Chapter 18 Chapter 17 The Four Ministers of Zhongxing in the Late Qing Dynasty
During the decline of China's autocratic dynasty in the late Qing Dynasty, four ZTE ministers rose up. With their talents, they suppressed peasant uprisings and started the Westernization Movement in an attempt to save the thousands of years of China's feudal autocratic system.
Zeng Guofan, born in 1811, was born in Xiangxiang, Hunan Province, originally named Zicheng, courtesy name Bohan, nickname Disheng.At the age of five, he began to study with his father in the family school, and then he took the exam in Changsha Prefecture and ranked seventh. In 1834, he graduated from Yuelu Academy in Changsha. At the end of the same year, he went to Beijing to take part in the general examination and failed twice in a row. In 1838, he went to Beijing to participate in the general examination, and finally won the 38th Jinshi, and then entered the Imperial Academy, becoming an important figure of the Zhuhe faction, a disciple of Mu Zhang'a, Minister of Military Affairs, and was renamed Guofan by Mu Zhang'a.
In 1840, Zeng Guofan started his career as a reviewer of the Shuchangguan Sanguan.In the next ten years, he devoted himself to the study of Neo-Confucianism in the Song and Ming Dynasties, from Han Yu, Zhou Dunyi, Zhu Xi to Lu Xiangshan, Wang Yangming's thoughts, he explored them one by one, becoming "the last Taoist in feudal society".During this period, although he did not achieve success, he was still smooth sailing, and he was promoted to be Minister of Rites and Minister of War in just a dozen years.
After the vigorous Taiping Heavenly Kingdom Movement, Zeng Guofan, who kept his filial piety at home, wore a robe and armor and became a powerful pillar for maintaining feudal rule. In 1853, he received an order to supervise regiment training and went to Changsha to take office.After taking office, Zeng Guofan used the "Xiang Yong" of Luo Zenan and others as the basic strength to form a large group to suppress peasant riots in various parts of Hunan.He adopted the policy of heavy punishment in troubled times, killing people like nothing, and was called "Zeng Shaved His Head" by the people at that time.While supervising regiment training and suppressing uprisings, he began to implement the plan he had conceived as early as 1851, that is, to train a new type of armed force that was different from the Manchu green battalion army and local regiment training. This was the Hunan Army.
In view of the corruption and incompetence of the officers and soldiers at that time, he formulated a strict method of training soldiers: first, the military system was replaced by the recruitment system.Regarding the recruitment of soldiers, he advocated recruiting in mountainous and remote areas, and believed that "skilled, young and strong, simple and farmer-like are the best. use".For the recruitment of military officers, gentlemen and literati are mainly recruited, and there are specific criteria: first, they must be able to govern the people; second, they must not be afraid of death;
Secondly, he changed "soldiers owned by the state" into "soldiers owned by the generals", imitating the method of the Qi family army in the Ming Dynasty, with the battalion as the unit, with four sentries under its control, and each sentry has four teams under its jurisdiction. It is easy to train and deploy defenses in wartime; in terms of running the army, he formulated a set of strict "battalion system" and "battalion regulations", and compiled the feudal teachings into popular folk songs to educate soldiers and control them. The soul of the army.The organization and training of the Hunan Army was imitated by all subsequent warlords.
In February 1854, the Hunan Army was trained, and Zeng Guofan personally led the Hunan Army to conquer the Taiping Army.When he set off, he issued the announcement of "A Call to Cantonese Bandits", saying: "The behavior of the Taiping Heavenly Kingdom Movement, which cited China's thousands of years of ritual, righteousness, human relations, and poetry and books, once it is swept away, this is not only the change of my Qing Dynasty." , It is the strange change of famous teachings since the founding of Confucius and Mencius, and I, Confucius and Mencius, cried bitterly in Jiuquan, how can anyone who can read and write sit back and watch, not thinking about what they want to do?"
From this we can see Zeng Guofan's face as a defender of feudal society.The Taiping Army did not dare to take this vicious enemy lightly, and launched a full-scale attack on the Hunan Army, besieging Changsha, where the main force of the Hunan Army was stationed, and Zeng Guofan rushed out of the encirclement. On April 28, 1854, Zeng Guofan led his troops into Baisha Prefecture, and immediately ordered the navy to attack Jinggang. The result was a disastrous defeat. Zeng Guofan hurriedly ordered the army to attack across the board. Ashamed, angry and frustrated, he committed suicide several times by throwing himself into the water in front of his subordinates, only to be held back by the left and right guards.After returning to Changsha, the provincial capital, Zeng Guofan was full of ridicule and attacks. He was angry and angry. He declared that he would commit suicide one night to thank the Xiang people. He wrote a will and even asked his younger brother Zeng Guoquan to buy a coffin.Later, because the Taiping Army turned its offensive target to Wuchang, Zeng Guofan was given a chance to breathe, reorganized the army, and gained an advantage in Hunan.
The gradual growth of Zeng Guofan's power not only aroused the wariness of the rulers of the Qing Dynasty, but even the local governors became jealous, and some people made him difficult everywhere.Zeng Guofan, who relied on his merits but had no real power, was also dissatisfied with the Qing court. In March 1857, Zeng Guofan used the name of anti-observation to ask for lifelong observance of the system, intending to advance by retreating.I don't want Emperor Xianfeng to write Zhu Wen, so I will grant his request.Later, due to the power of the Taiping Army, the Qing court finally gave Zeng Guofan real power and called him out of the mountain.
In 1860, Zeng Guofan became the governor of Liangjiang and the imperial envoy, supervising the military affairs in the south of the Yangtze River, and started to suppress the Taiping Army again.In December, Li Xiucheng of the Taiping Army marched into the old camp of the Hunan Army in Qimen. Zeng Guofan, who was sitting here, knew that his troops were weak and he was in a difficult position, so he wrote a suicide note and prepared to commit suicide. . In September 1861, the Hunan Army captured Anqing, a military turning point.In November, Cixi appointed Zeng Guofan to take charge of the military affairs of the four provinces of Jiangsu, Anhui, Jiangxi, and Zhejiang. It can be said that at this time Zeng Guofan had already obtained full military and political power in the war against the Taiping Heavenly Kingdom. And extended to the southwestern interior.Since then, Zeng Guofan's Hunan Group has become the most powerful faction among the power forces of the landlord class.
In 1862, Zeng Guofan divided his troops into ten groups and launched a large-scale attack on the Taiping Heavenly Kingdom.The various Hunan armies under the command of Zeng Guofan, while frantically suppressing the Taiping Army, massacred, raped, and plundered the occupied lands. The provinces of Jiangsu and Zhejiang became a miserable hell on earth.According to statistics, more than 2.87 million people died under the butcher's knife in Jiangsu and Zhejiang provinces.Under the trampling of the Hunan Army's iron hooves, Suzhou and Hangzhou, the rich and wealthy lands in the world, are already full of bones and desolate. In July 1864, after the Hunan Army broke through Tianjing, it was even more tragic and looted.Zeng Guofan himself said that "in March, more than 100,000 thieves were killed, and the Qinhuai river was full of dead bodies."When Tianjing fell, the total number of the Taiping Army was no more than 10,000, and a considerable part of them broke through the encirclement.It can be seen that most of the people who were brutally killed were unarmed and innocent people.
