★Looking at the world: smoke billows, barbarism replaces rationality, Franco provokes the Spanish Civil War, Germany challenges Europe, Italy takes Abyssinia into its own territory, and fascism threatens world peace on the rise ★A closer look at China: Japan occupies half of our territory, the national economy is paralyzed, Chiang Kai-shek’s policy of non-resistance has caused the Nanjing Nationalist government to be in danger, and the support from Britain and the United States is weak, and the Nanjing Nationalist government has no choice but to turn its attention to the Soviet Union ★Ethnic conflicts between China and Japan have risen to a major position, forcing the Nanjing Nationalist Government to seek a channel of negotiation and communication with its political opponent, the Communist Party of China, while trying to ease relations with the Soviet Union

1936 is the year of Bingzi in the Chinese lunar calendar. This year is the 25th year since China overthrew the Qing Dynasty and drove away Emperor Xuantong, the 15th year since the founding of the Communist Party of China, and the 5th year since the "September 18th" incident made by Japan began to invade Northeast China. In this year, there are still 9 years since the Chinese people won the victory of the Anti-Japanese War, and 13 years before the collapse of the Nanjing Nationalist Government and the founding of the People's Republic of China. This year occupies a page that cannot be ignored in the modern history of China and the world.This year, both in China and in China's international environment, can be described as turbulent and perilous.Internationally, the fascist axis of Germany, Italy and Japan has been formed, the evil hand of aggression is spreading everywhere, and peace and justice are openly trampled on.And China, which lives next to Japan, the country of fascist power, is naturally more unavoidable to be invaded by fascist forces. The Chinese nation has reached the last moment of deep crisis.The rampant international fascism has intensified their conflicts with the world's democratic and progressive forces, and the implementation of fascist Japan's ambition to turn China into an exclusive colony has intensified its conflicts with the Chinese nation, making all classes and strata in China in a national crisis Unprecedented divisions and reorganizations, shouts and struggles unfolded in front of us. In the early winter of this year, the Xi'an Incident, which shocked China and the world, happened...

★Looking at the world: smoke billows, barbarism replaces rationality, Franco provokes the Spanish Civil War, Germany challenges Europe, Italy takes Abyssinia into its own territory, and fascism threatens world peace on the rise In this year, the major historical events recorded in the history of the world are as follows: The first thing: the birth of another communist government in Spain after the Soviet Union. This left-wing regime, legally created through democratic elections, was hated by the opposition as soon as it came to power.After a series of riots, the conflict between fascists and socialists finally developed from verbal attacks to the streets.This made Franco, the former chief of staff of the army who represented the interests of the right, and was later demoted to the military governor of the Canary Islands, see his opportunity to "stand up". He led the Spanish Moroccan army and, after controlling Morocco, crossed Africa to Spain advance.Franco's followers in the Spanish army also staged military mutinies in some cities.The rebels were clearly at a disadvantage in the early stages of the battle against the government forces, but they did not concede defeat.

Franco aggressively declared in an answer to a question from an American reporter: "There will be no reconciliation, no truce. I will continue to prepare for the march on Madrid. I will advance. I will capture the capital. No matter what the cost, I will free Spain from Marxism." He also asked Western society to side with him: "Europe must realize that Spain cannot become a second communist regime and thus use its strategic position to turn the 'red' The rhetoric spread to Morocco, Algeria, Tunisia, even the United States. The great powers must see this. France must see this."

Franco's inflammatory language divided his country into two camps.He was supported by: the monarchists, the landowners, the clergy of the Catholic Church, the small landowners of the Catholic provinces, the peasants of the conservative parts of Navarre, most of the military officers, and the commercial middle class, who believed that the republic would only bring dictatorship and riot.Supporters of the left wing of the ruling Communist Party are: liberals, Catholics, socialists, communists, anarcho-unionists, members of the National Guard, navy and 12% of officers, Basque nationalists .

The fighting caused the two camps to suffer almost equal casualties.In just a few dozen days since the war started, more than 30,000 people were killed and injured on both sides. The Spanish Civil War further affected the world, and the international community began to divide into two camps based on whether they supported or opposed fascism. The second thing: Nazi Germany intends to dominate Europe. At the end of the First World War, Germany became a defeated country, followed by the introduction of the Treaty of Versailles.According to the provisions of the "Treaty", in order to maintain domestic order, Germany is only allowed to have a professional army with no more than 100,000 people serving for a long time, and it cannot increase reserve personnel on this basis.Recruits recruited within the annual quota are no longer subject to military training; any military aircraft are prohibited.The navy is limited to a few ships under 10,000 tons.However, these binding regulations for Germany were not really enforced.Especially after Hitler came to power, the narrow national revenge psychology led the Germanic nation to the wrong path of disaster.By 1936, Hitler's third year in power, the Treaty of Versailles, which bound Germany, had become a dead letter.

Hitler first challenged the Rhineland as a demilitarized zone. On March 6, 1936, the German army entered the Rhine area at lightning speed.This military action obviously violated the "Treaty of Versailles" that "Germany shall not fortify on the west bank of the Rhine or on the east bank within 50 kilometers. In this zone, Germany shall not have any military power and shall not conduct military exercises at any time." , or maintain any equipment used for military mobilization.” If this restriction is violated, according to the Treaty of Versailles, “the State Party violated may demand immediate action because of the concentration of troops by another State in the Demilitarized Zone”.

In response to Hitler's provocative and risky actions that violated French interests, the French government, with Saro as prime minister and Frandin as foreign minister, immediately turned to all allies and the League of Nations.Only Czechoslovakia, Yugoslavia, Romania, the Baltic States and Poland expressed their support, while Britain accepted Hitler's fait accompli against its will and offered to help Germany in its reconstruction.With no hope of relying on the alliance, France considered implementing a general mobilization of the people, but in the end it was not implemented.The declassified intelligence after the war found that if France really invested in the French Army with nearly 100 divisions, the German General Staff would definitely force Hitler to withdraw the troops stationed there.Even without other assistance, France alone could drive the Germans from the Rhine.And France's delay in not moving will forever lose its last chance to stop Hitler's ambitions without going through a major war.

Hitler then challenged the ban on Germany's military arming. On October 3, Germany launched a 35,000-ton battlecruiser, whose tonnage far exceeded the 10,000-ton limit stipulated in the Treaty of Versailles; 16 days later, Hitler ordered Goering to implement a four-year plan. The goal is to completely wean Germany off its dependence on foreign imported raw materials.This plan would theoretically give Germany greater energy to wage war from 1941 onwards. In November, Germany unilaterally abolished the provisions of the Treaty of Versailles on international control of the five rivers that flow through Germany, including the Rhine, Danube, Elbe, Oder and Niemann.France hoped that the parties to the Treaty of Versailles would stage a collective protest, but the protest was stillborn.

