Chapter 21 Chapter 16 Traditional Confucian Civilization
The Han dynasty, which was eventually succeeded by the Sui and Tang, continued Chinese civilization along traditional paths, in stark contrast to the unique changes that took place in the West after the collapse of the Roman Empire (see Chapter 11, Section 3).The following 1,000 years were a great golden age for the Chinese.As far back as the Han Dynasty, China had managed to catch up with other Eurasian civilizations, and now, during the Middle Ages, China has advanced by leaps and bounds and is still the richest, most populous, and in many ways most culturally advanced country in the world.
From the reunification of China by the Sui Dynasty in the 6th century to the Westerners' invasion of China by water in the 16th century, the 1000 years were a period of unprecedented political, social and cultural stability in China.But it seems counterintuitive that this stability is both a good and a bad thing.It is a good thing because during the past 1,000 years, Chinese society has provided more people with more material security and psychological security than any other society in the world.It is a bad thing because it is this kind of achievement and comfort that keeps China, if not absolutely static, but correspondingly constant.At the same time, however, as described in the next chapter, changes are taking place in the West due to various factors such as early technological development, economic prosperity, and social and political factors.And all these form a driving force, which eventually leads to world hegemony.As a result, the extremely stable and conservative Chinese society was torn apart by the unstoppable expansionism of the West.But this point should not be obliterated: for 1,000 years, Chinese civilization has always been in the leading position in the world with its tenacious vitality and great contribution to human heritage.
Chinese stoneware figurine from the 6th century.
The Sui Dynasty (589-618) played the same role in Chinese history as the Qin Dynasty some eight centuries earlier.Both reunified China after a long period of chaos, and then both made very important contributions to China's development.However, in the process, they all oppressed the people heavily and encountered resistance from numerous vested interest groups, so that they all collapsed almost immediately after the death of their founders.
The great contributions of the rulers of the Qin Dynasty were: unifying the whole of China, building roads and excavating people to build the Great Wall, unifying weights and measures, unifying characters, expanding and consolidating the territory.The achievements of the rulers of the Sui Dynasty were very similar, and they were also extremely poor in terms of people's resources and financial resources.They rebuilt parts of the Great Wall that were in disrepair, and excavated the main stretch of the sprawling canal system known as the Grand Canal.This Grand Canal met the urgent need to connect the Yangtze River Basin, which has become the economic center of the country, with the north, which is still the political center, but the cost of property and life was very expensive.Later, a Chinese writer commented that Emperor Sui Yang, the initiator of this project, "shortened his dynasty by many years, but brought great benefits to future generations. Although he practiced tyranny, his rule will be Considered to be of immortal merit."
A series of wars to expand the territory also consumed a lot of manpower and material resources.These wars expanded the empire's territory to include Taiwan, Annan and Champa in Indochina, and Gansu in the northwest.However, the attempt to conquer the northernmost territory of North Korea failed miserably; North Korea was then divided into three kingdoms.Four consecutive invasions were repelled by the indomitable North Korean army.As a result, dissatisfied soldiers mutinied; and peasants all over the country also rebelled because of excessive taxes.Emperor Sui Yang fled to the south and was assassinated in 618.Several pretenders then fought for the throne, and the winner established the Tang Dynasty, which many Chinese and Western historians call the most glorious dynasty.
The most obvious feature of the Tang Dynasty was imperial expansion.Through a series of major battles, its territory even surpassed that of the Han Dynasty.The Tang Dynasty established Chinese suzerainty in Central Asia, controlled the entire Tarim Basin, and crossed the Pamirs to control the countries in the Oxus River Basin and the upper reaches of the Indus River in Afghanistan.In addition, vast areas such as Tibet in the south, Mongolia in the northwest, Korea and Manchuria in the northeast were also forced to recognize China's suzerainty at this time.In the world at that time, only the empires of the Muslim Arabs in the Middle East could rival it.The victory of the Chinese should not be entirely attributed to their superior material power. The following account of the Eastern Turks about their relationship with the Tang Empire clearly illustrates this point:
A strong central government was rebuilt at home, making foreign conquest possible.As mentioned earlier (Chapter 10, Section 5), the Han Dynasty was subjugated by powerful local families who amassed large, self-sufficient, tax-free estates on which to build fortified manors, Successfully confronted the central government.The division of the country was facilitated by the emergence of Buddhist temples, which also challenged the imperial government due to their vast and growing land holdings.