Zeng Guoquan, Zeng Guofan's younger brother, ordered to set fire to extinguish the traces in order to embezzle wealth for himself. The fire in Tianjing burned for seven days and seven nights, and the bustling capital suddenly became ruins. However, Zeng Guofan falsely claimed in the report that the fire was caused by the Taiping Army The palaces and mansions were all burned down, and "the flames did not go out for three days", and no Taiping Army treasury was found in Tianjing City.In order to prevent the matter from leaking, Zeng Guofan refused to let the arrested Taiping army loyal king Li Xiucheng be escorted to Beijing, and killed him on the spot.
After the capture of Tianjing, Zeng Guofan was conferred the title of first-class marquis and crown prince Taibao. His power, status and fame reached their peak.
Zeng Guofan is well aware of the historical legacy of "the cunning rabbit dies, the lackey cooks; the tall bird dies, the good bow hides", and he knows that he has too much power at this time, and many people in the court are not at ease with him.In order to reduce the suspicion of the Qing court and avoid the disaster of killing and exterminating the family, when the Hunan army was in a state of disarray, he took the initiative to propose to the Qing court that the Hunan army be gradually disbanded, and ordered his younger brother Zeng Guoquan to resign and return to Hunan to ease the conflict. Show the world that you are clean and unambitious.
At this time, the rest of the Taiping Army joined up with another anti-Qing armed Nian army operating on both sides of the Huaihe River, and resumed a massive armed struggle. In November 1864, the Qing government ordered Zeng Guofan to lead his troops to the border area between Anhui and Hubei to suppress the Nian Army. Zeng Guofan made every excuse but never went.Later, the Nian Army wiped out Seng Gelinqin's troops in Shandong, which caused great panic among the ruling group of the Qing Dynasty.Seng Gelinqin was a well-known general in the Qing Dynasty. Most of his troops were Mongolian cavalry with extremely strong combat effectiveness.The Qing government realized that the Nian army had become a new enemy after the Taiping Heavenly Kingdom, so in May 1865, it ordered Zeng Guofan to go to Shandong to fight, and Li Hongzhang was temporarily acting as the governor of Liangjiang.At this time, most of the Hunan Army had been abolished. Zeng Guofan could only rely on Li Hongzhang's Huai Army to fight, and the Huai Army was not under Zeng Guofan's leadership. Even part of the Huai Army under Zeng Guofan's command was secretly constrained by Li Hongzhang.Zeng Guofan failed repeatedly. Amidst the criticism, he asked to leave office, and the Qing court appointed Zeng Guofan as Governor of Liangjiang.
After returning to his post, in May 1868, Zeng Guofan set out from Nanjing to inspect the preparations of food, wages and weapons, and began to focus on military industry, becoming an early figure in the modern Westernization Movement in China.As early as September 1861, Zeng Guofan also contributed to the establishment of the Jiangnan Manufacturing Bureau, which was the largest military industry in the late Qing Dynasty.Zeng Guofan and others also set up schools to learn foreign languages and machinery manufacturing technology, and translated a large number of foreign engineering technology books.Zeng Guofan recognized the importance of talents in the process of doing Westernization, and joined forces with Li Hongzhang to request the Qing government to send students to study abroad.These measures are worthy of recognition.
In 1870, Zeng Guofan was transferred to Zhili governor.Soon, the Tianjin religious incident shocked the whole country.Thirty or forty babies adopted by the French Catholic Infant Church in Tianjin died due to the epidemic.At this time, there were rumors in the area of Tianjin that the abduction of young children was also related to the Catholic Church.As a result, Tianjin people gathered in front of the Yuyingtang on June 20 and demanded to be checked inside.Just as the representatives of the people were about to enter the nursery for inspection after obtaining the consent of the nun in charge of the nursery, the French Consul in Tianjin, Feng Daye, was rewarded and rushed to the nursery in person, and threw the representatives of the people out of the hall without asking why.
The next day, Feng Daye held a gun and went to meet Chonghou, Minister of Commerce and Industry of Beiyang, and ordered troops to be suppressed. When the negotiations failed, he immediately shot threats.After leaving the Yamen, Feng Daye blatantly shot Liu Jie, the prefect of Tianjin County, and wounded Liu's entourage Gao Sheng. This aroused great indignation among the people, and Feng Daye was killed on the spot. Churches and consulate offices in France, the United States, Britain and other countries, and many foreign priests, businessmen and officials were killed.
Afterwards, France immediately put political pressure and military threats on the Qing government, and united with the United States, Britain, Russia, Germany, Belgium, and the West to protest to the Qing court. Warships from various countries gathered in Haikou, Tianjin to demonstrate, forcing the Qing government to suppress it. The masses of the country punished local officials and threatened: "If there is no practical solution within ten days, Tianjin will be turned into scorched earth."
So the Qing government sent Chonghou to France as an imperial envoy to "apology" and at the same time ordered Zeng Guofan to rush to Tianjin to investigate and deal with it.For fear of offending foreigners, Zeng Guofan blindly avoided wars and sought peace. The investigation policy he set was "but the peace is reached quickly, regardless of whether the crime of love is appropriate or not", that is, he only wanted to reach a compromise as soon as possible to keep the "peace", regardless of right and wrong. .As a result, the prefect and county magistrate of Tianjin were dismissed and exiled into the army, and many patriotic people in Tianjin were arrested. Among them, 20 were sentenced to death and 25 were exiled. At the same time, 497,000 taels of silver were paid to the invaders .
Zeng Guofan's weak surrender policy aroused unanimous condemnation across the country. Even his Hunan fellows took off his honor plaque in the Hunan Guild Hall, smashed it, and burned it to ashes.In September of the same year, Zeng Guofan was transferred to the post of Governor-General of Liangjiang in the midst of the "traitors" scolded by the Chinese people. In March 1872, Zeng Guofan died in Nanjing at the age of 61. After his death, Zeng Guofan was bestowed with the title of "Teacher" by the Qing court and given the posthumous title of "Wenzheng".In addition, there are "Handwritten Diary", "Zeng Guofan's Family Letters and Family Instructions", "Zeng Wenzheng Gong Jiwaiji" and so on.
Zeng Guofan believed in the study of managing the world. He once said: The ambition of a gentleman is to have the quality of the people, to have the karma of the inner sage and the outer king, and then to live up to his parents. He is worthy of being the perfect man in the world.Even later, he was in a prominent position, and he still adhered to the purpose of "serving the country with all his might and practicing sideways".When he met the Empress Dowager Cixi, he was very sad when he discovered the truth that Cixi was greedy for power but had little ability. Encouragement, cite a group of gentlemen and cultivate a few good officials as seeds."
Zeng Guofan is very strict with himself, and he bows himself to reflect on his mistakes and shortcomings every day in order to make progress every day. This strict self-examination spirit is also revealed in his letters to his parents, brothers, and children.When admonishing the younger generation, he always taught them to be frugal, hardworking, and honest.He is committed to the revival of Confucianism, and he believes in the role of subjective will very much. Sometimes he attributes the reason for his success in his life to the word "perseverance".