Hitler also strengthened the foundation of Nazi rule in Germany and made material and spiritual preparations for the war.He forced German teenagers to join the Hitler Youth League and indoctrinate them with Nazi ideology. This not only caused the Christian Youth League to lose its mass base, but also caused the Christian faith, which had occupied the center of German life for thousands of years, to be worshiped by the Nazi spirit. replace.He asked German teenagers to join the stormtroopers on a voluntary basis for 2 years from the age of 18; every male youth who has reached the age of 20 must participate in a labor camp to serve the country for 6 months, so that they can build roads and build barracks, Physically meet the physical requirements for military service.In Hitler's view, Germany should become the backbone of world fascism and conservatives fighting "Bolshevism, socialism and the Jews" on all fronts.Therefore, the theme of the annual Nazi Party Congress held in September was to launch a holy war against the "world crisis of Bolshevism".

Hitler's anti-socialist crusade had finally found an ally.In Asia, it signed the Anti-Comintern Pact with Japan, in which the two sides agreed to join forces in pursuit of the "common goal" of anti-communism.In Europe, it recognized the Spanish anti-government organization Council headed by Burgos and Franco as the legitimate government of Spain, and assisted Freddie in everything from planes to munitions and even directly dispatched groups of military personnel to help the Spanish rebels fight. In a short period of time, the Germans re-armed without firing a single shot, causing the entire European Versailles system to collapse and disintegrate, which made people outside Germany feel extremely frightened. This is intolerable in the eyes of the Roosevelt administration in the United States It cannot be ignored either.President Roosevelt empowered Secretary of State Cordell Hull to publicly issue a dire warning on the occasion of the German Nazi Party's national convention: "The outbreak of an all-out war at present will lead to uncontrollable violence that can easily lead to modern political ideas and their achievement, and has the potential to literally shatter our civilization." As it turned out, the American warning did not do much to stop Germany's expansionary ambitions. The third piece: Italy completes the annexation of Abyssinia. Italy's involvement in Abyssinia in North Africa was not simply driven by the desire for territorial expansion, but the political needs of Mussolini's establishment of a dictatorship. At the end of the nineteenth century "the humiliation of Italy's defeat at Ardois, and the fact that an Italian army there was not only annihilated or captured but disgracefully broken into pieces, provoked the ridicule of the world and made all The hearts of the Italians are not without pain. They have seen how the British, after a few years, avenged the defeats at Khartoum and Mazuba. Sass, like Lorraine, was as exhilarating as Mussolini's desire to easily consolidate his own power, or, as he thought, increase Italy's prestige in Europe, without much risk and cost. This seems to be the only way to clear the insults suffered decades ago and to incorporate Abyssinia into the recently established Italian Empire".It is completely gangster logic to build a solid foundation of personal power on the trampling of international law, the infringement of the sovereignty of other countries, and the contempt for the safety of human life, but Mussolini wants to show his energy in this way. There needs to be a reason to go to war. Such a reason finally came on December 5, 1934.On this day, there was an exchange of fire between Abyssinian soldiers on the Italian Somali border and Italian border fortress soldiers.The next day, Italian reinforcements, supported by planes and tanks, retaliated against the Abyssinians and caused heavy Albanian casualties.During the first week of January 1935, Abyssinia reported the conflict to the League of Nations for arbitration.The direct negotiations between the two countries under the mediation of the League of Nations have not yet started, and another conflict that resulted in the death of five Italian soldiers gave Italy a reason to completely ignore the League of Nations and act alone. On February 22, the Italian government dispatched two divisions and set foot on the land of Abyssinia.Then, Italy sent 1 army division and 2 black shirt volunteer divisions, and mobilized for war across the country. At this point, the mediation efforts of the League of Nations were ineffective.Mussolini publicly declared: "There is no possibility of stopping the advance. Our government and our people are now engaged in a war which we have decided to carry to the bitter end." The British were outraged by Mussolini's arrogance.Congressman Josiah Wedgwood warned: "If nothing prevents one dictator from attacking Abyssinia, nothing will prevent another from attacking Latvia, Memel, and Austria." If the League of Nations If the war cannot be prevented, then "security will be kept away not only from the small countries, but also from France, Czechoslovakia and Italy." Prime Minister Churchill also agreed with the MP's point of view, and he went even further.A group backed by the Labor and Liberal parties launched a peaceful vote to test the popular base of his upcoming policies.The Peace Vote revolves around the following five questions: 1. Should Britain remain a member