The solution to this political division developed gradually over the centuries between dynastic regimes and was refined by Sui and Tang bureaucrats.It consisted of the "equal land system", ie: the central government allocated approximately 19 acres of land to each strong farmer.This is not to dispossess the land occupied by the big families, but to acquire land through other means, such as reclaiming land that was abandoned during the war.Moreover, only free farmers got land grants from the government, and in fact, not all of them got land.However, the "equal land system" did help to weaken the control of the big families and strengthen the rule of the Tang Dynasty.For a time it halted the growth of semi-feudal latifundia.It also increased state taxation, because while the politically powerful landowners did not pay taxes, the vast majority of small farmers did.In addition, peasants received military training to form a standing army, thus strengthening the military status of the imperial government.
The Tang also consolidated imperial power by developing a capable bureaucracy capable of running the country.The former Sui Dynasty revived the Han Dynasty's system of selecting officials on the basis of national competitive examinations.The Tang dynasty inherited and developed this system based on the basic Confucian tenet that recruiting talented people was a better solution to the country's problems than legal and institutional reforms typical of the West.The system, when fully formed, consisted of a series of examinations held in a complex series of ceremonies.The first is the local and county examinations, which are held every two or three years.About 8% of the candidates can pass the local examination and take the county examination in a few weeks.Those who were lucky enough to pass the exam (about half of the candidates) were eligible to hold smaller official positions and could further participate in the provincial examination in the provincial capital;Only 6 percent pass this "fence" and qualify for higher office.Usually only one-third of these people passed the highest palace examination, presided over by the emperor himself, and were admitted to the Hanlin Academy, China's most noble academic society; He was selected from the Hanlin Academy.
The original exam was entirely comprehensive, with a strong emphasis on the Confucian classics but also included other subjects such as law, teaching and political current affairs.Increasingly, these examinations focused on style and Confucian orthodoxy.The final result is the formation of a system: In theory, the door to official positions is open to all talents, but in practice it benefits those classes who have enough financial resources to study and prepare for many years.This does not mean that China was ruled by a hereditary aristocracy, but rather by a ruling group of scholars, the literati, who provided China with an effective and stable administration that won the admiration of Europeans.On the other hand, it is this system that stifles creativity and fosters obedience.As long as China remains relatively isolated in East Asia, it will continue to provide stability and continuity.But; with the encroachment of the vigorous West, it in turn served to prevent the Chinese from adjusting and responding effectively; until it was finally and completely abolished in 1905.
There are three highest management institutions in Beijing, they are Zhongshu Province, Menxia Province and Shangshu Province.The Zhongshu Province worked directly under the leadership of the emperor and formulated policies; the Menxia Province reviewed the Zhongshu Province's resolutions, and when necessary, rejected the resolutions for Zhongshu Province to reconsider; the Shangshu Province was responsible for implementing the Zhongshu Province and Menxia Province's resolutions.There are six departments under Shangshu Province: the Ministry of Officials, the Ministry of Households, the Ministry of War, the Ministry of Punishment, the Ministry of Industry, and the Ministry of Benefits; the Ministry of Rites is authorized to take charge of the examinations for civil servants.
The capital city of Chang'an, where these and other administrative institutions are located, is a large city of about one million people, criss-crossed by wide avenues, which are often crowded with Persians, Indians, Jews, Armenians and various Central Asians. people.They came to China as merchants, envoys and mercenaries.The Tang dynasty was more open to foreigners than any other period except the brief period of the Mongol Yuan dynasty.
Nowhere is this openness more evident than in matters of religion.The expansion of the empire's territory and the reopening of land and sea trade routes led to the influx of many foreign religious ideas and missionaries into China, especially Buddhism.Buddhism was first introduced to China from India during the Han Dynasty (see Chapter 7, Section 3). During the chaotic period of the vacancy of the throne after the Han Dynasty, it began to formally challenge the official Confucianism.During this period of turmoil, Confucianism was increasingly viewed with suspicion because its emphasis on filial piety and family loyalty seemed to weaken an already weakened state.Therefore, during the vacant period of the throne, the influence of Buddhism grew rapidly, and its influence reached its peak in the early Tang Dynasty.This period in Chinese history is sometimes referred to as the "Buddhist period."
Relief from the tomb of Emperor Tang Taizong (597-649): a chestnut war horse.