Among the people, Zeng Guofan has both the laurels of "the first minister" and the titles of "Zeng Shaved", "Zeng Butcher", and "Zeng Guothief".Zhang Taiyan once said that for Zeng Guofan, "Praise him is a sage, and disrespect him is the culprit", "Heroes are worthy of life", and they are denounced as "thieves of the people". A reference to recognize this historical figure today.
Li Hongzhang, born in 1823, whose real name is Zhang Tong and style name Shaoquan, was born in Hefei, Anhui.Jinshi of Daoguang, Shu Jishi of Hanlin Academy, taught in the scattered hall. In 1853, Li Hongzhang returned to his hometown to run a regiment training to fight against the Nian Army and the Taiping Army. In 1858, he went to Jiangxi to join Zeng Guofan, became a student of Zeng Guofan, and assisted in business affairs. In 1861, he was ordered to edit Huaiping, which was appreciated by Zeng Guofan.In the process of suppressing the Taiping Heavenly Kingdom, due to his outstanding performance, he was appointed governor of Jiangsu by the Qing government.When he served as governor, he brought the Huai army recruited from Anhui to Shanghai, bought a batch of foreign guns and cannons, and hired a group of officers and soldiers from Britain, the United States, and France as instructors to teach the Huai army exercises. Foreign exercises and the use of foreign weapons intend to train the Huai Army into a new type of army.
But the Huai Army has a large number of people, and the guns and ammunition are all purchased from foreign countries. There is not so much money. Li Hongzhang thought, if he can buy the machines for making guns and ammunition, hire foreign craftsmen, and use domestic raw materials to manufacture the arms himself, it will not be difficult. Are you saving money?At this time, a British military doctor named Margaret came to Li Hongzhang and said: "I have learned how to make munitions and train the army. I heard that you want to make munitions yourself, and I am willing to help you."
Li Hongzhang couldn't wait for it, and quickly said: "That's great. From now on, you will be an officer with me and be in charge of coaching the gun team. I will give you another sum of money to prepare to open an arsenal."
Soon, a factory specializing in the manufacture of ammunition opened in a temple in Songjiang.Li Hongzhang also established the Shanghai Cannon Making Bureau, bought back the cannon-making machines from Hong Kong, and recruited some craftsmen from Britain and France to start making "blossom shells" and a kind of ignition device called "self-fire".General Han Dianjia of the Huai Army also led a group of Chinese craftsmen into the bureau to learn various techniques.Later, when the Huai army defeated the Taiping army and occupied Suzhou, Li Hongzhang moved the arsenal run by Ma Geli to Suzhou, further expanding its scale and becoming the Suzhou Artillery Bureau.Through his relationship, Magri bought a set of machinery and equipment for manufacturing and repairing various weapons left over from the disbandment of foreign fleets.In this way, bullets, grenades, fuse tubes, detonators, mortars and rifles were all manufactured one after another.
In 1865, Li Hongzhang was promoted to the governor of Liangjiang and moved to Nanjing. He moved the Suzhou Artillery Bureau to the vicinity of Nanjing Yuhuatai, renamed it "Jinling Manufacturing Bureau", also called "Jiangning Machinery Bureau", and continued to manufacture weapons.At the same time, he bought an American-run iron factory in Hongkou, Shanghai, with 40,000 taels of silver, and merged several artillery bureaus, manufacturing bureaus, and iron factories to form the Jiangnan Machinery Manufacturing Bureau.Soon, Zeng Guofan sent people to buy back some machines from the United States and allocated them to the Jiangnan Machinery Manufacturing Bureau, making it a huge arsenal. It can not only manufacture various guns and ammunition, but also imitate foreign styles and structures to manufacture ships. .
At this time, Zuo Zongtang also set up the Fuzhou Shipping Bureau in Fujian, and Ding Baozhen set up the Shandong Machinery Bureau in Jinan, both of which were arsenals producing foreign guns and cannons.Seeing this situation, the Qing court feared that the manufacture and use of new weapons would be in the hands of the Han people, which would be detrimental to the ruling status of the Manchu nobles. Therefore, Prince Gong Yixin ordered the Minister of Commerce and Industry, Chong Hou, to set up the Tianjin Machinery Bureau, and invited the British Renmi Tuoshi was the chief manager and planned to make gunpowder, but the effect was not great. In 1870, Li Hongzhang succeeded Zeng Guofan as Governor of Zhili and Minister of Beiyang, and took over the Tianjin Machinery Bureau. After rectification and expansion, he began to manufacture guns, ammunition and military equipment.
In order to develop the power of the Huai army and consolidate the Beiyang territory, Li Hongzhang also prepared to build a navy and set up coastal defense, and stepped up the construction of Dagu Fort.He felt that the old-style soil guns installed by his predecessor Chonghou were too backward, so he discussed with Ma Geli to transport the cannons stored in Suzhou and the foreign guns made by Jinling Machinery Bureau to Tianjin and deploy them in the Dagu Fort. In 1875, when the officers and soldiers of the Dagu Fort tried to release two 68-pound cannons made by the bureau, an explosion occurred, killing seven soldiers on the spot and destroying the cannons.Li Hongzhang was furious after hearing this, and he immediately called Ma Geli to Tianjin.
Ma Geli excused himself and delayed his arrival in Tianjin for two months. Li Hongzhang asked him to try it himself. As a result, another explosion occurred.Li Hongzhang asked why the quality of the shells was so poor, but Ma Geli was arrogant and flatly refused.It turned out that the cannons made by Ma Geli for Li Hongzhang were used to deal with the Taiping Army, so they were all effective.But this time, the cannons were installed in the Dagu Fort to deal with the invasion of foreigners, and the British Magery played tricks on it.The Westernization Affairs Group relies on foreign countries for everything from management personnel to technical equipment. Those foreigners who work in Chinese factories have their own plans. Making money is one thing, and controlling China's military development is two.Therefore, they are generally willing to manufacture some guns and bullets, but once it is related to things that are unfavorable to foreigners, they will not do it.In order to save face, Li Hongzhang dismissed Ma Geli in a fit of anger.
The Qing government attached great importance to the Beiyang Navy, which was also Li Hongzhang's longest-running and costly undertaking.Because the rise and fall of this navy is not only directly related to the power of the Huai faction, but also a bargaining chip for the Westernization faction to contend with the conservative faction.Li Hongzhang spared no effort to create a navy. In the 1870s, Li Hongzhang presided over the purchase of warships from Britain, including "Longxiang", "Huwei", "Cedian", "Zhendong", "Zhenxi", "Zhennan", and "Zhenbei". In the 1880s, Germany's munitions and shipbuilding industry had achieved outstanding development. Li Hongzhang turned to Germany to order warships. He ordered two ironclad ships "Dingyuan" and "Zhenyuan" and the cruiser "Jiyuan" from Germany. In 1888, the Beiyang Navy was formally established and had more than 20 warships. Li Hongzhang set up two major naval bases in Lushunkou and Weihaiwei.
