Chapter 32 22 Wandering Years-2

In public, Barkley put on a menacing look. “[National Review] must defend its views and its right not to be harassed by anyone,” said an editorial in the National Review after the case became public. "This newspaper will never be intimidated by a litigious public figure who, in the sobering words of a Senate subcommittee, 'has proven over the years that he is ready to work with the Communist Party.'" Deep down, however, Barkley was terrified.At this time, Pauling's success rate in litigation was relatively high: he reached an out-of-court settlement in two cases, and forced the defendant to retract and correct relevant statements in several other cases.Pauling never lost a single game. "National Review" is a small magazine, if the amount of damages awarded is close to a million dollars, then the magazine will be eliminated from the competition.The legal fees involved alone are problematic.

However, Buckley carefully studied the words written by Pauling, and finally decided to stay with the other party to the end.He met with Rush and Benham and argued that calling Pauling a "fellow traveler" was based on Pauling's own experience, which was "as true as calling Truman a Democrat."If Pauling wants to argue on this point, he will accept the challenge with a group of good debaters. Lawyers spent months meticulously preparing the technical issues.When Pauling was about to swear allegiance in the case, the news that he won the Nobel Peace Prize was officially announced-this is a disadvantageous factor for Barkley's side-it had to be delayed until after returning from Oslo in early 1964. Went to New York to appear in front of the lawyers.As a result, the legal preparation time has been increased by several months. In 1965, a judge was assigned by his superior to file and sort out the materials prepared by both parties, which made both parties' original plans to obtain background materials of the other side all in vain.

The delay worked to the National Review's advantage. In 1964, the U.S. Supreme Court ruled a major defamation case called "New York Times v. Sullivan", which brought about a fundamental change in the legal basis for defamation in the United States.To protect normal public debate, the Sullivan justices argued that politicians and other public figures should be judged differently from ordinary citizens by the criteria for judging whether a person has been defamed.For example, it would not be defamatory for a newspaper to describe a candidate for the election as a "stupid"--for ordinary citizens, it would be--if, of course, it was shown that the reference was made for "practical reasons." Maliciousness" is another matter.However, this is also defined by the falsity of the claims or the fact that the truth was deliberately concealed.

The Sullivan decision makes it much harder for politicians to win defamation suits.Of course, the unresolved question remains whether, outside the sphere of elections, the above-mentioned ruling principles apply to literary stars, lobbyists engaged in lobbying outside parliament, or famous people like Pauling. Pauling's defamation suits, especially the National Review case, in terms of their motives and Pauling's image, help to define the scope of the Sullivan ruling principles.Immediately after the Sullivan decision, National Review's lawyers argued that Pauling's complaint could be dismissed on the basis of that ruling.However, the judge could not conclude that Pauling must qualify as a public figure, and thus rejected their request.Then, in the fall of 1965, Buckley ran for mayor of New York City. He believed that the case should be tried ex situ, believing that a trial in Manhattan would not guarantee justice because the media coverage of his campaign was "easy to arouse people's resentment."Thus, the case was again delayed.Later, the magazine tried to strengthen its position in Pauling's case by using another defamation case it was fighting, since that case had ended in defeat for the plaintiffs.As a result, the Pauling case was further delayed.

By the time the case finally came before the jury in March 1966, all parties were tired—and the weariness grew as the arguments dragged on and off for six weeks.The plaintiffs' lawyers, led by Mehta, were careful to the point where they might offend ad litem judge Samuel Silverman.They spent days demonstrating Pauling's original reputation, and even invited Eva to present a box full of awards and medals—including Pauling's two Nobel Prizes—Mehta Submit these items to the judge and jury.Every achievement of Pauling, including 25 or so degrees, was read and recorded in court, and Pauling himself stood in the plaintiff's box for ten hours.He looked the jury members in the eye as they examined his background, accomplishments and political activities. “In none of the groups I was associated with was anyone I knew or suspected to be dedicated to communism,” he said. "Not only do I know nothing about Marxism, but I have no interest in it." He testified that some of the National Review's editorials had largely negatively affected his income.In fact, in 1962, his salary at Caltech was not raised, and his paper income declined slightly.He also testified that he was snubbed by the president of Caltech and others and that the National Review editorial damaged his ego.