of the League of Nations?2. Do you support the use of international agreements to implement general disarmament?3. Do you favor the use of international agreements for the complete abolition of the Army and Naval Air Forces of all countries?4. Should international agreements prohibit the manufacture and sale of arms for private profit?5. If a country insists on attacking another country, do you think other countries should join forces to force him to stop the attack by (1) economic and non-military means, or (2) military means if necessary? The voting results showed that more than 11 million people chose to support taking action and supporting fighting for a just cause.Therefore, on September 5, at the National Conference of British Trade Unions, a resolution was passed by 2.96 million votes to 770,000 votes. If Abyssinia was attacked, Britain would impose military sanctions on the aggressor country. At the same time, at the 16th Plenary Meeting of the League of Nations in Geneva, Britain reached a consensus with France, the Soviet Union, Canada, Australia, New Zealand, South Africa and the Irish Free Commonwealth, and issued a call for firm action to protect Abyssinia. The Council of the League of Nations established a five-nation committee based on the opinions of the majority of countries, and put forward a compromise report to resolve the conflict between Italy and Afghanistan.The report stipulated that: a delegation of diplomatic experts would be sent to investigate the need to reorganize the Abyssinian government; Italy's "special interest" in the Abyssinian economy would be recognized; Nea adjoined the border territories of the Italian colonies to the east and south, making them favorable to Italy. It should be said that the report of the five countries has made great concessions to Italy, but Italy is not satisfied with these.Just as the Council of the League of Nations was urgently discussing the prospect of Abyssinia's sovereignty, the Italian army had entered Abyssinia in three ways. So far, the road to peace has come to an end, and the only thing left is how to punish the warmonger Mussolini.The Council of the League of Nations first declared Italy the aggressor.This means that the League of Nations has given the green light to collectively wage war on the aggressors.According to the previous resolutions made by the United Kingdom, the royal army should go out to crusade and question the crimes at this moment.Just after the cabinet made a decision to announce that Britain would abide by the treaty and the obligations of the League of Nations, it was Prime Minister Churchill who was the first to change his mind and lead to the failure of all previous efforts.In his memoirs, written after World War II, he reveals what led him to abandon his support for justice.Prime Minister Churchill wrote in a letter to Foreign Secretary Sir Hall: I am sure you will be careful not to make the grave mistake of putting diplomacy ahead of naval deployment.We noticed this problem in 1914. Where is our fleet?Are they doing well?Are they powerful enough?Can they concentrate quickly and fully?Are they safe?Will they be alerted beforehand?Don't forget that you're putting extreme pressure on a dictator who may be desperate to do anything.He is likely to measure the belly of a gentleman with the heart of a villain.He may at some point in the next fortnight think you have more designs than the present Cabinet can foresee.When you are talking of wise creeds precisely prescribed, perhaps he will act violently; it is better not to plant temptations in his way. I read in the papers that the Mediterranean Fleet was leaving Malta for the Isle of Levan. (for the sake of the fleet) It would certainly be wise to leave Malta, as I know Malta has no air defense at all.The Mediterranean Fleet based in Alexandria and other places is much weaker than the Italian Navy.Today I took some time to look up the construction of cruisers and destroyers in both countries since the Great War.I think we are less than half as strong as Italy in terms of modern cruisers and destroyers, let alone modern submarines.I therefore think it necessary to ask the Admiralty what is the state of the British Fleet at Ile Levan.It has the potential to fail us miserably.Does it have enough strength to defend itself?To use the Atlantic Fleet and the Home Fleet to support it, it will take more than 3,000 miles to sail.Many things must have happened before these fleets sailed to join them.I do not doubt, and indeed dare not doubt, that the Admiralty has given any thought to this disposition.I hope you will be satisfied with their appropriate answers to these questions. Earlier I had heard talk of a plan to withdraw the fleet from the Mediterranean in case of war with Italy, and to hold only the Straits of Gibraltar and the Red Sea.It seems that sending the Mediterranean Fleet to Levan Island now is part of this policy.If true, I hope the plan was well thought out.Because once we are in a state of war or semi-war with Italy, if we really want to abandon the Mediterranean, then we will have little power to prevent Mussolini from making a large-scale landing in Egypt and seizing the Suez Canal.Only France has such power.Should this happen, can the Admiralty be sure that France will come forward? This concern of the British Prime Minister indirectly rejected any possibility of military intervention.Therefore, the Council of the League of Nations urgently used Article 16 to study the