cao.In the Sui Dynasty, the six divisions of officials, households, rites, soldiers, criminals, and workers began to rule the various divisions.The six Caos are all appointed as ministers, and the various divisions are only assigned to be ministers. This is the beginning of six divisions for later generations to manage the country's government affairs.Officials such as the Sangong were also established from time to time after the Wei and Jin Dynasties, and they were not involved in political affairs, but they still opened the government to divide the cao and set up bureaucrats.In the Sui and Tang Dynasties, "Zhou Guan" was imitated, and the Taishi, Taifu, and Taibao were regarded as the three princes, and the Shaoshi, Shaofu, and Shaobao were regarded as the three orphans, with no official affiliation.Then it really becomes a false name, and there is nothing to spend on finances.Officials such as Jiuqing, in terms of nature, actually overlap with the six departments.However, it has been followed in the past dynasties and has never been abolished.After the Yushi doctor was changed to Sikong, the Yushi's agency is still there.Its official and there are additions.In the Tang Dynasty, it was divided into three courtyards: Taiyuan, which belonged to the Shi Yushi.It is called the palace courtyard, and the royal servant in the palace belongs to it.It is called the Supervisory Court, which belongs to the supervisory censor.The censor is the eyes and ears of the emperor, and the autocratic monarchs of all dynasties must guard against the obstruction of their subordinates, so their power is becoming more and more important.

In the former Han Dynasty, it was very short-lived to change the history of the governor to the governor of the state.By the end of the Later Han Dynasty, the situation was quite different.In the later Han Dynasty, the governor of the state was changed to the governor of the state. It happened in the fifth year of Lingdi Zhongping.Ordinary discussions say that since then, external power has become more important.In fact, it is not always the case.At that time, the governor's job was not changed to state pastor (probably the senior ones were pastors, the junior ones were still governors, and some were promoted from governors to pastors).However, no matter whether he is the governor or the state shepherd, he has actually become the superior official of the county, not the post of supervisor.And they all have military power, so naturally they will be too big to lose.The separation of the Three Kingdoms and the system of governors holding soldiers has not been changed yet.It was a source of chaos, and everyone knew it at the time.Therefore, after Emperor Wu of Jin pacified Wu, he immediately dismissed the state herdsmen and provincial governors' soldiers, lost their administrative power, and returned to the post of supervisor.This is really the law of long-term stability and long-term governance.It's a pity that "although there are words, there are no deeds."However, later generations of commentators turned to Emperor Wu of Jin's banzhou county military equipment as the root cause of the chaos, which is really a name without knowing the truth.After the Eastern Jin Dynasty, the Five Hus were disrupted, and the people were displaced from place to place. At this time, politics was still tinged with humanism.So overseas Chinese set up prefectures and counties everywhere, and the territory of the prefectures became smaller and smaller, until they were no different from counties (the Han Dynasty had only thirteen prefectures, and the territory of the Liang Dynasty was far smaller than that of the Han Dynasty, with 107 prefectures).At this time, external power is more important, and there are so-called military governors. Some supervise several states with one person, and some supervise dozens of states with one person.There are even those who are said to be the governors of Chinese and foreign armies.This was the case in the Jin, Southern and Northern Dynasties.The latter week is called the general manager.In the Sui Dynasty, the prefectures were merged to the first level (in the third year of Emperor Wen's reign, the prefectures were dismissed, and the counties were governed by the prefectures, with the same post as prefects. Emperor Yangdi changed the prefectures to prefectures), and the governor's office was dismissed.At the beginning of the Tang Dynasty, there were also chief executives and general managers, who were later renamed Dadudu and Dudu, and then dismissed.Divide the world into several ways, set up officials such as observers, and return to the old days of supervision.