The lawyers of the "National Review" also tried their best and spent several days in their defense, tirelessly stating Pauling's history of contact with leftists, and citing the results of various investigations conducted by Congress .They show that Pauling's total income did not decline over the years; it increased when his bonuses were included.Pauling's lawyers made so many counterarguments and interrupted the defendant's testimony that Silverman lost his patience. "If the jury is going to hear the rest of the two sides," said the judge, who was tired after four weeks of testimony, "remember, it's April 1."

Two more weeks passed like this.Judge Silverman had heard enough. The National Review filed a new motion to dismiss the plaintiffs' suit, citing the principles of the Sullivan decision.Silverman surprised Pauling by expressing his approval of the motion.Silverman said he has now heard both parties sufficiently to make two judgments: that Pauling was a public figure and the principles of the Sullivan ruling apply; .According to the principles of the Sullivan ruling, factual defamation is not established, therefore, no judgment can be made in Pauling's favor. "Dr. Pauling enhanced his reputation by helping causes he believed in," Silverman told the jury. "I just think it limits legal claims for defamation. Maybe we can see this as another sacrifice he made to uphold his beliefs."

The court ordered Pauling to pay National Review $1,000 in legal costs (the magazine's lawyers had spent more than $5,000 in total).The jury then declared dismissed. Pauling simply said he was "disappointed" by the outcome and let his lawyer go.Later, he hired a better lawyer to help with the appeal, senior attorney Louis Nizer.Nizer's team of lawyers was pessimistic at first, but Pauling enthusiastically encouraged them to work hard, thinking that it was possible to overturn the conclusion that the principles of the Sullivan ruling applied to this case, because Pauling was not an official in power.Therefore, the legal team agreed to continue the case.

But the soundness of Silverman's ruling in the Pauling case has been confirmed by other courts' decisions in other cases.In those cases, the public figures involved were not politicians either. In 1967, the U.S. Supreme Court gave a broader interpretation of the Sullivan principle.By the time Nizer finally took Pauling's appeal to court in the spring of 1968, it had become a sure thing to lose.In Pauling's two defamation cases against the "Global Democrat" and the New York "Daily News", the Sullivan ruling principle also became a decisive factor in his defeat.

"National Review" used a full seven-page layout to reproduce the process of the case trial for readers with the utmost irony and sarcasm.Barkley's magazine not only survived Pauling's menace, but it looked more pompous than ever. Since then, Pauling has been disarmed by the principles of the Sullivan ruling and has never filed another defamation suit. orthomolecular therapy Pauling lost a series of defamation cases one after another, and spent a lot of time, energy and money fighting the lawsuit, so he was depressed.He decided to work harder on scientific research. By the end of 1966, Pauling and Eva were spending half their time at the Hot Springs Road home and the other half at their beautiful recently completed mansion in Big Sur Ranch.There, Pauling was in isolation, and if any new ideas popped up in his head, there was always a lot of time to think about them.At this time, he intends to cut off the relationship with the Democratic System Research Center and concentrate his time on the research of theoretical science.He published several papers on the structure of graphite and boron nitride, examining baryon resonance as a spin state in intermetallic compounds and electron transfer phenomena, while revisiting the need for a scientific approach to solving the world's problems.For a few days, he thought over and over whether to thoroughly study the phenomenon of UFOs in the natural world, gather relevant issues, and make a comprehensive analysis from the credibility of witnesses to the possibility of extraterrestrial visitors.