imposition of sanctions on Italy.Mussolini's harsh statement came as sovereign states participating in the League of Nations Assembly voted 50 to 1 to establish an 18-nation committee to formulate specific sanctions.The statement implied that he would not tolerate any sanctions imposed on him to prevent the invasion of Abyssinia.If his cause is jeopardized, he will fight anyone who stands in his way.He threatened: "Fifty countries! Fifty countries, headed by only one country." Although Mussolini's threat failed to make the League of Nations withdraw its order, it did not delay the advancement of the war in the slightest.By May 1936, Mussolini's troops had occupied Addis Ababa, the capital of Albania. As soon as the Abyssinian emperor Haile Selassie fled to Palestine, Mussolini announced: the war is over, Abyssinia merged with Italy.By occupying Abyssinia, Italy has achieved control over a large area of ​​East Africa, and Abyssinia, Eritrea, and Somalia have all become his sphere of influence. The three major historical events mentioned above all took place in areas adjacent to the fascist axis countries, and are directly related to the external expansion of the fascist regime.Some are trying to eliminate the new socialist regimes that believe in communist ideals, while some are raising the battle ax against weak countries purely for their own interests.These events show that the world order in 1936 was full of gunpowder and wars, and peace and tranquility were far away.The fascist regime has posed a serious threat to world peace. Fascism has begun to crazily trample on the justice and norms recognized by human society, and it has also launched an open challenge to the original "order" approved by Western powers. The policy of "non-intervention" adopted remains largely unchanged. ★A closer look at China: Japan occupies half of our territory, and the national economy is paralyzed.Chiang Kai-shek's non-resistance policy led to crises for the Nanjing Nationalist government.The support of Britain and the United States was weak, and the Nanjing Nationalist Government had no choice but to turn its attention to the Soviet Union. This year, the Nanjing National Government of Chiang Kai-shek's Kuomintang was in charge of the central government in China. The Chinese Kuomintang is a bourgeois revolutionary political party founded by Dr. Sun Yat-sen.Its predecessor was the Tongmenghui established in Tokyo, Japan in August 1905.Sun Yat-sen was the prime minister, and Huang Xing was the general secretary of the executive department.Its program is: expel the Tartars, restore China, establish the Republic of China, and equalize land rights.Since then, Sun Yat-sen has further elucidated this program, summarizing the 16-character program as the "Three Principles of the People", namely nationalism, civil rights, and people's livelihood. Nationalism, that is, "expel the Tartars and restore China", overthrew the reactionary rule of the Qing Dynasty with armed revolution.Civil rights, that is, "establishing the Republic of China", overthrew the feudal system and established a bourgeois democratic republic.The principle of people's livelihood, that is, "equal land rights", partially implements the capitalist state land ownership system on the basis of not fundamentally abolishing the feudal land system. Under the influence of Sun Yat-sen's bourgeois revolutionary ideas, on October 10, 1911, the revolutionaries successfully organized the Wuchang Uprising and fired the first shot to overthrow the rule of the Qing Dynasty.Affected by the victory of the Wuchang Uprising, Hunan, Hubei, Shaanxi, Yunnan, Shanghai, Zhejiang, Jiangsu and other provinces broke out in uprisings and declared independence.The success of the revolution in the above seven provinces directly promoted the independence and recovery of seven provinces including Guizhou, Anhui, Guangxi, Guangdong, Fujian, Sichuan, and Shandong.In just one month, 14 of the 24 provinces in the country and Shanghai, the largest city in the country, regained their independence. The Qing government collapsed, and the feudal monarchy that lasted for more than two thousand years came to an end. On January 1, 1912, Sun Yat-sen solemnly announced the founding of the Republic of China, made Nanjing its capital, and took the oath of office as the interim president of the Republic of China.On August 25, the Tongmenghui was reorganized as the Kuomintang.After that, after the period of the Chinese Revolutionary Party, it evolved into the Chinese Kuomintang, and after Sun Yat-sen decided to implement the first cooperation between the Kuomintang and the Communist Party to "tolerate the Communist Party", the first National Congress of the Chinese Kuomintang was held in 1924. After Sun Yat-sen's death, Chiang Kai-shek, who presided over the Whampoa Military Academy, relied on his military power to rise rapidly politically, and successively seized the military and political power of the Kuomintang, and completely overthrew Sun Yat-sen's three major policies of "alliance, alliance with the Communist Party, and support for farmers and workers" , launched the "April 12" anti-communist incident, and faced the former ally, the Communist Party, with the butcher knife, and fought each other.By 1928, Chiang Kai-shek had become the chairman of the Kuomintang Central Political Committee, the chairman of the National Government, the commander-in-chief of the National Revolutionary Army, and the chairman of the Military Commission in