The official system of the Tang Dynasty was organized based on the systems of the Eastern Han, Wei, Jin, and Northern and Southern Dynasties.In fact, it may not be in line with the current situation at the time.Therefore, there are not many customizations, and changes start again.The governors of the three provinces do not eliminate people.But as far as his official plus one Zhongshu Menxia Pingzhangshi and other titles, it is regarded as a relative post.In fact, the chiefs of these two provinces are still collaborating in the political affairs hall, and it is not after the fact that they will review and refute.Although the governor was abolished, after the middle period, there were so-called Jiedu envoys (see Chapter 45), and most of the places where the governors were stationed were concurrently led by them.The governors of Zhijun were also oppressed by him and dereliction of duty.Its domineering, even more than the previous generation of governors.These two ends are the ones that have changed the most.After the middle period, the titles of inspection, examination, photography, judgment, and knowledge were established, and many people were employed without qualifications, which was the root cause of the Song Dynasty's use of dispatch to manage affairs. In the Song Dynasty, Zhongshu Province was established in Banzhong.The prime minister is called Tongping Zhangshi, and the second phase is called Shenzhizhengshi.Since the middle of the Tang Dynasty, the Ministry of Households could not manage all the wealth of the world, and it belonged to the two envoys of Duzhi and Yantie.In the Song Dynasty, the Ministry of Household Affairs, Duzhi, and Yantie were combined into three divisions, each with an envoy and a deputy to handle matters on a case-by-case basis.There are also three divisions, envoys and deputy, in short, named as the planner.The privy envoys were eunuchs in the Tang Dynasty, and the master conveyed the imperial edict.Later, because the eunuch held the army, he became an official who participated in the military strategy.The Song Dynasty also used the Privy Council as the main military strategist.Commander, an officer under this feudal town.After Liang Taizu usurped the throne, he did not make any reforms, so he became the emperor's pro-army.The Forbidden Army in the Song Dynasty was all subordinate to the Dianqian Division, the Guards' Horse Army Division, and the Guards' Infantry Division.Each set up a command envoy, which is called the three yamen.Officials in the early Song Dynasty were only ranked by their salary (that is, to show how big their official is and how much salary they eat), not by sending them to manage affairs.For a person named a certain official, the official's duties have nothing to do with him.On the surface, it looks like a mess.However, the storage, abolition, separation and reunion of dispatches are more free than those of officials, and they can work closely together.Therefore, Kang Youwei's "Official System Discussion" contains an article "Song Official System is the Best", which is highly praised for its system.The reform of the official system in the Song Dynasty was done by Shenzong Yuanfeng, using the "Six Classics of Tang Dynasty" as a model, but it could not be fully implemented.The system of taking the three provincial governors as ministers has undergone repeated changes, and the death is still the same as the same level, and the old one is a member of the political affairs; , it can be seen that. At the beginning of the Song Dynasty, the domineering feudal towns were punished, all the towns were called into the court, the capital was bestowed on the first, and the courtiers were ordered to go out to guard the counties, which was called the right to know the military and state affairs.Ad hoc general judgment to divide its power.The county magistrate also ordered the officials of the Beijing Dynasty to go out to know, so as to reduce the power of the feudal towns and emphasize the selection of people close to the people.Ad hoc envoys are the most.The most important ones, such as transshipment envoys, are the wealth along the way; dispatch envoys, grain from the six routes of Caohuai, Zhejiang, Jiang, and Lake.He, like Changping Tea Salt, Tea Horse, Kengye, and Shibo, also set up a promotion department to concentrate power on the central government.Emperor Taizong ordered all the transfer envoys, and each ordered one of the regular officers to picket the state army's prison.During the reign of Emperor Zhenzong, it became an independent department, which was called Tidian Xingyu, or Tixing for short.It is the beginning of setting up a division to supervise judicial affairs.After crossing to the south, Sichuan had the chief wealth.After the dismissal of the Sanxuan Fusi (see Chapter 45), a general was also set up to raise his salary.If you still have the title of military horse in front of the imperial court, you will participate in military affairs. In the Yuan Dynasty, the Minister of Zhongshu was the prime minister, the privy envoy was in charge of the army, and the censor Taisi was the picket.The establishment of Shangshu Province is dedicated to ministers who speak profitably.If the officials who talk about profit are defeated, the province will also be abolished.However, the six parts still exist, which were the basis of the Ming and Qing dynasties.The establishment of the Xuanzheng Yuan in the central government to govern the territory of Tubo was also the foundation of the system of the Qing Dynasty acting vassal court.In the Yuan Dynasty system, the most important thing is the province.The Shangshu Xingtai and so on in the previous generation were all temporarily set up to deal with temporary matters, and they were withdrawn as soon as they were settled.In the Yuan Dynasty, in the Central Plains, Xingzhong Shusheng