Although Buddhism gained a great deal of wealth and influence in China, it became completely Sinicized in the process, and at the same time contributed greatly to the emergence of Neo-Confucianism.At that time, Chinese family religious beliefs were very free and their thinking was extremely open; therefore, various Buddhist sects gradually formed.The most famous of these is the Zen sect, which was later introduced to Japan and is also called "Zen Buddhism".This sect emphasizes meditation and self-reliance, and is the only sect that continues to be vigorous and rational after the Tang Dynasty.Another feature of Sinicization is that the state tries to control and even bribe monasteries and temples in accordance with the typical Chinese concept that religion should serve the national interest and function as a state spiritual institution.
Attempts at control failed, and the government finally adopted a policy of outright persecution.Buddhists emphasize the salvation of the individual's soul, but not the commitment of family obligations, which is exactly the opposite of the basic Chinese tradition.Monks and nuns are isolated from the world and also run counter to Chinese traditions and are considered inhumane and anti-social.In the first place, the government, coveting the vast property and estates accumulated by the monasteries over the centuries, has carried out a series of persecutions which have greatly weakened Buddhism in China, though not completely as in India itself ( See Section 3 of Chapter VII).Similar to the situation in the West, this persecution is limited to Buddhist institutions and monks, not ordinary believers.As a result, the influence of Buddhist intervention was negligible as far as the overall development of Chinese civilization was concerned.It is true that Buddhism made significant contributions to Chinese philosophy, metaphysics, art and literature, but it did not transform Chinese society in general in the way Christianity transformed European society.
Finally, it should be pointed out that although Buddhism was the most influential foreign religion in China at that time, it was by no means the only one.The land of freedom that accommodated Buddhism also accommodated other religions, as Rubin's experience clearly illustrates.Rubin was a Nestorian, and the Chinese called him Aluoben.He arrived in Hou Dynasty in 635 AD and was received by the emperor.The emperor ordered that his book be translated into Chinese.Since the emperor was so impressed with the messenger and his beliefs, the emperor issued the following edict:
During the last century and a half of their reign, Tang rulers faced the usual problems of a dynasty in decline.The empire spent more than it taxed.Likewise, population growth outpaced land supply, and peasant families could no longer get small plots of land. The "land equalization system" was destroyed, and rich and noble families once again searched for farmers to expand their land.Since the tax system was based on poll taxes, the burden of taxes to pay for the ever-increasing expenditure of the empire fell on the peasants, whose holdings of land were dwindling.
The government responded by gradually replacing poll taxes with land taxes.This increased taxation, but did not prevent the decline of the number of free farmers.This decline means a corresponding reduction in human resources for the Self-Defense Forces and corvee.The defense of the empire increasingly relied on foreign mercenaries and "barbarian" tribes in the frontiers; these were far less reliable than the self-defense armies of the past.Therefore, in 751, the Chinese army failed in Yunnan in the south and Taluosi in Central Asia.The latter battle was particularly important because it enabled the victorious Muslim Arabs to convert a vast area that had been one of the earliest strongholds of Buddhism to Islam.
The Tang emperors managed to continue to rule for another century and a half, but it was a period of deteriorating conditions.The inappropriate stimulating luxury of the capital, combined with continuous drought and widespread famine, brought rebellion in many provinces.The court was aided by local military chiefs and various "barbarian" tribes in the border areas, but these peoples soon broke free from the court's control, ignoring the emperor's orders and fighting among themselves for the succession of the doomed court.As a result, in 907 a rebel leader deposed the last Tang emperor and sacked the city of Chang'an.By this time the empire had been torn apart, and the so-called "Five Dynasties" period had begun, which lasted half a century.Finally, a talented military general reunified the country and established a new dynasty, the Song Dynasty.Like the Tang Dynasty, the Song Dynasty lasted about three centuries (960-1279).
It should be pointed out that the split between Tang and Song was only half a century apart, and it has become a model for the future history of China.The country never again experienced the centuries-long chaos that followed the collapse of the Han Dynasty.The reason is that since the Tang Dynasty, Chinese civilization has been huge and deeply rooted, and it is impossible to form a long-term split state.Perhaps this civilization would have become more innovative and creative if the unity of the empire had been replaced by the variety of the West.This is just one "if" that has to be considered in history.But one thing is indisputable: the Chinese themselves view the split and the ensuing chaos as abnormal and unfortunate.There is an old saying: "Just as one sky cannot have two suns, China cannot have two countries or two emperors."