just over three years, becoming a dictator with unparalleled strength in Chinese politics. figure. During this year, Zhang Xueliang, the young marshal of the Northeast Army, did Chiang Kai-shek a big favor.He announced on December 29 that the Northeast Army "obeyed the Three People's Principles, obeyed the Nationalist Government, and changed its flag."Zhang and his Northeast Army "surrendered" to the Nanjing National Government, making the north and south of China a formal "unification".Since then, China has begun the era of Chiang Kai-shek. Zhang Xueliang was born on June 3, 1901 (April 17 in the lunar calendar) in Zhanjiawobao, Sanglinzi, Haicheng County, Liaoning Province. Zhang Xueliang has been highly valued by his father Zhang Zuolin since he was born. There is a saying: Before Zhang Xueliang was born, his father Zhang Zuolin's career was not going well, but on the day Zhang Xueliang was born, Zhang Zuolin won the battle on the front line. Since then, Zhang Zuolin It is no wonder that Zhang Zuolin regards Zhang Xueliang as his lucky star and loves him very much. Zhang Zuolin never dreamed that the day when the eldest son Zhang Xueliang was born brought him both good luck and disaster. Twenty-seven years later, he boarded a car and returned to the Northeast on this day, and died in the "Huanggutun Bombing" planned by the Japanese army. In order to train his son to inherit his father's career in the future, Zhang Zuolin ignored Zhang Xueliang's opposition and sent Zhang Xueliang to the Japanese Army Non-commissioned Officer Academy to study, making him embark on the road of a professional soldier.When Zhang Xueliang just turned 20 years old, he was appointed as a major general and brigade commander.After the fiasco of the first Zhifeng war, Zhang Xueliang assisted his father in reforming and training the Feng army, participated in contacting Sun Yat-sen and Duan Qirui, and established the triangular alliance of Sun, Duan and Zhang (Zuolin).Thus got acquainted with Sun Yat-sen and started the first contact with high-level Kuomintang. Sun Yat-sen expressed his approval of the establishment of the "Anti-Zhitang Triangular Alliance". He sent Wang Jingwei to Fengtian in the autumn of 1923, and proposed that the revolutionary government of the south would order a public crusade against Cao (Kun) and Wu (Peifu), and the Northeast Army would march directly into the pass. Beijing.Zhang Xueliang and Zhang Zuolin supported this North-South attack plan. In order to ensure the success of the plan to destroy the Beijing government, when Feng Yuxiang and Li Dequan got married, Zhang's father and son even sent people to congratulate them, so as to open the gap from within the immediate line. After repeated coordination, the two sides reached a cooperation protocol. In the early summer of 1924, Sun Yat-sen sent Wu Chaoshu to the Northeast to contact Zhang Xueliang and his son about the specific steps to attack Cao and Wu, and at the same time inspect the military strength of Fengjun. Zhang and his son then sent people to Guangzhou to visit Sun Yat-sen. Zhang Xueliang also brought a letter written by Zhang Xueliang. Letter expressing admiration for Sun Yat-sen. On September 15 of that year, the second Zhifeng War broke out. Zhang Xueliang was appointed as the commander of the Fengjun Third Army, and formed a coalition with the First Army to fight fiercely with the Zhijun in Shanhaiguan and Jiumenkou.At this time, the anti-straight alliance established by Zhang's father and son and Feng Yuxiang had an effect. On October 22, Feng Yuxiang's men secretly returned to Beijing and placed Cao Kun under house arrest. This move brought down the Beijing government controlled by the Zhili warlords. On the same day, Zhang Xueliang received a reply letter from Mr. Sun Yat-sen.The full text of the letter follows: On December 14, 1924, at the invitation of Zhang Zuolin and Feng Yuxiang, Mr. Sun Yat-sen, accompanied by Song Qingling and others, went northward due to illness and came to Tianjin.Zhang Xueliang and his father Zhang Zuolin led people from all walks of life to the port to welcome them. In order to thank Zhang's father and son for their contributions in the anti-Zhiz triangular alliance, Sun Yat-sen led key members of the Kuomintang to pay a return visit to Zhang's residence.After meeting with Zhang Zuolin, Sun Yat-sen wrote the four characters "The world is for the public" in order to praise the young general Zhang Xueliang who first advocated the elimination of soldiers in the melee of warlords, advocated the quelling of internal strife and the defense of foreign enemies. Soon, Sun Yat-sen's liver disease deteriorated and he was sent to Peking Union Medical College Hospital for treatment. Zhang Xueliang made a special trip to visit the hospital.Lying on the hospital bed, Sun Yat-sen told Zhang Xueliang earnestly: "Youth in the Northeast have a great responsibility." Judging from the several contacts between Sun Yat-sen and Zhang Xueliang, he placed high expectations on Zhang Xueliang, and he was optimistic about Zhang Xueliang politically, but there was a difference between Zhang Xueliang and Zhang Zuolin.In fact, as far as Zhang Zuolin is concerned, he is also different from other warlords.Although Zhang Zuolin had long been in contact with the Japanese, he refused to betray the sovereignty of Northeast China.It was this that led to his assassination by the Japanese army on June 4, 1928. After Zhang Zuolin's death, Zhang Xueliang's son