and Xingyushitai were set up to govern Lufu, prefectures and counties.Although the Ming Dynasty abolished it and set up two divisions, the Buzheng and the Inspection Division, the area is still the same as the Yuan Dynasty.The Qing Dynasty was still as old as the Ming Dynasty.Although it has been analyzed a little, it is still huge and unremarkable, so it is said that the governance is careless, and the tail is too big to drop.At the beginning of the Tang Dynasty, Wei Jingzhao and Henan were called the prefects of the prefectures. Later, Liangzhou was promoted to Xingyuan Mansion because it was fortunate that Dezong was on the tour.In the Song Dynasty, all big states were elevated to prefectures, and there was almost a trend of no state but no prefecture.The area under its jurisdiction is called the road.In the Yuan Dynasty, Xuanwei Division was set up in various roads, and it belonged to the province by leading the prefectures and counties.However, there are also those in the government that are not connected to the road but are directly connected to the province.Some prefectures are affiliated to the government, and some are not affiliated to the government, but are directly affiliated to the road. The system is very mixed. The systems of the Ming and Qing dynasties were roughly the same.Among them, the most relevant one is the abolition of the prime minister internally, and the formation of the provincial system externally.In the early Ming Dynasty, the Zhongshu Province was also set up as a ministerial post.Later, because of Hu Weiyong's rebellion, the great ancestor abolished his official position, and ordered the descendants not to discuss the establishment of a prime minister.Any minister who asks to appoint a prime minister shall be sentenced to death.So the emperor personally led the six parts.This is beyond the ability of the master of the successor, and his power gradually falls into the hands of the scholars of the palace.During the reign of Emperor Shizong of the Qing Dynasty, the Military Aircraft Office was established.Confidential matters are all handled by the military aircraft department, and the cabinet is only released after the event, and the cabinet has gradually become sparse.Six Departments: In all dynasties, the Shangshu is the main book, and the assistant minister is the deputy.In the Qing Dynasty, the servants were all Manchu and Han juxtaposed.There are three ministries of officials, households, and soldiers, and there are also ministers in charge of the ministries, so that the powers and responsibilities are different.After the prime minister was abolished in the Ming Dynasty, government affairs were directly handled by the six ministries.Although it was seen that it was suppressed by the cabinet in the end, the power is still there.The two ministries of officials and soldiers, especially those who have the power to use people and command the military, in the Qing Dynasty, the five ranks of internal officials, and the external officials above the Taoist government were all presided over by the cabinet.The right to raise borders rests entirely with military aircraft.In addition, the six ministries of the Ming Dynasty employed more young recruits, while the Qing Dynasty only followed qualifications, and it was extremely difficult to transfer internal officials.The management department is part-time, so it cannot be responsible.So everything was perfunctory as usual, and the administration was completely lifeless. An official of the censor, until the Ming Dynasty, because of his rights and interests, he was renamed the Metropolitan Procuratorate.The capital censor, deputy capital censor, and Qiandu censor are evenly divided into left and right.There is also a separate supervisory censor.Outside, patrolling the Qing army, the admiral's school, patrolling the water, patrolling the salt, etc., are all entrusted, and the patrolling of the censor on behalf of the emperor is particularly important.This is the job of the governor of the Han Dynasty.Now that there are patrols, there is no need to send envoys.Even if there are special affairs, it is necessary to send envoys, and it is better to have fewer.Then the so-called governors came more and more frequently.Because it is not under the same jurisdiction as the patrolling censor, the authority conflicts are inevitable, so the imperial censor was sent to do it.Those who are also military affairs are given the title of governor, and those who have jurisdiction over many matters are called governors.In the Qing Dynasty, the governor was also the minister of the Ministry of War, the censor of the right capital, the governor of the right capital was also the minister of the military department, and the deputy capital of the right was the censor.Give an official in the matter, and the previous generations were all subordinates to the province.Ming abolished the door to go to the province, but still kept it in Shizhong, and became an independent official, divided into six departments of officials, households, rites, soldiers, criminals, and engineering, and was refuted by the review of the department.What he refuted is that the so-called Keshen was very authoritative in the Ming Dynasty. Emperor Shizong of the