Compared with the rulers of the Han and Tang dynasties, the emperors of the Song Dynasty were obviously very passive in foreign relations.They did not launch a major campaign to restore the empire's territory in the heart of Eurasia.Instead, the second emperor of the Song Dynasty wanted only to recover the territory between Beijing and the Great Wall from nomadic control, but he failed miserably.His successors gave up their claim to this area, and even "gifted" to the nomads every year, which was actually paying tribute in disguise.Thus, the Song never recovered Manchuria's northeastern territories, nor did it recover the northwestern territories that would have provided the overland route to the west.
This was a fatal weakness of the Song Dynasty, which made it very easy for nomads to invade. The "gift-giving" policy had been practiced for a century and a half, and disaster struck when the Song emperors rashly tried to reclaim the northeast territories.Encouraged by the new invaders from northern Manchuria, who had defeated the nomads who dominated the Northeast, the King of Song decided to retake the area.Taking advantage of this apparent opportunity, he sent troops into Manchuria.As a result, instead of an easy victory, it suffered a disastrous defeat, which led to a massive invasion of northern China.The defenses of the Song Dynasty fell apart, and the court was left in the Yangtze River Valley and southern regions of central China.Therefore, the second half of the Song Dynasty, from 1127 to 1279, was called the "Southern Song Dynasty".The first half period, from 960 to 1127, is called the "Northern Song Dynasty".
The initial failure of the Song Dynasty to recover the border provinces and the subsequent loss of the northern half of China were severely condemned by later Chinese historians.Although this criticism cannot be denied, it is also true that many aspects of Chinese civilization reached their peak during the Tang and Song centuries.This is especially true in the field of culture.During these centuries, great encyclopedias of Buddhist scriptures and Confucian classics appeared; comprehensive histories of dynasties were written by many scholars; masterpieces of great poets and artists emerged; highly regarded; fine china almost as thin as glass and as transparent; the invaluable invention of printing, which was exploited to copy and distribute Dali Buddhist scriptures: science and technology made remarkable advances that are not yet fully understood (see twelfth Chapter III).
Apart from its cultural achievements, it is worth noting that during the Song Dynasty, a veritable commercial revolution took place, which had great significance for the whole of Eurasia.The business revolution has its roots in the dramatic increase in productivity in the Chinese economy.The steady development of technology has increased the output of traditional industries.Similarly, the introduction of early-maturing varieties of rice has allowed crops to be ripened twice a season in places where they could only be ripened once a season in the past, thereby promoting agriculture.In addition, the new water conservancy projects built in the Song Dynasty greatly expanded the irrigated area of paddy fields.It is estimated that rice production doubled between the 11th and 12th centuries.
Increased productivity made possible a corresponding increase in population, which in turn further boosted production.The rapid expansion of economic activity has also increased trade volumes.For the first time in China there appeared large cities centered mainly on commerce rather than administration.
Foreign trade has grown by leaps and bounds, which is more significant than domestic trade.Since the Han Dynasty in China, the scale of China's foreign trade has been quite large.In the Tang Dynasty, especially the Song Dynasty, the volume of foreign trade far exceeded any previous period.Underpinning this rapid trade growth is, of course, China's unprecedented economic productivity.Improvements in seamanship—among them the compass, flat-bottomed boats with adjustable central vertical lifts, and the use of cloth sails in place of bamboo sails—were also important.Finally, the activity of the Muslim merchants and sailors to engage in trade hastened the development of foreign trade; they were at that time the great entrepreneurs of the Asiatic seas.
As a result, the seaport, instead of the ancient land route, became the main medium of China's connection with the outside world for the first time.At that time, China's economy was dominant, which can be seen from the fact that most of China's exports were manufactured goods, such as silk, porcelain, calligraphy and painting, etc., while most of its imports were raw materials, such as spices, ores, and horses.Finally, it should be pointed out that during the Song Dynasty, the Chinese engaged in foreign trade on a large scale for the first time, and no longer mainly relied on foreign middlemen.Therefore, China in the Song Dynasty was developing towards becoming a maritime power.But the most important fact for Chinese history and world history is that this potential never materialized.In addition, and equally important, the veritable commercial revolution of the Song Dynasty did not have any explosive impact on Chinese society, while the corresponding commercial revolution in the West had an explosive impact on Western society (see Section 5 of this chapter).
Although the rule of the Southern Song Dynasty was limited to half of China, this half of China was exceptionally peaceful and prosperous.Meanwhile, northern China was ruled by a branch of the Manchu Jurchens known as the Jin.Around 1215, they asked the Southern Song for aid against the intractable Mongols who were driving them out of Beijing.The Southern Song Dynasty did not know the power of the Mongols, so they sent infantry who were good at fighting siege warfare to aid them. When the Jin dynasty fell in 1234, the Southern Song emperor rashly attempted to bring northern China under his rule.The Mongols immediately retaliated by invading southern China.The war lasted for decades, since the Mongols first wanted to occupy other lands; but the Song Dynasty finally fell in 1279 when the last Song emperor died in a naval battle.A new Mongol dynasty, the Yuan Dynasty, began its rule until 1368.