Li Hongzhang's performance in the Westernization Movement was far more than that. He also advocated the establishment of some civilian enterprises, such as the Shipping Merchants Bureau, Kaiping Mining Bureau, and Telegraph General Administration.He also founded a school and sent overseas students to study abroad. In 1871, he and Zeng Guofan invited the Qing court to select bright children to study in the United States, which was approved by the Qing government.After selection, the first batch of 30 young children went overseas by ship in Shanghai.When these children arrived in the United States, they immediately became a sensation in the American news, and the President of the United States even received them.Chinese students have left Americans with the impression of being smart, capable and courteous, and say they are "China's honor."Among these children who went to the United States, there are Zhan Tianyou and Liu Guanxiong who later became talents.
Li Hongzhang was active in the Westernization Movement, and his scale of Westernization was the largest, and he became the most representative figure of the Westernization School.
However, in diplomacy, Li Hongzhang, like his teacher Zeng Guofan, is a utterly weak faction.And Zeng Guofan learned from Mu Zhang'a, so he formed a camp of weak faction among the ministers in the late Qing Dynasty, and had great influence in the court, surpassing the hard faction represented by Lin Zexu and Zuo Zongtang.The queen dowager and the emperor who are in power are swaying between soft and hard, and the overall trend is weak.This is doomed to the tragic ending of late Qing diplomacy.Li Hongzhang formed the image of a "big traitor" in the hearts of Chinese people.
Li Hongzhang's diplomatic weakness reached an unimaginable level. In March 1885, the Qing army and the Vietnamese military and civilians jointly fought and severely damaged the French army in Liangshan, Zhennanguan and other places. The war ended in France's defeat.The Sino-French war also brought down the French cabinet.But what is strange is that the final result is that China "lost without defeat", and France "wins without victory".After the victory of the war, the Qing government sent Li Hongzhang to negotiate with France. For some unknown reason, Li Hongzhang signed the "Tianjin Treaty" with France, which was humiliating and humiliating.
The treaty stipulates: Recognize the rule of France in Vietnam; the French-Vietnamese treaty is "all dealt with"; French and other countries are allowed to enter China from across the border; French businessmen enter China, and business taxes are reduced according to the tax amount;In other words, if China wants to build a railway here, it must also negotiate with the French and so on.France was defeated, but enjoyed the benefits of the victorious country; China won, but was willing to suffer the loss of the defeated country.
Just when Li Hongzhang was working hard on his Beiyang Navy, the Sino-Japanese War of 1894-1895 broke out. The reasons are as follows:
In April 1894, the peasant uprising of Donghakdo broke out in North Korea, and the North Korean government asked the Qing government to send troops to help suppress it.Just when the Qing government hesitated, Japan persuaded the Qing Dynasty to send troops to "put down the chaos on behalf of Han", saying that the Japanese government "must have no other intentions."The Qing government listened to Japan's "guarantee", and on June 5, 1894, sent Taiyuan General Xia Shiwei and Zhili Admiral Ye Zhichao to lead 2,000 elite soldiers to North Korea for assistance.On the 6th, according to the provisions of the Sino-Japanese "Tianjin Conference Special Articles" in 1885, the Qing government informed Japan that Japan sent heavy troops to occupy the strategic areas from Incheon to Seoul on the grounds of protecting the embassy and overseas Chinese, and the uprising subsided soon.The Qing government suggested that China and Japan withdraw their troops at the same time, but Japan refused and continued to increase its troops.On July 23, under the pretext of "reforming Korea's internal affairs," Japan broke into the Korean palace, captured the king, and established a puppet regime.The Qing government was forced to send reinforcements.Ding Ruchang, the admiral of the Beiyang Navy, sent "Jiyuan" and "Guangyi" and other warships to escort the warships to Yashan to support Ye Zhichao and Xia Shiwei's troops.At dawn on July 25th, "Jiyuan" and "Guangyi" completed the task of escorting ships and lifted anchor from Asan to return. When they met, the Japanese ships went to war without declaring, and suddenly fired at the two ships "Jiyuan" and "Guangyi", trying to take advantage of their unpreparedness and sink "Jiyuan" and "Guangyi", thus igniting the flames of war.Because this year was the Sino-Japanese War, history called this Sino-Japanese War the "Jiawu War".
The two ships "Jiyuan" and "Guangyi" of the Qing army were not prepared at all. They were caught off guard and rushed to the battle with heavy losses.
The Qing government couldn't bear the provocation of the Japanese army. Under the pressure of the national public opinion, it officially declared war on Japan on August 8.On the same day, Japan also declared war on the Qing government.
On September 17, the main force of the Beiyang Fleet and the Japanese Combined Fleet met in the Yellow Sea outside the mouth of the Yalu River, and a fierce battle broke out between the two sides.In this naval battle, the Beiyang Fleet had ten warships in battle, and the Japanese Combined Fleet had twelve.
At the beginning of the naval battle, under the command of Ding Ruchang, ten warships attacked the Japanese combined fleet in a "person" formation. Liu Buchan commanded the "Dingyuan" ship to bear the brunt and charged forward, intercepting the Japanese combined fleet and making the Japanese army The United Fleet couldn't respond from head to tail, and it disrupted the formation of the Japanese ships all at once.Under the fierce artillery attack of the Qing army, the Japanese ships "Hiei", "Chicheng" and "Saikyo Maru" were severely damaged, and the captain of the Japanese navy, Sasaka Miyataro, was killed.
The Japanese Combined Fleet soon calmed down from the panic. Relying on the number of strong ships and strong firepower, they turned to attack the Beiyang Fleet from the north to the south, putting the Beiyang Fleet in a disadvantageous position of being attacked by the enemy.The flagship "Dingyuan" of the Beiyang Fleet was surrounded by four Japanese ships "Yoshino", "Takachiho", "Akitsushu" and "Namiwa", and the situation was very critical. Seeing this scene, Deng Shichang, the commander of the "Zhiyuan" ship, encouraged the officers and men of the "Zhiyuan" ship to say: "We have long put personal life and death aside in our military defense of the country. At present, the enemy is strong and we are weak. We can only fight to the death. We must not be greedy for life and fear death. Humiliate the reputation of our army." At this time, the "Zhiyuan" ship was also injured, and the ship was full of fireworks. He waved the command flag and ordered to rush forward at full speed, cover the flagship behind the ship, and fired at the Japanese ship. A few bombs forced the Japanese ship to retreat slightly, allowing the flagship "Dingyuan" to escape.Seeing this scene, the other warships of the Beiyang Fleet were very encouraged and their morale was greatly boosted. They saw the sound of gunfire on the surface of the Yellow Sea, and the fireworks filled the sky. The two sides fought extremely fiercely. The "Saikyo Maru" was almost sunk.
The battle lasted until about three o'clock in the afternoon. Since the "Zhiyuan" ship was the first to bear the brunt of the fierce battle and had the largest target, it also suffered the heaviest blow. , Deng Shichang was still calm and calm, fighting desperately.The Japanese ironclad ship "Yoshino" rushed over recklessly, firing heavy cannons at "Zhiyuan" continuously, trying to sink "Zhiyuan" in one fell swoop. In the past, he said to Chen Jinkui, the chief officer and chief officer: "The Japanese ship is so fierce because it relies on the strong firepower of the Yoshino ship. If it hits and sinks, our army can concentrate its strength!"