inherited his father's business, took over the control of the Northeast, and became the commander-in-chief of the three provinces in the Northeast. The Japanese army originally planned to kill Zhang Zuolin to cause chaos in the Northeast and take the opportunity to occupy the Northeast.However, after Zhang Zuolin's death, there was no chaos in the Northeast.During this process, Zang Shiyi, Chief of Staff of the Military Department of the Marshal's Mansion, and others made contributions.In order to prevent the news of Zhang Zuolin's death from causing unrest in the local people, and considering Japan's covetousness, Zang Shiyi, with the support of Zhang Zuolin's family, decided to block the news and keep the funeral secret until Zhang Xueliang, Zhang Zuolin's designated successor, returned to Fengtian.The Shuai's mansion provided the Dashuai's meals as usual every day, and the medical officer also came to the mansion every day to pretend to change the medicine for the Dashuai, fill in medical records and prescriptions, etc., confusing the Japanese prying eyes. After Zhang Xueliang returned to Fengtian, on the one hand, he continued to implement the strategy of deceiving the outside world, and publicly announced that Zhang Zuolin's injury was improving.On the one hand, he quickly withdrew all the troops to Fengtian, served as the supervisor of Fengtian military affairs, and concurrently served as the chairman of the Northeast Security Committee composed of 17 authoritative figures, and convened a high-level meeting to unify his thinking.After controlling the situation in the Northeast, the news of his father's death was announced and the funeral was handled. Zhang Xueliang's hatred of killing his father against Japan prompted him to immediately change his father's idea of ​​seeking the independence of the Northeast, or even visiting the Central Plains to realize his political ambitions after he took charge of the Northeast political situation, and adopted a policy of submitting to the Nanjing Nationalist Government and supporting China's unification. On July 1, 1928, just 10 days after he took office, he issued the "Never Harm Unification Power" to the Nanjing Nationalist Government, expressing that he "loves the country and the country, and will never hinder the reunification."At the same time, it is recommended that the authorities "take the national plan as the premise, and at the same time shrink the military; on the one hand, use the simplest method to hold the National Assembly quickly to solve all current important issues." Chiang Kai-shek naturally hoped that Zhang Xueliang could immediately return to the central government.On the sixth day after receiving Zhang Xueliang's telegram, he announced in front of Sun Yat-sen's spirit at Biyun Temple in Beiping that the Northern Expedition was successful.Later, representatives were sent to secretly contact Zhang Xueliang about the unification issue.The conditions for Chiang Kai-shek to agree to Zhang Xueliang's change of flag were: to ensure Zhang Xueliang's ruling power in the Northeast, to appoint Zhang as the chairman of the Northeast Political Affairs Committee, and to place Rehe under the rule of the Northeast; to ask Zhang Xueliang to change the "Blue Sky and White Sun Flag" as soon as possible to achieve national unification.Zhang Xueliang agreed with the realization of national unification.He stated: Please convey to Jiegong that he is willing to obey the government to the end at any time. The news of the change of flag in the Northeast caused panic in the Japanese cabinet.They first conveyed the two concerns of the Japanese government through the Consul General Hayashi Kujiro: (1) In terms of interests, Japan did not want to see drastic political changes in the three eastern provinces, which would affect peace and order. (2) According to Japan's observations, the foundation of the national government has not yet been determined, and it seems that there is room for consideration to integrate with it at this time.Then, Hayashi Kujiro was authorized to publicly oppose the flag change of the three eastern provinces in the name of the Japanese government, and threatened: "If the three eastern provinces disregard Japan's warning and hang the blue sky and white sun flag without authorization, Japan must have a strong determination to do what it does." In Zhang Xueliang After suspending the flag change, Japan raised the "Emperor of Manchuria" sign again, hoping to induce Zhang Xueliang to completely give up the plan to change the flag.And through Zhang Xueliang's Japanese adviser Kenji Doihara, Zhang Xueliang was persuaded to become the "Emperor of Manchuria". Zhang Xueliang not only remained unmoved by the temptation, but also accelerated the pace of changing flags. On December 29, 1928, Zhang Xueliang, Zhang Zuoxiang, and Wan Fulin jointly issued a telegram announcing the change of flag in the Northeast.From then on, Zhang Xueliang began to belong to the Nanjing National Government of the Kuomintang and joined the ranks of the new warlord camps of the Kuomintang.That is, from this time, Zhang Xueliang began a period of close cooperation with Chiang Kai-shek. At this moment, Chiang Kai-shek is also immersed in the "joy" of achieving reunification.Looking down on the world, no one can match him, and his ambition is constantly expanding.Whether it is the emperor Qin Shihuang and Yongzheng in history, or the fascist giants Hitler and Mussolini in the contemporary world, they have