It is from such travels of the imagination that a new generalizing thought emerges. It all started in the second half of 1965.Pauling visited several friends, one of whom was the psychoanalyst Carmel.One day, before it was time for dinner, he was in the reception room and wanted to use the time to find some interesting materials to read. His eyes fell on a book about schizophrenia, the title of which was "Inside Psychiatry". Niacin Therapy".I became interested in this book because of my lack of knowledge about using vitamins (niacin is one of the B vitamins) to treat mental illness.The author is a Canadian scholar, Abram Hoffer, director of the Saskatchewan Institute of Psychiatry.The book summarizes the results of many years of experiments conducted by Hofer and his colleague Humphrey Osmond.These results seem to clearly indicate that high doses of niacin and related compounds have quite positive effects on brain function in patients with schizophrenia.The doses prescribed by the two Canadians were staggering—in Ruo Yu's case, more than a thousand times the daily pre-approved dose.It seems that such a large dose not only did not produce obvious adverse side effects, but also had significant improvement in psychotic symptoms and relapse rate.Hofer and Osmond dubbed their treatment "megavitamin therapy." Pauling, who has been concerned with the biochemistry of psychosis for more than a decade, admires the book's arguments.However, there were still some questions he was unsure about. After thinking about it for a week, he suddenly found the answer.Most drugs, he knew, were safe and effective only in certain concentrations; even aspirin, an overdose could be fatal.In Hoffer and Osmond's study, niacin was used as a drug, but it was still very safe at high doses, and the effect was even more pronounced with increasing doses. The order of magnitude far exceeds the amount recommended by physicians.In this regard, Pauling was very surprised, and he began to consider whether other vitamins have the same situation. A few months later, Pauling's interest intensified when he personally examined the effects of megadose vitamin therapy. In March 1966, he was awarded the Carl Neuberger Prize for research that synthesized new medical and biological knowledge.He made a speech after accepting the medal, mentioning that he hoped to live another fifteen to twenty years to see firsthand the great new advances that were bound to come in medicine.A few days later he received a letter from Owen Stone.Stone was a biochemist from Staten Island who liked to make friends, and Pauling met him briefly at the dinner after the Newberg Prize was presented. In his letter, Stone told Pauling that he appreciated Pauling's speech very much, but he thought the requirement of living another twenty years was too low.Why not live another fifty years?As long as Pauling listens to his advice, he can achieve this goal. He told Pauling a story about vitamin C. Stone has been interested in vitamin C since 1935.At that time, he began to publish papers and obtained a patent on the use of ascorbic acid (the scientific name for vitamin C) as a food additive.For several years, he had read a series of reports from around the world that the use of high doses of vitamin C in the treatment of various viral diseases, even heart disease and cancer, could achieve some curative effect.Both Stone and his wife believed in the health benefits of vitamin C, and the two began taking 3 grams of vitamin C a day—many times the government's recommended daily allowance. As a result, Stone feels much better.However, the real conviction of this came after a car accident. In 1960, the Stones were driving on a South Dakota road when they collided head-on with a truck driven by a drunk, nearly killing them both.However, Stone told Pauling, not only did they both survive, but their wounds healed unusually quickly.He attributes this to their high doses of vitamin C during recovery. After leaving the hospital, Stone planned to spread the word about the benefits of ascorbic acid to others.He began to read various literature and materials.He noticed that among mammals, only humans, the closest primate relatives, and guinea pigs were unable to synthesize vitamin C in their own bodies because the enzymes needed to produce the vitamin were absent.Therefore, one must obtain this vitamin through diet.A lack of vitamin C can lead to scurvy, a terrible disease that has claimed the lives of thousands of sailors.It was also found by an English doctor that the disease could be effectively prevented by consuming lime juice or fresh oranges.In order to prevent scurvy, the U.S. government promptly stipulated the minimum daily intake of vitamin C. However, according to Stone, this is not enough.Scurvy is not just a simple nutritional deficiency, but B is also a genetic defect shared by humans, which is the serious consequences that may be caused by congenital metabolic defects.The loss of an enzyme that deprives humans of the ability to synthesize a desired substance in the body.Studies on animals have shown that simply preventing scurvy will not keep the body in the healthiest state possible.Only other