Therefore, Deng Shichang personally took the helm and drove furiously, and fired cannons along the way, heading straight for the Japanese ship.The commander of the Japanese ship "Yoshino" was shocked when he saw this, ordered to release torpedoes, and prepared to turn the bow of the ship to escape. Just as the "Zhiyuan" ship was about to approach "Yoshino", unfortunately it was hit by a torpedo, the boiler of the machine burst, and the ship turned left , sank in an instant, Deng Shichang, first officer Chen Jinkui, second officer Zhou Jujie and other officers and men of the ship died heroically.
At around three o'clock in the afternoon, the two ships "Chaoyong" and "Yangwei" on the right wing of the Beiyang Fleet were shot and sank, and the "Jingyuan" ship lost its protection.At this time, the left wing "Jiyuan" and "Guangjia" ships of the Qing army, which were mainly attacked by the Japanese ships, fled in a panic. The Japanese ships turned around and quickly surrounded the "Jingyuan" fleet, forcing it out of the formation. Under the siege of the "elite" Japanese vanguard "Yoshino" and other four ships, they were shot in many places. Guan led Lin Yongsheng to command the whole ship to continuously launch artillery attacks.Just as the fierce battle was in full swing, Lin Yongsheng suddenly discovered that an enemy ship had been shot and injured, so he ordered to aim at the injured enemy ship and pursue it at full speed, trying to sink it in one go. On the "Jingyuan" ship, a shell exploded in front of Lin Yongsheng. Unfortunately, Lin Yongsheng was shot and died. The first officer Chen Rong and the second officer Chen Jingying were also hit by shells and died. The "Jingyuan" ship finally sank in the flames, and none of the officers and men on the ship survived.
At around 5:00 p.m., under the command of Ye Zugui, the "Jingyuan" ship repaired the loopholes.Seeing that the flagship "Dingyuan" had been destroyed, and the whole team lost command, he took the initiative to replace the flagship, raised the team flag from the side, and led the remaining ships to charge towards the Japanese ship.Under the leadership of the "Jingyuan" ship, the Beiyang Fleet gained momentum and attacked the Japanese Combined Fleet together. The Japanese ships also suffered heavy losses at this time.
In the battle of the Yellow Sea, the Japanese ships first withdrew from the battlefield, and the Beiyang Fleet soon returned to Lushun. Both sides suffered losses. , another six ships were damaged, and more than a thousand soldiers were killed or injured, but the main force remained.The six Japanese ships "Flag", "Matsushima", "Chicheng", "Yoshino", "Hiei", and "Saikyo Maru" were severely damaged, and more than 600 officers and soldiers below the captain were killed or injured.
Seeing this situation, the weak Li Hongzhang ordered Ding Ruchang to lead his fleet to hide in Weihai Port under the pretext of "protecting the ship and restraining the enemy", but he sat there waiting to die.
Soon, Japan began to attack Lushunkou.In the Sino-Japanese War of 1898-1895, the Japanese navy actually suffered heavy losses, and was unable to attack directly from Lushunkou. At the same time, the coast of Lushunkou was full of new cannons purchased by the Qing army from Germany. The cunning Japanese army then resorted to using ships The strategy of transporting the army to Huayuankou copied from behind.At this time, the Beiyang Navy Fleet no longer participated in any battles due to Li Hongzhang's order, and there was no army defense on land. Therefore, the Japanese army easily boarded Huayuankou without hurting a single soldier and rushed straight to Huayuankou. golden state.There were still many Qing troops stationed in Jinzhou, Lushun, and Dalian, but these Qing troops fled as soon as they saw the Japanese army coming.Two months later, the Japanese army launched an attack on Weihaiwei in the same way.More than 20,000 Japanese troops were transported by warships to land at Chengshanjiao in Weidong, Weihai. Without much resistance, they occupied all the forts on both sides of Weihai and blocked the east and west exits of the port. At this time, the Beiyang Fleet was completely trapped.
At this time, Liugong Island outside Weihai Port was still in the hands of the Qing army. With the cooperation of the army, the navy in the port could break out of the siege, but many foreign advisers in the navy advocated surrender.The British Magrew, who served as the deputy admiral of the navy, and the American Howell, the military adviser, also colluded with a small number of naval generals to encourage the soldiers to mutiny in order to force Ding Ruchang to surrender.Ding Ruchang didn't want to bear the charge of infidelity, so he was forced to commit suicide in despair.After Ding Ruchang's death, under the instigation of foreigners, Howell quickly drafted a letter of surrender and sent it to the Japanese camp. In February 1895, the Japanese army officially took over eleven warships of the Beiyang Navy, all the forts on Liugong Island, and all the ordnance of Weihaiwei.
After the Japanese army occupied Weihai, they immediately crossed the Yalu River and marched towards Liaoyang. All the troops fled, but the Japanese army captured Haicheng and other places without much effort, and approached the cities of Liaoyang and Shenyang.Western Liaoning is also under great threat.
The Empress Dowager Cixi saw that the large tracts of land in the Liaodong Peninsula and western Liaoning were occupied by the Japanese army so quickly. She was afraid that the Japanese army would invade Shanhaiguan and approach Beijing. He asked the British and Russian envoys to mediate his relationship with foreigners and asked Japan for peace.At this time, Britain and Russia have their own plans, and they don't want to rush to let Japan cease the war. When the United States came forward to object a little, Britain immediately stopped and didn't care about this matter.In fact, the U.S. objected to the mediation by the United Kingdom out of consideration of its own interests. Its purpose was to let other countries stop interfering in this matter, and let his family alone mediate the Japanese armistice issue in order to gain greater benefits from it.
Prince Gong Yixin also saw that only the United States and Japan had a good relationship, so he called on the United States to intervene.As a result, the American envoys began to carry out liaison activities between China and Japan. Japan had just occupied Lushunkou and Weihaiwei at this time, and was unable to expand to other places in China. requirements.However, Japanese Prime Minister Hirobumi Ito stated that Prince Gong Yixin or Li Hongzhang must act as the plenipotentiary representative, and the cession of land and indemnities must be the condition for the "negotiation" to start the negotiation. Otherwise, there is no need to send representatives to Japan to negotiate.
So the Empress Dowager Cixi immediately resumed all the punishments of Li Hongzhang, appointed him as "first-class plenipotentiary minister", and went to Japan to discuss peace. On March 14, 1895, Li Hongzhang took a boat from Tianjin to Japan with his son Li Jingfang and American consultant Kstar.On the 20th, Li Hongzhang started negotiations with Japanese Prime Minister Ito Hirobumi and others at the Chunfan Building in Shimonoseki. From the beginning, Ito Hirobumi assumed the proud posture of a victor, wantonly blackmailed, and sent troops to capture the Penghu Islands.Li Hongzhang asked to stop military operations and reduce blackmail, but Ito Hirobumi refused.On the 24th, Li Hongzhang was stabbed by Japanese thugs on his way back to his apartment after negotiations.After the incident, the Japanese government worried that the foreign powers would intervene under the pretext of announcing an immediate truce in other battlefields except Taiwan and the Penghu Islands.On April 1, the representatives of China and Japan resumed negotiations. Japan proposed to cede the southern part of Fengtian, Taiwan, and the Penghu Islands, and compensate Japan for 300 million taels of military expenditure. Strive to reduce land cession compensation as much as possible.On April 10th, Japan proposed the final amendment. Ito Hirobumi only allowed Li Hongzhang to say "yes, no" and threatened to resume war and attack Beijing.On April 17, Li Hongzhang finally signed the "Treaty of Shimonoseki" with the Japanese representative, which was humiliating and humiliating.