For the first and only time, China was ruled entirely by nomads; these nomads were not partially sinicized by earlier contacts with the empire.One of the first actions taken by these barbarian conquerors was to raze cities and incorporate new subjects into traditional Mongol tribal society.But they were soon told that this was impossible and that there were more favorable options:
The Mongols heeded this advice and established an administrative structure essentially identical to that established by previous Chinese rulers.At the same time, they were able to maintain their own identity, because the experience of nomadic life separated them from their subjects in terms of language, customs and laws.They also intentionally employ many foreigners to counter the suspicious Chinese majority.Marco Polo was the most famous of the foreign officials, but most of them were Muslims from Central Asia.
Kublai Khan moved the Mongol capital from Hara and Lin to Beijing, respectfully performed traditional Confucian imperial rituals, and essentially became a Chinese emperor.He also tried to appease them by exempting Confucian literati from paying taxes, but the literati remained largely at odds with him.They were dissatisfied with the many foreigners who actually served in an international administration, and with the Mongol tolerance and patronage of various foreign religions; such as Islam and Nestoria (see Chapter XIV Sections 4 and 5).
The Mongol rule in China, due to its nature and short duration, did not leave a deep impression on the country.Perhaps the choice of Beijing as the capital is the most enduring contribution.Beijing is located in the North China Plain, at the transportation hub between Central Asia in the west and Manchuria in the east. It is still an important military, economic and administrative center.Because China was then part of the larger Mongol Empire, which covered most of Eurasia, Mongol rule also contributed to a dramatic increase in overland trade (see Chapter 12, Section 2).The widespread use of paper money also facilitated commerce.Paper money was first used in the Song Dynasty, and the Mongols developed it further.Marco Polo repeatedly expressed surprise at the use of paper money, as his companion, an Italian merchant, put it in the following passage:
The talented Kublai Khan died in 1294 at the age of 80, and was succeeded by his grandson, the equally talented Tiemu'er.But Tie Mu'er died very early, and the Khans after him were weak and incompetent, indulging in court life all day long.Internecine struggle broke out in the imperial court, and what was even more serious was that the Yellow River often flooded, causing widespread famine in northern China.Uprisings broke out in most of the provinces, and it was only competition among the leaders that kept Mongol rule so long.Finally, an able civilian put an end to the chaos.Like the founder of the Han Dynasty, he seized the opportunity to rise up and become the "son of heaven" by virtue of his natural talents in times of crisis.Thus, the Chinese Ming Dynasty was established in 1368 and ruled until 1644.
From the overthrow of the Mongols to the emergence of the Republic, the Ming (1368-1644) and Qing (1644-1912) dynasties ruled China for more than 500 years.These centuries constituted one of the great periods in human history of orderly administration and peaceful social life.The main reason for this unprecedented and lasting stable situation is that a new Confucian metaphysics called "New Confucianism" occupies an absolute dominant position.This revival of Confucian thought mainly occurred in the chaotic period after the fall of the Tang Dynasty; the needs of the times at that time obviously went beyond the scope of memorizing Confucian classics by rote.Consequently, many scholars have embarked on a radical reappraisal of the question of man and the universe.
The leading figure in this work was Zhu Xi (1129-1200).When he was young, he studied Buddhism and Taoism, but was dissatisfied with both, and turned to Confucian classics.With his outstanding synthesis, he developed a method of interpretation.This method of interpretation synthesized elements of Buddhism and Taoism, and was more satisfactorily adapted to his time.His method is basically that of the empiricist rationalist.He taught that the universe is governed by the laws of freedom and this should be understood and respected.He also believed in the goodness of man and his perfection; he likened man to a dusty mirror, which, once dusted off, will be as bright as ever.Therefore, evil is the result of neglect and lack of education and can be corrected.