mammals, such as mice, have a well-established biochemical mechanism to produce ascorbic acid on their own.Experiments have shown that an adult who has adjusted his weight to about 150 pounds needs to take in 1.4 to 4 grams of vitamin C every day, which is roughly equivalent to the amount produced by a mouse in order to ensure the health of the human body.Stone also believed that consuming less than this amount could cause what he called "chronic subclinical scurvy."It is a debilitating state in which a person is prone to various diseases.He concluded in a paper: "This concept of an inherited disease can be used to rationally explain why high doses of ascorbic acid can be used to treat scurvy and many other diseases, thus opening a wide range of clinical research. We can use high-dose ascorbate to treat certain bacterial inflammations, collagen diseases, cardiovascular diseases, and aging.” Sadly, six medical The journal refused to publish his paper. In other words, in Stone's view, taking enough vitamin C to prevent scurvy is the same as taking enough food to fill a person's belly so as not to starve to death.If you want to eat and be strong, you need to take in more nutrients.He advised Pauling to take 1.5 grams of vitamin C every day, which is very effective in preventing viral diseases such as colds and colds. "I don't believe that," Pauling said later, referring to Stone's letter.Stone is not a doctor after all, nor is he strictly speaking a nutritionist or a scholar specializing in medicine.He is a biochemist in the brewing industry.But Stone's theoretical framework—the idea that genetic variation causes vitamin C deficiency—is in line with Pauling's own.Biddle used the concept of Streptococcus variation to show that hereditary variation can lead to the lack of nutrients such as vitamins and amino acids. Pauling Biddle's thinking is convinced. "The vitamins we need today are the testimony of molecular diseases suffered by our ancestors millions of years ago," Pauling wrote in 1962.A year or two ago he might have laughed off Stone's advice as a letter from a whimsical man, but today, with his newfound interest in super-vitamin remedies for schizophrenia, it seems Vitamin C is at least worth a try. He started taking 3 grams of vitamin C a day. The miraculous result appeared.For decades, colds have been Pauling's confidant.Once you catch a cold, it's not a small problem.The body is extremely weak, coughs many diseases, often has to stay in bed for a week, and in many cases, very serious rhinitis is complicated.The cold seriously affected his work and forced him to postpone his plans to visit abroad, which made him miserable.Previously, he had only one preventive method—daily injections of penicillin, which he used intermittently from 1948 until the early 1960s. Next, it is related to vitamin C.He and Eva started taking vitamin C in the amount Stone suggested.Both feel more energetic than before, their spirits are improving, and they are no longer suffering from colds.The sudden cure of the disease that had haunted Pauling for forty years was as strong evidence as the conclusions written in the scientific literature, and Pauling became a believer in vitamin C. However, he is a believer who does not want to make a big deal out of it.For three years, he took vitamin C every day, benefited from it, and said nothing about it.It wasn't that he wasn't biochemically intrigued; in fact, while living in Santa Barbara, he even began measuring the amount of vitamin C in his own urine—however, he didn't believe that ascorbic acid was a medicinal herb. He simply hoped to borrow Hofer and Osmond's ideas for research on mental health and vitamin problems. Pauling is currently researching and analyzing another major theory, a grand project on spiritual issues, which will become the main position for his imagination in the coming year.Hofer and Osmond's use of megadose vitamins to treat schizophrenia was, for Pauling, the "catalyst" of his research problem, but there was something deeper to consider.After years of research, Pauling began to realize that the human brain is a place where molecules and electrons can be excited. It sends out various signals through a complex biochemical mechanism. This mechanism provides the necessary nutrients from metabolites. Activity is governed by enzymatic reactions, and is coordinated and regulated in some as yet unknown manner—all this, probably, according to Pauling's conclusions from the most advanced prevailing thought, through the favorable interconnection of nerve cells. The pattern is complete. Pauling's research interests center on the biochemical mechanisms involved.His initial forays into the mysteries of the brain, and his research on patients with mental disorders and phenylketonuria a decade ago, were all aimed at discovering and defining the missing enzymes that could explain the mechanisms of mental disorders. molecular reasons.The tools he used were limited to urine analysis and blood analysis, which was too crude to help him find the target he wanted, so the research ended in failure.Now that mental health issues are once again at the center of his attention, another