The main contents of the "Treaty of Shimonoseki" are: ① China recognizes Japan's control over Korea. ②Ceded the Liaodong Peninsula, the entire island of Taiwan and its affiliated islands, and the Penghu Islands to Japan. ③ Compensation for military expenses of 200 million taels of silver. ④ Add four treaty ports in Shashi, Chongqing, Suzhou, and Hangzhou, and Japan can enter the above ports along the inland river. ⑤Allow Japanese subjects to set up factories in China's treaty ports. Products shipped to the mainland are only taxed as imported goods, and warehouses are allowed to be set up in the mainland.The treaty also stipulated that in order to ensure that China fulfilled its terms, the Japanese army temporarily occupied Weihaiwei.
The "Treaty of Shimonoseki" was an unequal treaty imposed by Japan on China with the support of Western powers, and it was also the most serious humiliating treaty since the "Nanjing Treaty". 《马关条约》签订的消息传出后，全国哗然，拒绝和约、迁都再战的呼声震动了整个京城，并在全国掀起了反割地、反投降的斗争。清政府及地方官吏也因《马关条约》丧权过重而不满，他们有的请求杀李鸿章以谢天下。
由于《马关条约》在国民中的极坏影响，同年，李鸿章卸下直隶总督的职务，进入内阁办事，但被规定“不得与闻朝政”。次年奉命出使俄国，订立《中俄密约》。不久任总理各国事务衙门大臣。
义和团运动和八国联军战争爆发后，李鸿章到江南去参与“东南互保”，不久调充议和全权大臣，兼署直隶。在慈禧太后“量中华之物力，结与国之欢心”的上谕批示下，李鸿章经过一番沟通与斡旋后，于1901年九月九日与列强签订了赔款数额令人触目惊心的《辛丑条约》。
参与《辛丑条约》的列强就是八个出兵的国家，他们分别是：德、法、日、俄、美、英、意、奥。条约主要内容就是赔款，赔款数额之巨，创清朝有史以来最高，计白银四亿五千万两，相当于清政府二十年的财政总收入。这些赔款虽然要四十年还清，但是要计利息的，所以本息加起来共计九亿八千二百多万两，再加上各省地方性的赔款，总数额超过十亿两。这些外国列强怕清政府还不上，就让以海关关税和盐税担保。此外，列强还要清政府严厉治办义和团首领及义和团运动中与洋人作对的各级官员。在北京东交民巷划出一片使馆区，并允许列强从国外派军队保护自己的使馆；拆除大沽口到北京铁路的全部炮台，并且在天津二十里以内不许驻扎中国军队，外国则有权在各处驻军。在《辛丑条约》中列强没有提出割地的要求，但这些条款已经使中国丧失了大部分主权，这时的中国已经完全沦陷为半殖民地社会。
《辛丑条约》签订后两个月，李鸿章，这个在洋人面前得了软骨病，和一系列卖国行径联系在一起的晚清重臣，终于病死，谥号文忠，著作辑为《李文忠公全书》。
李鸿章想以洋务运动来兴国图强，崇洋媚外，物极必反，结果事与愿违。甲午一战，便将几十年苦心经营的北洋海军全军覆没，换来的仅仅是一系列卖国条约。这个历史的教训，是极其深刻的。
在多事之秋的晚清，出现了很多历史上有争议的人物。如果从镇压农民起义方面看，他们是屠杀农民的刽子手，但他们无疑又是有贡献于民族的功臣，左宗棠就是这样的一个人物。
左宗棠，生于1812年，湖南湘阴人，家境贫寒，勤奋好学，在青年时代就立下宏图大志，一生精忠报国。左宗棠在科举上并不如意，仅仅中过举人，但他才华横溢，从小就很注意研究兵法和中国及世界的历史、地理，他曾在自己的住处写下了一副对联：
身无半亩地，心忧天下；
读破万卷书，神交古人。
他在湖南一带名望很大，林则徐、曾国藩等当时名流都对他颇为赏识。有一次，已经身为封疆大吏的林则徐路过长沙时，特意约见左宗棠，两人畅谈彻夜。事后，林则徐对左右人说，左宗棠是一个旷世奇才，必为朝廷所重用。左宗棠在仕途上曾得到过林则徐、曾国藩等人的竭力推荐。
太平天国时期，他曾在湖南巡抚幕任师爷。虽不足朝廷官员，却一切军政大事都由他主持，被称为“晚清诸葛亮”。在左宗棠的主持下，湖南省城长沙才没有被太平军攻破。后来他终于得到清廷的重用，被任命为闽浙总督，镇压了浙江、福建境内的太平军。在任闽浙总督期间，左宗棠创办了福州船政局，也开始洋务兴国之举，该厂由炼钢厂、船厂和学堂三部分组成，但工厂尚未建成，左宗棠便调往西北镇压农民起义去了。
1855年，云南回民首领杜文秀在大理县起兵反清。1856年，陕西回民首领任五在渭南县起兵反清。同年，甘肃回民首领马仕龙在金积堡（今金积县）起兵反清。面对日益壮大的回民大起义，清政府派荆州将军多隆阿前去镇压，但多隆阿屡战屡败，后来在战役中殒命。于是清政府又调左宗棠任陕甘总督，负责平定回民起义。1868年，陕西反清军首领董福祥投降，七年之久的陕西回变宣告结束。平定陕西后，左宗棠挥师西征，进入甘肃，攻击马仕龙部。甘肃从东到西两千四百里，战线颇长，马仕龙的力量也不算小。在左宗棠的指挥下，1870年，清军攻陷金积堡。1873年，攻陷伯碾（今乐都）、肃州（今甘肃西酒泉），从而平定了陕甘回民起义。