all become models for him to emulate for a while. .Therefore, he focused on domestic and foreign affairs to do everything possible to serve the foundation of his own dictatorship. Externally, it pursues a foreign policy of attachment to imperialism.The Nanjing Nationalist Government's first diplomatic statement positioned China's diplomacy as "non-violent."This implies that the various unfair treaties imposed on the Chinese people by the imperialist powers in history will continue to be valid, and the interests of the powers in China will be protected.During his visit to Japan, Chiang Kai-shek further elaborated on this diplomatic gist, pointing out: "The revolutionary movement of the Chinese army contains the interests and goals of China and the big powers"; as long as Japan supports it to "complete the revolution at an early date", "the Manchurian and Mongolian issues will also be easily resolved." , the rowing games are extinct". Chiang’s diplomatic declaration nakedly used the country’s sovereignty and Manchuria’s interests as bait in exchange for Japan’s support for his regime. It is not an exaggeration to say that such a statement is a foreign policy to attract the covetousness of powerful neighbors. The consequences of this humiliating foreign policy soon became apparent: by 1931, in terms of industry, the output of mechanical coal mining under foreign control accounted for 69.1% of the total output of mechanical coal mining in the country, and the output of pig iron accounted for 50% of the total output of pig iron in the country. 97.2%.In terms of transportation, the railway mileage directly operated and controlled by foreign countries accounts for 84.3% of the total railway mileage in China.In terms of finance, according to a survey in 1933, the paid-in capital of 149 Chinese commercial banks was only 267 million yuan, while the total capital of the 4 British banks in China was more than 400 million yuan.At this time, the deposits of China Commercial Bank nationwide were only 3 billion yuan, while the deposits absorbed by the American Citibank in China reached 5 billion yuan.The infiltration and control of the Chinese economy by foreign powers has intensified, making the Chinese economy more dependent on them. Chiang Kai-shek's diplomacy of flattering foreign countries did not make the imperialists curb their territorial ambitions for China. In the "September 18th" Incident in 1931, the Japanese army blatantly invaded and occupied Northeast China, which was tantamount to publicly slapping Chiang Kai-shek's foreign policy. Internally, Chiang Kai-shek implemented a dictatorship.He regarded the Communist Party of China as the greatest threat, and completely abandoned Sun Yat-sen's three major policies of "uniting with Russia, uniting with the Communist Party, and supporting farmers and workers". After massacring the Communists, they mobilized many armies and personally commanded them to carry out military encirclement and suppression of the CCP and the Red Army of Workers and Peasants led by the Communist Party of China. For dissidents within the Kuomintang, Jiang also killed and eliminated dissidents. 1929年3月，发动蒋桂战争，拆散了粤桂联盟；10月，发动蒋冯之战，削弱了冯玉祥；11月，发动第二次蒋桂战争，击败了张发奎；12月，发动蒋唐战争，击溃了唐生智。 1930年5月，发动中原大战，经过7个月军事厮杀，蒋氏击溃了阎、冯实力派几十万军队，冯玉祥、阎锡山被迫下野。 如果说当时的中国政坛实行的仍是凭借武人实力说话的新军阀“政治”，地方各大派系为扩大自身的利益，必然要与中央争夺控制权，而对于不听中央指挥的地方大员，兴兵讨伐、削其实力，还有统一中央政令、维护国家统一的说辞作为“理由”的话。那么，1931年2月，蒋介石对不听话的国民党元勋、南京国民政府立法院院长胡汉民擅自扣押，软禁于南京汤山，导致国民党又一次政治危机，则是完全的独裁私欲使然。 中原混战硝烟尚未散尽，蒋介石就于1930年10月3日，在河南兰封前线致电国民党中央执行委员会，主张召集国民会议，制定“训政时期约法”。其意在于以国家“根本大法”的形式，把国民党一党专政和总统制的国家政治体制固定下来，使蒋集党权、政权、军权于一身的独裁统治合法化。 比蒋介石资历老出许多的胡汉民，不会看不出蒋介石的心思，但他有自己的“小算盘”。“四一二”反共事变以后，他与蒋介石携手“合作”，互相利用，建立了南京国民政府，他希望借助蒋介石的军事实力，在中国建立一个“五权分立”的责任内阁制的国家政权机构。1928年10月，他再度与蒋氏“合作”，改组南京国民政府，出任立法院院长，并意欲通过“党务审查委员会”，把党权集中控制在自己手里，实现“以党治国”的策略。为防止蒋介石军政势力的扩张，胡汉民还企图利用他暂时控制的国民党中央政治会议，以实现“党治的政府”的目标。而这些，都与蒋介石的独裁统治水火不容。胡自然不肯轻易地输给蒋介石，因而在一个月后的国民党三届四中全会上，胡汉民对蒋介石提出的召开国民会议的方案提出质疑，仅表示同意召集国民会议，但却认为国民会议无权代替国民大会制定约法，还激烈抨击蒋介石意欲擅制约法、不合法制的行为，这就使蒋、胡矛盾激化，并由暗争变为明斗。 蒋介石是何等人物？ !他岂能屈服于胡汉民的反对？ 1931年2月28日晚，蒋介石借宴请议事名义突然将胡汉民扣押。这种荒唐之举立刻招致各方反对，使蒋胡合作的局面迅速转为蒋胡两大派系的尖锐对立。 但是，蒋介石一意孤行，仍按既定方针筹备国民会议。3月2日，国民党中央通过蒋介石提出的《训政时期约法案》，并派吴稚辉等11人组成约法起草委员会；4月24日，公布了《国民会议组织法》；5月5日，国民会议终于在南京召开，并如蒋介石所愿通过了《训政时期约法》，还有《昭告全国拥护和平统一案》、《剿灭赤匪报告决议案》等等。 这一所谓国民会议从法律上巩固了蒋介石的独裁统治，但他却为此付出了沉重代价。差点终结他的政治生命。由于蒋介石的一意孤行导致国民党内部又一次大分裂，反蒋派系再一次联合起来，他们纷纷南下广州，筹备召开国民党非常会议，酝酿成立另一个“国民政府”来对抗南京国民政府。 4月30日，国民党甲央监委邓泽如、林森、肖佛成、古应芬等4人联名发出“弹劾蒋中正通电”，要求释放胡汉民并要蒋介石立即下野；接着，陈济棠于5月3日通电响应4监委提案；5月25日，由唐绍仪领衔，汪精卫、孙科、李宗仁、许崇智等22人联名，通电要求蒋介石在“48小时之内，即行引退”。5月27日，齐集广州的各派反蒋势力，正式组成了国民党中央执、监委员会非常会议，决定另组国民政府，并推举汪精卫担任主席。 广州非常会议的召开，使宁粤矛盾进一步激化。南京国民党中央决定开除邓泽如、林森、古应芬、孙科等人的党籍，并下令通缉；粤方派两广军阀出兵北上，突袭湘、赣，占领郴州、衡阳等地，引发宁粤战争。双方纷争一直闹到“九一八事变”爆发还没有“叫停”的意思，更为可笑的是，年底的国民党四中全会竟然成了三地会议，蒋方在南京召开，而反蒋派则在广州、上海召开。不仅如此，12月17日，另一个与蒋介石分庭抗礼的政治组织——广州中央党部宣告成立。这次斗争的结果使蒋介石败得很惨，以他辞去所任各职，并同意第一次下野，才换取到广州国民政府宣布取消。蒋介石虽然很快就再度出山，但权力却被削弱，形成了蒋主军，任军事委员会委员长兼军事参谋部参谋长，汪主政，任行政院长，蒋、汪共管党的局面。尽管实权握在蒋介石的手里，但相比于1928年那样的风光，确实有一种如刺存喉的感觉。 蒋氏何以敢冒“翻船”的风险来挑战权力的平衡呢？且看他在其所执意召开的国民会议上所言。蒋介石说：“欲求中国之真正和平统一，以达于宪政时期，必首经训政时期”。在训政时期，“共产主义之政治理论”，“不适于中国产业落后情形及中国固有道德”，中国断“无需乎此”。而“自由民治主义之政治理论”，虽“可以实行”，但没有英美“长期演进之历史”，行之势必发生纷乱。他认为，解决“使共产党、军阀坐大于中原”的问题，“挽救迫不及待之国家危难”，“是非藉经过较有效能的统治权之施行不可”。而“法西斯之政治理论”，是“操之者即系进化阶段中最有效能者”。因而，“意大利法西斯蒂党当政以前之纷乱情形，可以借鉴”。 这段话，应是蒋介石此时真实心迹的表露。他所追求的是建立法西斯的独裁统治，之所以要效法法西斯，就是要消灭共产党，打倒异己实力派。 蒋介石领导下的中国就这样迈进到1936年，而此时的中国又是个什么样子呢？ （一）主权被日寇践踏，民族到了生死关头 1931年9月18日夜，日本关东军自行炸毁沈阳北郊柳条湖附近南满铁路的一段路轨，却诬称是中国军队破坏铁路、袭击日本守备队，并以此为借口突向中国东北军驻地北大营和沈阳城发动进攻，制造了震惊中外的“九一八事变”。 此时，南京国民政府的权力之争正闹得不可开交。