Qing Dynasty was subordinate to the Metropolitan Procuratorate, so he confused review and picketing.In the Tang Dynasty, Hanlin was the place where people with artistic skills (such as calligraphy, painting, chess, etc.) waited for imperial edicts. worship.With the Bachelor of Jixian Hall, he is in charge of making patents separately.Later, it was renamed Bachelor, and the Academy of Bachelor was established, which was named after Hanlin.After the middle period, it was quite confidential. Wang Shuwen wanted to get rid of eunuchs, that is, he lived in the Hanlin, which shows the importance of his status.In the Song Dynasty, he was a scholar of literature, and his hope became clearer.After the middle of the Ming Dynasty, non-jinshi did not enter the Hanlin, and non-Hanlin did not enter the cabinet. The six ministers also came out from then on.Its importance is beyond the reach of the previous generation. Foreign officials: Ming abolished the provinces, set up two departments above the prefectures and prefectures, and set up two departments, the civil affairs department and the criminal department, and they were still the officials of the supervisory department.It is inevitable for the officials of the supervisory department to encroach on the authority of the local officials.In the Qing Dynasty, the governor became a permanent official, and the chief secretary of the Ming Dynasty participated in the political affairs and counseling. In between, it seems that they don't become first-class.It is the system of Tang and Song Dynasties that Fuzhou leads counties.In the Yuan Dynasty, the prefect was ordered to manage the affairs of Fuguo County. In the Ming Dynasty, the province and county entered the state, so the state had no Fuguo County.There are also those who do not lead the county but belong to the government, so there is a difference between Zhili Prefecture and Sanzhou.In the Qing Dynasty, Tongzhi and Tongsan had their residences called the halls, which either belonged to the government or went directly to the chief secretary, and were called Santing and Zhili halls.Local systems are extremely complex.And (1) Governor, (2) Division, (3) Dao, (4) Prefecture, Zhili Prefecture, Department, (5) County, Sanzhou, Department, actually become five levels.The greater the authority of the superior, the more difficult it is for the subordinate to spread.Although there are other reasons for the deep-rooted evils and the weakening of the authority of the central government, the poor official system cannot but be blamed. In the land of vassal vassals, in the past dynasties, no officials were set up to govern the people, but only officials were set up to supervise the chiefs. This was still the case in the Qing Dynasty.The three provinces of Fengtian, Jilin and Heilongjiang were called the birthplace of Qing Dynasty.In fact, it really belongs to the Manchurian tribe, but it is only a corner of Xingjing.In addition, the entire province of Fengtian, that is, Liaodong and West in the previous generation, was originally the land of China.Ji and Hei provinces also belong to many tribes and are not owned by Manchuria.These people are still in the tribal era and cannot govern themselves with the system of prefectures and counties.The Qing Dynasty also decided to blockade the three eastern provinces and prevent the Han people from colonizing.Therefore, the method of governance not only fails to make progress, but tends to regress.In the province of Fengtian, there are only two prefectures of Fengtian and Jinzhou, and the rest are ruled by generals, deputy capitals and other military positions.Mongolia, Xinjiang, and Tibet are also governed by garrison officials.Although this has been the case in all dynasties, when the Qing Dynasty was in the right time to invade from the west, the situation would be overshadowed.After returning to Luanping in the last year, Xinjiang was changed to a province.After the Russo-Japanese War, the three eastern provinces were changed to provinces.Mongolia and Tibet also attempted to reform provinces, but failed.It is not easy to change the province in a sudden plan in the land of the vassal.Not only the people of the place feel uneasy.Even if it succeeds by chance, China does not have the talents to govern its land.The situation in Mongolia and Tibet is different from Xinjiang and the three northeastern provinces.The Han people in the three eastern provinces already account for the majority, and there are more Han people in Xinjiang, while Mongolia and Tibet are different.From the end of the Qing Dynasty to the early years of the Republic of China, it was best to implement the laws of the Federation in Mongolia and Tibet, and the central government exercised the power of diplomacy, military affairs, transportation, and currency system, while the rest was left to its own autonomy.In the Qing Dynasty, neither the situation of foreign feudal vassals was examined, nor was it the case in the interior, so it was too hasty to cause changes.In the early years of the Republic of China, he could not change his course, allowing him to be self-governing, so as to cultivate his introverted heart and put an end to the coveting of his strong neighbors.The longer you follow it, the more