Zhu Xi's influence on the Chinese Confucian world can be compared with Thomas Aquinas' influence on the Western Christian world.Just as Aquinas soon codified the philosophies of Aristotle and St. Paul into a formal scholasticism, Zhu Xi incorporated contemporary Chinese thinking into the Neo-Confucian synthesis.Like Aquinas, Zhu Xi, with his extraordinary powers of understanding and persuasion, prevented the further development of philosophy.This was especially true during the Ming Dynasty, when there was a clear sense of national superiority and a retrospect to past traditions as a reaction against the pre-foreign Mongol rule.In this atmosphere, Zhu Xi came to be regarded as the final and absolute authority. "Since the time of the philosopher Zhu Xi," said a Ming scholar, "the truth has been clearly revealed to the world. We no longer need any books, but only practice."
After the Confucian classics annotated on autobiographical notes became the basis for civil service examinations, this new Confucianism constituted the official orthodoxy of the empire until the late nineteenth century.The result was a reinforcement of growing social rigidity with rational additions and elaborations of principles.This is very conducive to the continuity of the incomparable Chinese civilization, but at the cost of forming a kind of absurd conformity against all the originality and new ideas of the outside world.
The stability of Chinese society was due not only to Neo-Confucianism but also to the stubbornness of the so-called aristocratic ruling class—a force that held both land and office in an agrarian-based bureaucratic empire.As landowners and moneylenders, the nobility controlled the economic life of the villages and towns.Lack of land and capital enabled them to force up rents and interest rates; frequent natural disasters made bankrupt mortgagee de facto indentured serfs to local aristocratic families.In the late Ming Dynasty, it was not uncommon to see aristocratic families with thousands of such contract farmers.
These nobles also possessed a certain social status, indeed, this is what the Chinese term "nobility" signifies.In practice, however, land ownership is a prerequisite that provides the necessary funding for years of study and makes the learner a social status holder, qualifying for a position in the bureaucracy.Thus, the ties between the local nobility and the imperial bureaucracy were very close and mutually supportive.Government officials serving in other provinces often found the local dialect difficult to understand, and had to rely entirely on the guidance and guidance of the local nobles.
It makes sense to distinguish between bureaucrats and aristocrats, but Ming and Qing China were ruled jointly by them.Both the imperial authorities and the local nobles were very interested in maintaining the status quo to their mutual advantage, and they cooperated to the end.Previously, occasional dynasties had attempted to forcibly redistribute land, or other such reforms, while the Ming and Qing rulers avoided any conflict with aristocratic hegemony.
It is instructive that, in stark contrast to the above situation, the Ming government tried its best to control and oppress the merchant class.This is the fundamental and most meaningful difference between Chinese society and Western society.In the West, the bourgeoisie enjoyed a considerable degree of autonomy from the outset, owing to the diversity of the societies in which it lived; moreover, this autonomy has grown over time (see Chapter 18, Section 4).In China, there was indeed a corresponding merchant class, and they only enjoyed the benefits of the real commercial revolution in the Song Dynasty (see Section 3 of this chapter).In addition, most of the major technological inventions in the Middle Ages came from China.Unlike in the West, however, neither the commercial revolution nor technological progress had a revolutionary impact on China that would radically change society.The fundamental reason, as mentioned in Chapter 11, Section 6, is the continuity of Chinese history, that is, the Sui Dynasty was essentially the continuation of the Han Dynasty, and the Tang and Song were the continuation of the Sui Dynasty. 1912 Imperial history ends.Therefore, the traditional bureaucratic and aristocratic ruling group, with Neo-Confucianism as its spiritual pillar, devoured the role of new technology and economic development.But in the West, after the fall of the Roman Empire, there was no successor.Instead a new and complex civilization emerged; where, far from being buried, gunpowder, compasses, printing, and sea-going ships were put to good use, producing a new, first European, and then the whole world, China included. Explosive impact.
This kind of explosive influence is absolutely impossible in China, because the imperial institutions here are too closed and restrained.For example, Chinese businessmen and industrialists often joined local guilds headed by masters, but these guild masters were required to obtain proof of permission from the government and were charged with running the operations of each guild member.Ship merchants were also organized under the leadership of port masters, who were also accountable to the government.What's more, the government monopolized the production and distribution of many commodities for consumption by the court and administration, including weapons, textiles, pottery, leather goods, clothing, and wine.In addition, the government has complete control over the production and distribution of basic commodities such as salt and iron that are necessary for the entire population.These restrictions deprived Chinese businessmen of the opportunity to become unfettered entrepreneurs, depriving the economy of the possibility of free development; they also contributed to the corruption and degeneration of officials, because court officials could use their privileged position to manipulate state monopoly goods into Personal profit.