crucial theory is brewing in his mind.Using this theory, he believed, it would be possible to explain—like other great theories he created—a variety of ambiguous and sometimes paradoxical phenomena. If human brain function depends on the proper amount of certain molecules (such as enzymes, coenzymes, substitutes, products, etc.), then optimal brain function is likely to depend on the presence of certain molecules in the brain. This type of balance requires, as he later put it, "the right molecule in the right amount".If an important enzyme is underactive or fails—as is the case in patients with phenylketonuria—the whole mechanism can go haywire.However, if one of the enzymes is out of balance, we can restore balance by supplementing with large quantities of the relevant substances.That's perhaps what Hofer and Osmond did with niacin—in the case of a dysregulated enzymatic reaction, a heavy dose of a substitute or adjuvant throws it back in the right direction. Pauling found a catchy new name for his theory—"orthomolecular" psychiatry—and set about publishing his ideas. "Molecular corrective psychiatric therapy is a method of treating psychosis by providing the brain with an optimal molecular environment, especially a solution that provides an optimal concentration of various elements in the body under normal conditions," he wrote on this theory in the spring of 1967. This explanation is given in the first paper of the author.The use of a protein-free diet to treat phenylpropanuria is an example of orthomolecular therapy: the result is a reduction in the concentration of amino acids that cause psychosis.Hofer and Osmond's megadose vitamin C therapy is another example of orthomolecular therapy.Other examples can also be found.It is also known that various nutritional deficiencies, including vitamin deficiencies such as pellagra and scurvy, can lead to various symptoms of insanity. "The functions of the brain and nerve fibers depend more sensitively on the speed of chemical reactions than those of other organs," Pauling wrote. "Psychopathies, I think, are mostly caused by abnormal rates of reactions. The speed of such reactions is determined by abnormal changes in a person's genetic makeup and diet, as well as in the molecular concentrations of important elements." Some results of this new theory made Pauling particularly excited.This is an important theory and cannot be mistaken.This theory takes a fresh look at how the brain works optimally.However, there is a deeper meaning than that.This theory provides Pauling with a way to look back at the past, and to a certain extent, it also helps him understand some absurd and unreasonable things that have happened in his life.He also recalled that his mother, Belle, had suffered from severe anemia, which gradually damaged her brain and was finally forced into a mental hospital.A molecular imbalance developed in her brain.Applying orthomolecular therapy will help prevent this from happening to others. And that's not all.The concept of molecular correction can be applied to the human body.Diabetes, for example, can be viewed as a disease that requires molecular correction so that the patient's body naturally produces the right amount of insulin, and the disease can be treated.To treat hyperthyroidism, iodine should be supplemented as needed.Fluoridated water prevents tooth decay.Life is a series of complex chemical reactions; the human body is the place where these reactions take place.Like any other chemical reaction, chemical reactions in the human body require the proper quantities of reactants, catalysts, and products.Pauling quickly extended his theory from brain activity to various fields involved in human health from the perspective of molecular correction. san diego and stanford In order to test his theory, Pauling needed an experimental place.With experimental facilities, in turn, it is also beneficial for him to seek the necessary funding.Santa Barbara couldn't provide him with such conditions, so he had to look elsewhere. In the summer of 1967, the opportunity finally came.The new and growing UC San Diego invited Pauling to serve as a one-year visiting professor of chemistry and physics.The chemistry department seems intent on turning this into a long-term employment relationship.Pauling took a leave of absence from the Center for the Study of Democratic Institutions, and Eva found a home in La Jolla. In September 1967, Pauling began working in San Diego. For a while, he seemed to return to his lighter and happier years.There was another laboratory—albeit a small one, a fraction of the one he had had at Caltech, but it was still a laboratory—with another group of researchers.He was able to work with the rhythm of the university calendar again. However, it turns out that San Diego, like Santa Barbara, is not a place to stay.As soon as Pauling managed to secure a research grant and hired a research assistant to start working on some problems, he got word that his long-term employment was about to fail again.As for the reason, it's still politics. Pauling disliked the Vietnam policy of the two major political parties, so the firepower of criticism became more intense. In 