difficult it is to clean it up. This is exactly what Jia Sheng said, it can be crying, runny, and breathless. The above is the old official system in China. Naturally, since the communication between China and the West, there has been no change.Its first establishment was the Prime Minister's Office of State Affairs.In fact, in the eighth year of Xianfeng, the Sino-British "Tianjin Treaty" stipulated that a member of the University Scholars and Ministers should be appointed to contact the British envoys, but they were forced to do nothing and did not intend to reform.After the civil strife was pacified, the Navy Yamen was established in order to revitalize the navy.Later, the funds were diverted to repair the Summer Palace, so after the Sino-Japanese War, the Navy Yamen was abolished instead.After Gengzi, due to the treaty, the Zongli Yamen was changed to the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, before the Sixth Department of Banlie.At that time, the New Deal was held, and many ministries were established along with it.Starting from the Constitutional Discussion, the old official system was reformed, and new agencies were added to form foreign affairs, officials, civil affairs (reformed by the newly established Patrol Department), Duzhi (reformed by the Ministry of Households, and merged into the newly established Finance Department and Taxation Department), Li (Taiwan Chang, Guanglu, and Honglu Temples were merged), School (the newly established Office of Academic Affairs was reformed, and Guozijian was merged), Army (the Ministry of War was reformed, Taipu Temple and the newly established Military Training Office were merged), Agriculture and Industry (Ministry of Industry reform, the newly established Ministry of Commerce was merged into), Postal Communications, Li Fan (Reform of Li Fan Yuan), and Law (Reform of the Ministry of Criminal Affairs), except that the Ministry of Foreign Affairs has a Minister of Management Affairs and a Minister of Conference and Office. There is one Shangshu and two servants, regardless of Manchu and Han.The Metropolitan Procuratorate also set up one capital censor and two deputy capital censors. concurrent title).Dali Temple was changed into a courtyard, which was the highest judge.In the second year of Xuantong, a responsible cabinet was established, with a general assistant minister.The Department of Disarmament and the newly established Government Affairs Office and the Ministry of Li and Rites (its affairs were merged into the cabinet), and the Ministry of the Navy and the Military Advisory Office (now the General Staff Department) were added.Change the Minister to be a minister, and bear joint and several responsibilities with the general assistant.Foreign officials still regard the governor as the chief.Under it, there are five divisions of administration, division of law (according to the reform of the procuratorate), division of learning, salt transportation, and negotiation, two divisions of persuasion and patrolling, and divisions are divided into patrols and guards.Such systems are implemented in a very shallow way, and there is no merit or demerit at the beginning.From a theoretical point of view, the addition of new officials to internal officials and the deletion and merger of old officials are naturally clearer in the administrative system and more appropriate to the facts.As far as foreign officials are concerned, the crux of the reason why the end of the Qing Dynasty was so stubborn and the administration was sloppy was the provincial system.At that time, commentators also attacked more.However, it has not been reformed, and it has been carried on until now. If this point is not reformed, the entire official system will not have the spirit of renewal. After the founding of the Republic of China, the "Provisional Government Organization Outline" stipulated five administrative divisions, namely foreign affairs, internal affairs, finance, military affairs, and transportation.This is based on theoretical regulations, and this article will be revised later.There are nine ministries of army, navy, foreign affairs, justice, finance, internal affairs, education, industry, and transportation.At that time, the American system was adopted and there was no prime minister.After Sun Wen abdicated, Yuan Shikai took office in Beijing, the "Provisional Government Organization Outline" was changed to "Provisional Constitution", a prime minister was appointed, and the industry was divided into agriculture, forestry and industry and commerce.Three years later, Yuan Shikai convened a treaty meeting to amend the "Provisional Constitution" to the "Republic of China Constitution" (the so-called "New Testament").The Prime Minister was abolished, the Secretary of State was established, and the Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Industry and Commerce became the Ministry of Agriculture and Commerce.After Yuan Shikai's death, Li Yuanhong became the president and restored the prime minister.Foreign official: During the uprising of the civilian army, the person who holds military power in a province is called the governor.The person who manages the civil affairs is called the civil affairs chief.Abandoned Division, Road, House, Zhili