Another domestic restrictive policy of the Chinese ruling clique is to do everything possible to oppose foreign operations.Chinese immigrants migrated slowly to Southeast Asia before the Europeans arrived.In the Philippines, there are probably not as many Spaniards as there are Chinese at any given time. In 1603, 32 years after the establishment of the Spanish colony of Manila, there were about 20,000 Chinese here, compared to about 10,000 Spaniards. These Chinese actually controlled the economic life of the colony and extended their control to other islands in this archipelago. .It was in this year, 1603, that the Chinese in Manila suffered a massacre; an official in the neighboring mainland province of Fujian condoned the massacre, and condemned all Chinese overseas as unworthy sons of the ancestral grave. People the emperor cares about.The Chinese in Manila and their Chinese compatriots in Southeast Asia are still being massacred on a regular basis to this day.Likewise, in 1712, the emperor issued an edict prohibiting the Chinese from doing business and settling in Southeast Asia.Five years later, another edict allowed those Chinese who had settled abroad to return home without fear of punishment. In 1729, another decree was promulgated, stipulating the specific date for returning to the country, and those overseas Chinese who failed to return within the time limit would not be allowed to return to the country.What a stark and astonishing contrast this was with the Western countries, which were soon actively establishing overseas colonies and establishing trading companies, and were even ready to defend these enterprises by force against any threat.
During this extraordinary history of the early 15th century, Ming Dynasty seafaring, with its outstanding technology and astonishing scope, clearly proved China's leading position in the world's seafaring industry.However, the emperor issued an edict prohibiting further overseas expeditions and imposing immediate execution of this order (chapter 12, section 1).This is one of the clearest and most important manifestations of the Chinese official's negative attitude towards overseas activities.
While the exact motives for this edict are unknown, it is worth noting that its issuance was possible because Chinese merchants lacked the political power and social status enjoyed by Western merchants.It was the fundamental difference in institutional structure and outward thrust that turned China's power inward at this critical juncture in world history, leaving the world's oceans to the venture of the West.The implausible but inevitable outcome was that the great "Chinese Empire" was eclipsed for centuries by the barbarians of the West.