在这一时期，新疆也发生了大规模的回变。1864年，陕西回变首领之一妥明，流窜到新疆迪化（今乌鲁木齐），参将索焕章与妥明一个鼻孔出气，伺机造反。都统平瑞向迪化征收捐税时，奇台县税务官马金、马八乘机敲诈勒索，从而引起大多数汉人与回民的愤怒，导致抗缴请愿事件。马金、马八为掩护自己的罪行，干脆倒打一耙，说什么“汉人要灭回民”，号召回民起来反汉杀清，于是奇台发生了流血冲突，索焕章乘乱杀了平瑞，并拥戴妥明称“王”，宣布独立，开始了分裂民族的叛乱。
1865年，另一位从陕西流窜到新疆的回变首领之一金相印，在喀什噶尔（今新疆疏勒）发动当地回民举行暴动，并将清政府官员赶走。位于天山西麓、中亚细亚的浩罕王国，派遣其大将阿古柏前去支援金相印。为增加号召力，他还带领维吾尔族领袖大和卓木、布土尔客率其安集延兵团一道助金反清。他们联合大军进入中国领土，布士尔克在喀什噶尔称“王”。1867年，阿古柏搞了一场政变，登上宝座，一脚将布土尔客踢到麦加。阿古柏上台后，自称“毕调勒特可汗”，宣布建立“喀什噶尔汗国”。1870年，阿古柏北伐迪化，妥明被逼逃之夭夭，并于途中殒命。
于是，除伊犁为当时俄国占领外，阿古柏统一了新疆全境。阿古柏的汗国疆域约百多万平方公里，他为了巩固地位，立即同英、俄及土耳其回教国加强联系。面对这一局面，以慈禧为首的清廷因无力平叛，只好睁一只眼闭一只眼，谁也不敢碰这一棘手问题。
左宗棠平定陕甘回变之后，向朝廷上书，提出收复新疆。他在奏折中说：“新疆自古以来就是我国的领土，坚决不能放弃。如果放弃新疆，则不仅甘肃、陕西暴露在敌人面前，而且内外蒙古和山西也不得安宁，连北京也将受到威胁。西北与北京的关系，如同手指与臂膀相连，是一个完整的整体，不能分割。”左宗棠还说：“我今年虽然已经六十五岁了，但不能容忍俄国霸占伊犁，阿古柏占领新疆，如果朝廷同意我的意见，我愿意带兵出征，拼杀疆场，收复伊犁和整个新疆。”
这一敏感的爆炸性问题一经提出，就在紫禁城形成了两派交锋。以李鸿章为首的“海防派”称，中国外患来自海外洋人，国防重点应放在与列强的对峙上。至于新疆那里，不如册封阿古柏为国王，使其像朝鲜、越南一样成为藩国算了。一句话，海防派主张放弃新疆。以左宗棠为首的“塞防派”则针锋相对，主张必须收复新疆，左宗棠认为，保卫新疆即保卫蒙古，保卫蒙古即是保卫北京。
而这时，阿古柏暗中请求英国帮忙。英国公使乌亚德向清廷提出：允许阿古柏独立，以保中亚细亚的和平局面。清政府许多官员因害怕英国，都主张答应英国的要求。对此，左宗棠坚决反对说：“既然英国如此爱护阿古柏，为什么不把印度让给他呢？”
由于左宗棠的分析言之有理，震动了整个朝廷，连原先主张放弃新疆的一些官员也对他的见识和魄力佩服得五体投地，有的说：“左大人的话才是髙论，叫人没法不佩服！”有的说：“左宗棠真是老骥伏枥，志在千里呀！谁说中国没有人才。”军机大臣文祥完全支持左宗棠的主张，竭力保举左宗棠率兵西征，其他掌握朝中大权的人也认为丢失领土很不光彩，既然有人愿意率兵出征，且左宗棠又在平定陕甘回民起义中节节胜利，一直是个常胜将军，就不妨试试。于是，清廷任命左宗棠为钦差大臣，带兵去收复新疆。
1876年，左宗棠率兵分三路入新疆，他采取了“先北后南，缓进速战”的战略方针，很快收复了迪化及其附近地区，然后攻陷吐鲁番，打开了南疆的门户。第二年，他率军越过天山天险，挥师南下。由于左宗棠的军队军纪严明，秋毫无犯，所以深得当地各族人民的支持，他们主动给清军带路，送情报，支援粮食，当地人民还纷纷拿起武器，与清军一道打击阿古柏的军队。阿古柏的据点被一个个拔除，最后左宗棠把阿古柏撵到库尔勒城，在大军压境、一触即溃之际，阿古柏王梦已醒，服毒自杀。清军迅速收复了喀什噶尔，并趁阿古柏子孙内讧之机加紧围剿余党，将其二子三孙俘获并处死。于是除伊犁外，脱离中国十四年之久的新疆，重新回到了祖国的怀抱。
接着，左宗棠又想起了仍在俄国手中的伊犁。他上书朝廷，请求以先礼后兵，外交加军事的策略，收回伊犁。清廷同意了这一主张。清政府先派崇厚与俄国交涉，崇厚丧权辱国，被判处死罪。接着又派曾国藩之子曾纪泽与俄国交涉，俄方百般要挟，左宗棠为向俄国表明志在收回伊犁的决心，命士兵抬着自己的棺材行军，他在哈密安营扎寨，做好武力解决的姿态。俄国人知道左宗棠不好惹，也不敢轻易诉诸武力，这有力地支持了曾纪泽的外交斗争。1881年，中俄两国签订了《伊犁条约》，中国终于收回伊犁。但因俄强清弱，清政府还是让俄国割走了霍尔斯河以西的大片领土和北疆的一部分地区。俄国还蛮横地勒索了九百万卢布的赔款，扩大了在我国西部地区的通商权利。当然，这已不是左宗棠力所能及的事了。
左宗棠收复新疆后，来到北京，被任命为大学士、军机大臣。由于左宗棠性情耿直，不喜欢官场上那一套虚假应酬，不久左宗棠又被外调出京做他的封疆大吏，担任两江总督。
1883年，法军进攻驻越清军，中法战争爆发。法国海军先后向台湾的基隆和福建的马尾军港（在福州市东）发起攻击，驻守基隆的清军官兵在著名将领刘铭传的率领下，奋起还击，打退了敌军。但在马尾战役中，由于守将何如璋和张佩纶在战前的头晚得到李鸿章的电报说，与法军的议和已有进展，便放松了备战，结果仓促应战，导致福建水师全军覆没。三天之后，即1884年八月二十五日，清廷正式对法宣战。
1884年九月，左宗棠奉命赴福建督师，指挥闽海战役。他到防地后，见备战松弛，非常着急，昼夜奔波，加紧备战。将士们一看左大人身先士卒，决心抗法，全军士气大振，连打了几个胜仗。
1885年春节来临，将士们都想消消停停过个好年。但左宗棠早已料敌在先，说：“洋鬼子早了解了咱中国过年的风俗与他们的圣诞节不相上下，所以他们一定会钻这个空子，趁我们欢欢乐乐过年之际，攻我不备。今年都免过年吧，跟我出击，我亲自充当先锋。”
正在这时，福建总督杨昌漫与将军穆图善前来向左宗棠拜年，听说中堂大人要亲临前线，纷纷劝说他不要去。此时，左宗棠已七十三岁，然而他斗志却丝毫未减，训斥二人说：“我不去打，洋鬼子如何害怕？怕，是因为打怕的。你们二位是高官，不肯出去打仗，我去打！”
杨、穆二人见左宗棠执意上前线，也不敢再劝阻，只好吐吐舌头打道回府。左宗棠一处一处检查布防，作好了迎战准备。法国果然在过年这天来突袭厦门，出动了大批舰队，但舰队驶到中途便调头返航，因为法军侦察快艇已探知厦门的清军早有准备，还了解到左宗棠也在前线督战。左宗棠的威名，法国人早已耳闻，知道这是个不怕死、不好惹的硬茬子，所以法军便退避三舍了。