Prefecture, Office and Sanzhou, Office of the name, but save the county.Yuan Shikai changed the governor to be a general, and the civil affairs chief to be an inspector, and set up a Daoyin under him.The national defense army rose up, and the person in charge of the military was called the governor again.Li Yuanhong became the president, and the generals and governors were called governors, and the patrol envoys were called governors.Those who hold military power in several provinces, or the territory under their control spans several provinces, are called patrol envoys.Disarmament Disarmament was initiated, and it was renamed Supervisor or Supervision of Military Affairs Aftermath, but the end remains the same.The Kuomintang is in charge of the government. During the period of political training, the party exercises power on behalf of the people, and the national government exercises governance power.Its fundamental spirit is quite different from the official systems of past dynasties, so the matter is another matter. There is no official name, but many administrative affairs actually rely on those who handle them as officials.All administration must follow certain procedures.Therefore, those who are responsible for administration must have certain skills.Senior officials are often not very proficient in this kind of technology, or even can't fully understand it, so they must be assisted by educated and practiced professionals.Such responsibilities have previously fallen on the shoulders of subordinate officials.Therefore, part of the administrative power is in his hands.Without him, things would be impossible.The disadvantage of officials is that they only know the rules.As usual, it is the same, so there is no spirit of innovation in everything.As usual, the meaning is to seek no faults, so everything is only about form, not about reality.Even using their expertise to cheat.Therefore, people who have always commented on politics have always hated officials, especially in the pre-Qing period, but their theories are also concealed.Because extraordinary things are important, but ordinary government affairs are more important and cannot be stagnant for a day.It is true that it is not good to focus on form, but if the unity of form cannot be maintained, politics will inevitably be chaotic.Prior to the end of the Qing Dynasty, subordinate officials were ordered to be dismissed, but soldiers could not do it.In fact, the so-called officials in the past, that is, the so-called civil servants now, their positions are extremely important, and they are indeed indispensable.The badness of the previous system is that (1) it regards its people too lowly, so they don't think about making progress, and they don't seek fame, but only seek profit. (2) He is too ignorant, so he can only do very dull things.Civil servants definitely need technology, but they can't have no knowledge. They must have considerable knowledge, and then they can inform the principles of the policies they do, so that they will not lose their original intentions because they are too rigid.Moreover, if the administrative person can inform the principles of politics, then the shortcomings of the established law will be discovered by him.The benefits of legislation are not trivial.The subordinate officials of the past are definitely not enough to say this. (3) The most important thing is that there is no method of appointment, and it is taught privately by others, and they are handed over to each other.Since the Republic of China, due to political innovations and rapid changes in the law, the subordinate officials in the old days were no longer able to understand them, so they were gradually eliminated naturally. However, the appointment and assessment of civil servants are not yet fully legal. This is an administrative principle. The basic part must strive for improvement. In ancient times, the size of an official position was determined by the position and fate.The so-called fate refers to the difference in car clothes and the like.The reason why the ancients saw such differences is very serious.However, due to the destruction of the feudal system, these distinctions could no longer be maintained.Although the amount of court position and salary can be distinguished, it is not obvious in the end, so there are differences in official ranks.Official products began since the Northern and Southern Dynasties.In the Southern Dynasties, Chen was divided into nine grades.In the Northern Dynasties and Wei Dynasty, among the nine ranks, they were divided into Zheng Cong; below the fourth rank, there were upper, middle and lower ranks, which was more complicated.After the Song Dynasty, the nine grades were used to divide the followers.In addition to the official products, the knighthood is still there.又有勋官、散官等，以处闲散无事的官员。此等乃国家酬庸之典，和官品的作用，各不相同的。 官俸，历代更厚薄不同，而要以近代之薄为最甚。古代大夫以上，各有封地。家之贫富，视其封地之大小、善恶，与官职的高下无关。无封地的，给之禄以代耕，是即所谓官俸。古代官俸，多用谷物，货币盛行以后，则钱谷并给。又有实物之给，又有给以公田的。明初尚有此制，不知何时废坠，专以银为官俸。而银价折合甚高，清朝又沿袭其制，于是官吏多苦贫穷。内官如部曹等，靠印结等费以自活，外官则靠火耗及陋规。上级官不亲民的，则诛求于下属。京官又靠外官的馈赠。总而言之，都是非法。然以近代官俸之薄，非此断无以自给的。而有等机关，收取此等非法的款项，实亦以其一部分支给行政费用，并非全入私囊。所以官俸的问题，极为复杂。清世宗时，曾因官俸之薄，加给养廉银，然仍不足支持。现代的官俸，较之清代，已稍觉其厚。然究尚失之于薄，而下级的公务员尤甚。又司法界的俸禄，较之行政界，不免相形见绌，这亦是亟须加以注意的。