1967, he joined the Peace and Liberty Party—which had nominated Blake Pencer, Eldridge Cleaver—for the presidency—and used the language of a left-wing group, the Students for a Democratic Society.Pauling supported the purpose and strategy of this organization from the bottom of his heart, supported the struggle of African Americans for political and economic rights, and called for continuous and powerful mass demonstrations.At this time, he also talked about the issue of revolution. "I believe in nonviolent struggle," he said at an antiwar rally in May 1968. “However, those in power believe in violence, in the means of force—in tear gas, Molotov cocktails, police arming, aerial bombing, nuclear weapons, war. As long as the selfishness of those in power is not extinguished, our desire that future revolutions be non-violent There is a danger of failing." Pauling's increasingly violent language once again caught the attention of members of the UC Board of Trustees.From the time he arrived in San Diego, he heard rumors that several school councilors of the University of California had long disliked Pauling and firmly opposed any branch school to hire him for a long time.Unfortunately, Pauling celebrated his 67th birthday in February 1968, which coincided with the mandatory retirement age for professors at the University of California, so things were made even more difficult.Pauling was in good health at this time, and his mind was very active, and he hardly considered retirement.However, age is still a barrier to rehiring.At the same time, a new rule came into effect, that is, the University of California Regents has obtained direct voting power to veto any proposal that a person has reached retirement age and should be treated as an exception.Pauling knew very well that these school committee members would not let him go anyway.His future at UC San Diego is uncertain, so research grants are unlikely.Without funding, it is difficult to obtain scientific research results in schools, and there is no reason to ask for re-employment after reaching retirement age. After months of indecision and internal strife, UC San Diego finally decided to hire Pauling for another year a few weeks before the start of the fall 1968 semester.It was so obvious that it was almost impossible to go beyond another year, so Pauling began to find another way out.His old friend Biddle had offered him to teach at the University of Chicago, and he considered accepting, but declined, his home in California. He finally made a decision. In February 1969, Pauling officially announced that he would leave San Diego at the end of the school year.His destination, he said, is Stanford University, where he has accepted an offer to serve as a consulting professor in the chemistry department. In May 1969, hundreds of UC San Diego students gathered in the school gymnasium to mourn the loss of a Berkeley student.During a clash in People's Park, the student was shot and killed by police.At the rally, the focus of debate was whether to hold a strike and close the school. Some faculty members called for moderation and restraint when Pauling arrived.His impassioned and impassioned voice, his clear attitude of love and hate, are exactly the same as when he spoke against nuclear tests before.He told the students in attendance that the Berkeley shooting was yet another example of American-style militarism, economic exploitation and disregard for human rights that continues to play out in Vietnam. “Strikes and school strikes are a way for oppressed and exploited people to express themselves against oppression and exploitation,” he snapped, his rhetoric becoming increasingly vehement. "Across the University of California, everyone, every student, every faculty member, and every staff member should stand up and fight the immoral injustice demonstrated by events at Berkeley." It was also his way of saying goodbye to the UC regents. In many ways, things are far better at Stanford.If nothing else, Palo Alto is much closer to leaving his Big Sur ranch.The frequent trips between him and Eva were no longer such a hassle.The teachers of the Chemistry Department are also very happy to join him.At the private school, the retirement age was no longer an issue, and he no longer had the trouble of rubbing hands with the school trustees.Besides, the political climate in the San Francisco area is relatively peaceful. However, due to economic considerations, Pauling had to reach a deal with others, that is, take half of his own salary, plus all the subsidies received, to pay the salaries of the relevant personnel.After a year, the salary is not guaranteed at all.The only experimental site is small and separated from the main building of the Department of Chemistry. Things would get better, Pauling thought, once projects on molecular correction were funded.He and Eva found a modest but comfortable house in the mountains five miles from the campus in the Padora Valley. The finished furniture, everything is quite similar to their old house in Pasadena. He thought that now he might be able to end his years of wandering, settle down, and do some important work in scientific research.