1885年三月，清军与越南军民联合作战，在谅山、镇南关等地大胜法军，中法之战以法国失败而告终。然后，1885年六月，李鸿章在与法国的谈判中，却签订了一个丧权辱国的《天津条约》。在福州戍边的左宗棠得到和约文本，气得手直颤抖，竟无法读下去，大骂道：“李鸿章啊！李鸿章！你这个卖国贼！”
骂着骂着，他突然面如白纸，手脚发软，猛然从嘴里喷出一口鲜血，昏倒在地。1885年七月，左宗棠满怀遗恨逝世。真是投降派当道，诸葛亮再世也无力回天。
张之洞，1837年生，字孝达，号香涛，直隶南皮（今河北人）。张之洞的家庭“三世为州县官”，从小就受到严格的家庭教育。少时博览群书，过目不忘，十六岁时，以乡试第一名中举人，二十六岁中进士，任翰林院编修。早年，张之洞以攻讦时政而成为“清流派”的重要人物。三十岁时被派任浙江乡试副考官，接着督办湖北学政，开始主管一省的教育，继而任四川学政和国子监司业。三十四岁起，担任山西巡抚，继升为两广总督，两江总督，成为最高地方长官。光绪十五年（1889）调任湖广总督，担任此职一直到光绪三十三年（1907），期间除1895—1896年和1902—1903年两次临时代理两江总督以及入京定学制外，他在湖北任职长达三十七年，是清代总督中在一个地方任期最长的封疆大吏。
在地方任职期间，张之洞除了兴办洋务、设枪炮厂、开矿务局、置军舰和训练军兵外，尤其重视教育事业建设，他创办了一批著名的书院和洋务学堂，并大力提倡留学教育，晚年跻身于军机枢要，于光绪二十九年（1903）主持制定了我国第一个近代学制即癸卯学制。光绪三十一年（1905）积极参与废除科举制度的教育改革，供职中枢，主管学部。在四十余年的仕官生涯中，张之洞勤理学政，关心教育，不仅有丰富的办学实践经验，而且有系统的教育思想理论，在我国近代教育史上占有十分重要的地位。
张之洞是新洋务派的首领，与早期洋务派曾国藩、李鸿章相比，虽然他的教育活动后起，但是他更加重视人才的培养和学校教育的重要性，对教育目的与作用有更深刻的认识，同时对待中西文化与教育的看法也有更理论化、系统化的论述，它的核心是“中体西用”的教育救国论。
张之洞的教育活动大致可以以“中法战争”和“戊戌变法”为界限分为三个阶段。
第一阶段，即他由十载学官到出任巡抚时期。这一时期，张之洞属于顽固派营垒的旧学捍卫者，其办学的目的在于“通经为世用，明道守儒珍”，使学校培养“出为名臣，处为名儒”的人才。他创办了湖北经心书院、四川尊经书院和山西令德书院等，教学内容主要是传授纲常名教的“通经学古之学”。
张之洞作为学官，主持过浙江乡试，所取多朴学之士。做湖北学政时，鉴于士风败坏，他强调“以根柢之学砺砺诸生”，并以“端品行，务实学，两义反复训勉”。在四川任学政时，大力整顿科举积弊，并亲自讲学于尊经书院，著《辅本酋轩语》、《书目答问》二书。前者将科举考试注意事项逐条列出，对考生加以指导，实为科举考试指南；后者列举经、史、子、集要目，实为旧学入门。在这一时期，张之洞所取用和培养的代表人物有袁昶、许景澄、陶横、孙诒让、张祥龄、范容、宋育仕、扬锐等。
第二阶段，即中法战争后到戊戌变法前，督粤、湖广和暂署两江期间。这一时期张之洞从清流派转化成洋务派，为了适应清末洋务活动的需要，调整了早期洋务派旧学与新学、中学与西学的关系，修正了他早期的办学宗旨，着重培养用传统纲常名教武装头脑而又能从事洋务的各种专门人才。在教学内容上除了坚持传统的旧学为基础外，提倡增添传授西文、西艺的新学。同时他逐渐将过去所兴办的旧式书院改革为新式学堂。他说，书院“必须正其名曰学，乃可鼓舞人心，涤除习气。如谓学堂之名不古，似可即名曰学校，即合古制，且以名实相符”。这一时期，张之洞对教育改革是有保留的，其主旨仍在“变器不变道”，即主张学习西方某些近代艺能，但必须保存中国的封建政治、伦理传统。
在张之洞的影响下，湖北经心书院初期学习课目为经解、史论、词赋之类。光绪二十一年（1895）又添设外文、天文、格致、制造四门西学内容。光绪十六年（1890）五月，张之洞在湖北武昌建西湖书院，课目分经学、史学、理学、文学、算学、经济学六门，又以新学方兴，还开设天文、地理、数学、测量、化学、博物学、兵法、史略学以及兵操等学科。在管理方面，改旧世积分法为“日课”，即仿效学堂按日上堂教习，类似现代教育的班级授课制。
光绪二十一年（1895）初，张之洞暂署两江。由于身处文化发达地区，与外部世界联系扩大，加上中日战争的刺激，他兴办了一系列新式学堂，如在南京创办储才学堂，恢复水师学堂，兴办陆军学堂，在江西高安办蚕桑学堂。此外，他还大力提倡出国留学教育。光绪二十二年（1896）初，张之洞从两江返回湖广本任，开始大规模地兴办学堂和派遣出国留学生以及创办文化设施，这时期，他雄心勃勃，决心在教育上大干一番事业，他致力于军事教育、实业教育、留学教育、师范教育、普通教育等。
军事教育方面：他早先在广东时创办了水陆师学堂，这是当时一所规模较大的洋务学堂，以培养海陆军事官员为主要目标，水师聘英国人做教官，陆师由德国人做教官。光绪二十一年（1895），他又在南京创办了江南陆军学堂；光绪二十二年（1896），他创办湖北武备学堂。
实业教育方面：他提出要“振兴农工商各项实业，为富裕国民之利”。他在湖北创办的实业学堂，有矿业学堂、工业学堂、湖北自强学堂、湖北方言学堂、湖北方言商务学堂、湖北算术学堂、湖北农务学堂、湖北工艺学堂、湖北驻东铁路学堂等。这些实业学堂都是零星创办的，并无系统规划，办学宗旨，专在实用，招收和培养了一大批我国近现代各方面的技术人才。
普通学堂方面：他在湖北创办的有初等小学堂、湖北五路小学堂、湖北普通中学堂、湖北高等学堂、湖北存古学堂等。张之洞主张，小学由民间自办自主。中学教育培养方向有二，一是“不仕者从事于各项实业”，二是“进取者升入各高等专门学堂”。课目为十二门，伦理、温经、中文、外语、历史、地理、数学、博物、理化、法制、图画和体操，教学方法仍以讲诵为主，同时兼用西方教育实验、观察等方法。大学堂的宗旨他规定为造就通才。他选择两湖、经心、江汉三书院的优等生入湖北附高等学堂