名义上执掌南京国民政府权力的孙科，实际上对军队没有指挥权，而握着兵权的蒋介石虽已“下野”，但他的一纸“力避冲突，以免事态扩大”的不抵抗电令，却仍在发挥作用，致使日军长驱直入： 19日晨，日军攻占沈阳，当日掠地千余里，攻陷长春、营口、抚顺、安东（今丹东）等20座城市。 21日，日本驻朝鲜军第39旅渡过鸭绿江，攻进辽宁、吉林。一周时间内，辽宁、吉林两省被占。1932年1月28日，日本侵略中国东北尚未“消化”完全，又在上海挑起侵略事端，是为“一·二八”淞沪抗战。是役，国民党内属地方实力派的19路军在全国人民支援下，奋起抵抗坚守上海一月有余，但却得不到国民党内蒋介石“中央系”的有力援助，这当然是南京国民政府内派系之争影响到19路军的前方抗日军事所致。 在全国人民抗日呼声的压力下，面临国难当头的局面，国民党两大政治势力，终于达成暂时的权力分配协议，蒋介石于2月28日回到了南京主持大政。而就在此前后，东北三省已全部沦人日本侵略军之手，而就在同月25日日本已悍然策动汉奸宣布“满洲独立”。国人期盼蒋介石主政以后，能够集中民力、发挥民智，负起中枢指挥之责，支援19路军夺取淞沪抗战的胜利，使日军入侵以来的被动局面有所改观，但人们很快就大失所望。蒋介石的“先安内、后攘外”的不抵抗政策没有任何改变，南京国民政府也根本没有抗战的勇气和决心。早在战事刚一爆发，何应钦就电告上海市长吴铁城“商酌适可而止”，同时又密令空军“对日海军，决不抛掷炸弹”。在中国军队一度占据战事上风的情况下，蒋介石到浦镇“指示沪事”，不是指挥将士乘胜追击，扩大战果，而是指令前线“以19路军保持十余日来之胜利，能趁此收手，避免再与决战为主。” 世上哪有军队指挥员不希望士兵奋勇杀敌的？哪有主帅拒绝战争取胜的？可此时的战争指导者就是这样一种心态，他们从骨子里惧怕胜利会激怒日军，惧怕会扩大事态。这样的战争指导，其结果只能是导致失败。而当淞沪战事还呈胶着之时，国民党却很热心地接受英国公使的调停，尽管这一《淞沪停战协定》对于中国来说是很屈辱的，它实际上承认日军可以驻留上海，而中国军队却不能在上海及其周围驻守、设防，但当时的中国政府代表仍是不持异议地“爽快”签字。 日军是不会因为南京国民政府息事宁人的态度而放缓他的侵略步伐的。 1933年新年第一天，日军就挑起“山海关事件”，由此开始了“九一八”之后新的侵华进军——进攻热河与长城。这天夜里，日军借口中国军队向日军宪兵队投掷手榴弹，而命令日军第8师团进犯山海关。我山海关守军——张学良东北军的何柱国部拼死抵抗，其中安德馨营全营300多将士力战殉国。死守到3日，我山海关和临榆县城落入敌手。4日，日军又占领了热河省省会承德。 日军进逼山海关和长城一线，是出于两大战略目标考虑的：其一，进攻热河，扩大伪满洲国的地盘；其二，消灭张学良的东北军的势力。因日军的目标不仅是满洲的独立，而是要扩大至华北独立，最后灭亡中国。而实现所谓“华北战略”的前提在于东北三省的稳固，而东北三省稳固的最大障碍又是与日本有着新仇旧恨的张学良及其统驭的几十万东北军。为此，在2月10日关东军公布的进攻热河计划中，明确指出，其“目的在于，使热河省真正成为满洲国的领土，并为消灭扰乱满洲国祸根即华北的张学良势力创造条件”。13日，日军第8师团在其作战计划中也宣称：“对于热河省的张学良部队，要迅速予以极大打击，平定该省；同时要促使华北张学良势力覆灭。”10天之后，日本驻南京总领事上村伸一向中国政府递交声明，内称：日军在热河之行动，“原则上仅限于满洲国领土以内，惟张学良军队等若采取积极行动，则难保战局不及于华北方面。”关东军司令官的声明也称：只要中国方面进行抵抗，就“不得不将战祸波及华北”。 两个声明，等同宣战书，开始了日军向热河省的大举进犯。3月9日进犯长城喜峰口至罗文峪一线；中旬，进犯长城古北口至南天门一线；5月初，进犯冷口、怀柔一线。至5月11日，已侵占中国华北密云、遵华、蓟县、丰润、唐山等冀东22县。 面对着强敌入侵，南京国民政府再一次上演屈辱、求和的丑剧。这次签署的《塘沽协定》，较之于先前签署的《淞沪停战协定》，使国人蒙受了更大的屈辱。它突出表现为：《协定》事实上承认了日本占领东三省和热河省的合法化，并承认了长城一线为伪满洲国的“国界”。 蒋介石及南京国民政府在抗日上表现消极，但在执行丧权辱国的条约上却非常卖力。到1935年1月，日本自《塘沽协定》以来的所有要求全部实现。不仅如此，南京国民政府还在这年上半年发起了一场对日“亲善”运动。2月13日，南京国民政府颁布《取消抵制日货令》；27日，蒋介石、汪精卫联合发布《废除排日命令》，中央政治会议通告各报社、通讯社，禁止刊载排日或排日货言论；28日，国民党中常会免去倡言排日的中央宣传部部长邵元冲的职务。5月27日，中日双方共同宣布，派驻对方的公使升格为大使。 西方人看不明白，日本占据中国半壁江山，并欲灭亡中华民族，中国当局不去抗日，却与日搞起了“亲善”？倡言排日的邵元冲不仅得不到奖赏，却为此丢掉了“乌纱”？而位居国民政府军事委员会副委员长的冯玉祥，也因为支持、资助并组织察北民众抗日同盟军抗日而受到责难和批判。 日本军部也看不明白，交战双方军队正在流血，外交却奇怪地升格。但他们只信奉一条，灭亡中国是既定国策，在图谋得逞之前，决不能停止进攻。因而，虽然那边搞什么“亲善”，但日本军部却从未停止发动新攻势的筹划。这时，有两件事引起了日本关东军的不满。 一件是，抗日义勇军将领孙永勤率部进入遵化县境内。孙永勤是兴隆县一名普通农民，1933年日军进兵热河后他率领村民揭竿而起，曾创造了一年多时间攻克敌伪军据点100多个，歼灭日伪军15000人的记录。这使日军对他的仇恨没齿不忘。1935年2月，抗日义勇军在遵化茅山地区又与日军遭遇，并被包围。在这次作战中，孙永勤率部与日军激战两昼夜，后孙部1400多人突出重围，孙永勤却壮烈牺牲。日军以此为借口指责中国当局援助孙永勤进入滦东“非武装区”，破坏了《塘沽协定》。 另一件是，天津两个汉奸报社社长被暗杀。当地报纸报道说，1935年5月2日晚11时许，天津亲日的《国权报》报社社长胡恩溥，在日租界北洋饭店楼下16号房间，被突然闯进来的两名枪手枪杀。当日租界巡捕闻声赶到，凶手已经逃脱。第二天清晨，天津《振报》主笔白逾桓，在日租界须磨街22号，同样遭到两名不明身份人员枪击，并使白当场毙命。按道理，二人是在日本租界内办报，在日租界内被杀，中国当局不负任何责任。但是，日方硬说这是国民党蓝衣社所为。 不管这两件事是真是假，但只要有了这两件事，日本华北驻屯军参谋长酒井隆和日本驻北平公使馆武官辅佐官高桥垣，就有了与中国执政当局讨价还价的筹码。他们在会见北平政务整理委员会秘书长俞家骥和军事委员会北平分会代理委员长何应钦时，直截了当地开出了条件：“最低限度对上述政策之执行机关宪兵第3团及类似团体、军事委员会分会政治训练处、国民党党部及蓝衣社，有必要从华北撤出。此外，对其'后盾'之第2师、第25师等中国军队，希望一并撤出。对与此事件直接有关的蒋孝先、丁正（昌）、曾扩情、何一飞等，及无视停战协定精神与上述各机关通谋，在华北与日本军势不两立之于学忠，有必要予以罢免。” 同一天，日本华北驻屯军亦向国民政府当局提出通告，要求：于学忠下野；河北省政府由天津迁至保定；天津市长张廷谔及公安局长李俊襄应即更换；宪兵第3团团长蒋孝先及军分会政训处长曾扩情免职；暗杀胡、白的凶手要逮捕严惩。 对日方提出的无理要求，蒋介石尽管极不情愿，但还是在十天之内一一办理。他委托何应钦对日方说：对日方希望各点，已完全办到：于学忠、张廷谔已免职；军分会政训处已结束；宪兵第3团已他调；河北省党部已移保定，天津市党部已结束；已严令平津地方当局负责取缔一切有害国交之秘密组织；51军已决定移防。 日军对此还不满足，又开出了新的更为苛刻的条件：（一）河北省内一切党部完全撤销；（二）51军撤退并将全部离开河北的日期告知日方；（三）中央军必须离开河北省境；（四）禁止全国一切排外、排日行为。以上各点希望即日办理，否则日军即采取断然之处置。一、二、三项必须照办，绝无让步可言，限中方6月12日午前答复。 如此蛮横、霸道的做法，如此藐视地对待中国当局，而蒋介石和国民党掌控的南京国民政府仍没有丝毫地反抗。不仅照单全收，而且比时限提前2天兑现了日军要求的所有条件，而由这两次让步所形成的《备忘录》即为《何梅协定》。 尽管蒋介石和南京国民政府在委曲求和上不费踌躇，但他们还是知道此乃国之大耻，因而不愿意留下这一“外交”的文字佐证，因此以“书面通知”的形式代替了在“协定”上签字。战后，蒋介石、何应钦都极力否认有《何梅协定》这件事，但事实终归是事实。不仅日本战前外交方面的关键人物、1945年以外务大臣资格代表日本天皇及日本政府签署投降书的重光葵在战后所著的《昭和的动乱》一书中披露了这一历史事实，而且由何应钦亲笔签字的致梅津美治郎的“书面通知”的内容后来也公之于众。全文如下：“敬启者：6月9日酒井参谋长所提各事项均承诺之，自主的期其遂行。特此通知。此致梅津司令官阁下。何应钦（签字）1935年7月6日”。 几乎在签署《何梅协定》的同时，南京国民政府还屈服于日本淫威签署了另一个丧权辱国的协议《秦（德纯）土（肥原）协定》。《何梅协定》和《秦土协定》的签订，使国民党在华北地区的军事力量大为削弱，而此时的华北地区已几成日军的囊中之物。 （二）国家经济命脉遭受重创，人民生活在水深火热之中 国民党执政后不停的内战战火，不仅导致了国土沦陷、人民生命涂炭，也使国家经济更加困难。 一份历史资料再现了当时中国的经济和人民生活情况。1935年，欧洲的一些较弱国家的年平均工农业产品指标为：粮食生产，主要谷物保加利亚为3240千公吨，捷克斯洛伐克为5796千公吨，匈牙利为6364千公吨，波兰为12843千公吨，而中国所有农作物生产总量只有316200万担；工业方面，钢的生产，捷克斯洛伐克为1800万公吨，匈牙利为600万公吨，波兰为1300万公吨，而中国只有41万吨。交通运输方面，注册的机动车辆，捷克斯洛伐克为12.2万辆，波兰为4.2万辆，南斯拉夫为1.9万辆，而中国只有公路10万公里，机动车寥寥无几。当时公路发展最快、全国排名第一的广东，其政绩也只是9年间修了24条公路，通车里程1万多公里。 生产力水平的低下，反映到老百姓那里，必然是极为贫穷。时年，刚刚毕业于清华大学研究生院的费孝通，在姐姐费达生的帮助下，对江南农村进行了一番走街串巷和登门入户的调查。他在发出的报道中反映，农民的收入降到了不足以维持最低生活水平所需要的程度。他写道：“当饥饿超过枪杀的恐怖时，农民起义就发生了……如果《西行漫记》的作者是正确的话，驱使成千上万农民进行英勇的长征，其主要动力不是别的，而是饥饿和对土地所有者及收租人的仇恨。” 此时，广东人是国人中生活得比较舒服的一部分人。据国立中山大学的统计，从1926年到1936年这10年间，广州的米、食品、衣料等货品的批发物价相对平稳，每年变动不超过10％，也比较便宜，花1港元可以买到花布20码，花港币1个先令，可以买到1份早餐，内含芽菜炒粉、粥1碗、油条1根。即便如此，仍有许多人衣不掩体、饿死街头。 北平的物价尚称便宜。1块银圆可以买6斤上好猪肉，或20张公园门票，或2本不太厚的书，或1份西式大菜套餐。而此时北平最盛行的娱乐是听平剧（即京戏），四大名旦、四大须生的票价也就1元左右。一个有十来间房子的四合院，月租不过20到30元，碰巧还装有现成的电灯与自来水。但是，真正能够享受此种文化娱乐的多半是社会名流和社会层级较高阶层的家庭。而与此构成鲜明对比的是，就在1936年3月7日一天之内，平津两地即发生10起自杀案件，天津《大公报》报道这一事件时，评论说：“自杀风炽，大多为经济所迫。” 且不说普通百姓，共产党领导的中央红军每天的伙食也是三碗小米饭或高粱米饭和一点酸菜。1935年12月红军发布的经费使用标准，规定各级机关办公经费为：军司令部和军团部每月20元，师部10元，团部5元，营部4元，连部3元。翌年，红军东征筹到50万元款后，周恩来甚至亲自主持设立后勤站，任命毛泽东的弟弟毛泽民负责管理，由此也可以看出此时苏区经济的紧张程度。 不仅共产党感受到经济的困难，执政的国民党及其军队也为缺钱缺物而叫苦不迭。李宗仁后来这样回忆他对蒋介石的宿怨：“我们所不服的，只为中央政府的无能……广西数年来，在我们的苦心孤诣建设之下，各项成绩俱有可观，全国誉为模范省。中央无片言只字的褒奖，一分一厘的援助，反而要用武力胁迫我辈离境，好叫他们来糟蹋。”经济因素当然也是后来“两广事变”的诱因之一。 当然，中国经济落后自有其历史原因。 从1840年开始，晚清政府不断向外国列强割地赔款，签订不平等条约，使本来就落后的经济更加落后。1842年，签订中国近代第一个不平等条约——《南京条约》，割让香港，赔款银圆2100万元；1895年，签订中日《马关条约》，割让辽东半岛和台湾、澎湖列岛，赔款2万万两。这些不平等条约，不仅使中国主权丧失，领土缩小，许多年积累下来的家底一下被掏空，而且大大地减弱了经济增长的基础，影响及至以后多年。 不仅如此，经济掠夺也是帝国主义侵华战略的一部分。1843年7月和10月，签订中英《五口通商章程》和《虎门条约》，使中国的海关关税损失了50％—90％；1858年11月，清政府与美、英、法三国签订的《