Because Chinese civilization and empire continued in uninterrupted continuity into modern times, they dominated East Asia, whereas no country in the West could control the West.Thus, in East Asia, the political and cultural diversity that prevailed in the West after the collapse of the Roman Empire did not develop.The only exceptions are the steppes and deserts of the far north and west; here, where agriculture was impossible due to climatic constraints, nomads developed a unique, non-Chinese, pastoral way of life .In contrast, in neighboring Vietnam, Korea, and Japan, there were no climatic obstacles, so agriculture developed and Chinese civilization spread.Among these three countries, Japan was the least dominated by the Chinese giant, both politically and culturally, and therefore played a correspondingly more important role in the history of East Asia and the world.The next few sections of this chapter will describe the development of Japan before the Western invasion.
The formation of Japanese history is largely influenced by geographical location, which is very similar to the British Isles on the other side of Eurasia.Yet the Japanese islands are even more isolated than the British Isles: they are 115 miles from the mainland, while the English Channel is only five miles wide.The Japanese were only seriously threatened by foreign aggression in the 13th century before being defeated by the Americans.因此，可以说日本人离大陆非常近，足以从伟大的中国文明中得到益处；但又可以说非常远，可以随意选择和拒绝。事实上，日本人对从国外引进的东西都异常敏感和警惕。尽管日本人被普遍认为是一个善借用的民族，但由于所处的与世隔绝的位置，他们较之其他任何人数和发展水平与其大致相等的民族，独立地发展起一个更大部分是属于他们自己的文化。
日本人基本上属于从东北亚迁移来的蒙古种人的一支，但最初居住在北方诸岛的、多毛的高加索虾夷人，有助于该种族的形成；由南方迁移来的马来人和波利尼西亚人可能也有助于该种族的形成。早期的日本由许多氏族组成，每个氏族由世袭的祭司族长统治。将近公元1世纪末时，邪马台氏族征服其它氏族，建立了一个松弛的政治和宗教的霸权；其首领是天皇，其氏族之神成为全民族的神。
6 世纪起，中国文明大规模传入日本，这一氏族组织遭到破坏。由朝鲜传入日本的佛教，是文化变革的媒介，在日本起了与基督教在欧洲日耳曼人和斯拉夫人中所起的完全相同的作用。学者、教师、工匠和僧侣从大陆渡海而来，随身带来了新的生活方式和新的宗教信仰。而那些游历“天朝”的日本人，作为热情的皈依者，回国后所起的作用更为重大。他们对变革的推动，最终导致大化改新。大化改新于645年开始，它试图以中国唐朝为模式，将日本改变成中央集权制国家。按照中国的模式，日本也分成若干省和地区，由从天皇和国家议舍那里取得权力的总督和地方行政官统治。此外，以天皇名义将所有土地收归国有，分给农户耕种。新的拥有土地的耕种者需向中央政府纳土地税和劳务税，前者以稻米的形式支付，后者有时包括服兵役。
施行这些和其他一些变革的目的是加强帝国的权力，而且，他们是在与前氏族组织相比较后才这样做的。但实际上，日本天皇离一个高度中央集权制国家的当然首脑相差甚远。强有力的世袭贵族强行对这种中国式的、最终将导致其垮台的行政机构作某些变更。虽然任命官员可能同中国一样要通过考试，任人唯贤，但实际上旧贵族仍成功地获取了显要地位和权力。同样，旧贵族还保留着大片土地；而这些土地通常是免税的，成为国家行政体制外的采邑。在这期间，藤原家族完善了两头政治，即双重政府体制。他们实际统治国家，为天皇选择是后，担任行政和军事的高级职务。而天星则过着奢侈的隐居生活，既不治理朝政，也不与民众接触，他的主要职责是保证世世代代有人继承，延续不断。这种双重政府体制在中国是没有先例的，始终以日本的形式保持下来直到19世纪日本的国门被欧洲人打开为止。
在文化上同样改变了中国的模式。日本人借用了汉字，但发偎了他们自己的书写体系借鉴了儒家学说，但更改了它的道德标准，调整了它的政治学说，以适应他们的社会结构。在保留其本族的神道教的同时，日本人还接受了佛教，但对之作了修改，以满足他们自己的精神需要。以后都长安为模型，日本人首先在奈良，然后在京都建立了帝国新都。但十分清楚，庙宇、楼阁、神龛和花园都具有日本的特征。帝国朝廷成为高度发展的文化和艺术活动的中心。11世纪，紫式部女士在她的著名小说中，以轻快的笔调描写了宫廷生活。但这部小说也反映了一个日渐颓废、见卓完全热衷于追求美感和肉欲的社会。这种堕落在下个世纪中变得更为严重，它有助于新的封建时期的到来那时，政权从帝国朝廷转入强有力的乡村武士的手中。
645 年的大化改新所引进的中国的帝国体制，对日本长期有效。但到12世纪时，这种体制被日本的种种封建制度所破坏和取代。一个原因是，各省统治者太喜欢优美的京都，往往将他们的权力和职责授予地方部属。另一原因是，有势力的地方家族和佛教团体对土地总是垂涎欲滴，经常用武力强占土地。只要免税制度继续存在，他们就想开垦荒地。这些倾向使纳税土地的数量减少，意味着拥有耕地的农民的捐税负担增加；于是这些农民或是逃亡北部边境地区，用武力赶走住居在那里的虾夷人，或是将自己连同土地一起交托给拥有采邑的贵族。这样，他们可以免税，并得到保护，但却因此变成农奴。结果，到12世纪末，纳税土地只是整个耕地面积的百分之十，甚至更少，地方权力被新的农村贵族所接管。
与此同时，由于帝国军队的瓦解，这一贵族成为居统治地位的军事力量。大化改新规定所有20 岁到60岁的男人服兵役。但这些应征士兵必须自带武器和粮食，而且还不免除固定的捐税负担。这种做法是行不通的，于739年被废除。国家军事职务通常由软弱的宫廷贵族担任，只是挂挂名而且。结果，反对虾夷人的战争则由农村贵族指挥。他们已成为骑兵武士，其军事战斗力逐渐增强，最后完全超过了帝国军队。这时，在这些农村贵族和他们的侍从，即武士（字面上的意思是“为人服务的人”）之间形成了一种封建关系。这种关系以理想化的道德即“武士道”为基础。武士在法律和礼仪上享有特权，但反过来必须绝对效忠于他们的封建领主。
到12 世纪，日本已由相互竞争的各封建领主集团控制。一段时期内，藤原氏通过利用他们所具有的力量帮助一方或另一方，还能维持势力均衡。最后，源赖朝在这些封建领主中获胜。1192年，天皇任命他为“征夷大将军”（征服蛮族大元帅），并有权指定他的继承人。作为大将军，赖朝是全军的总司令，负责王朝的内外防御。赖朝定镜仓为大本营，以天皇的名义控制全国；天皇则继续留在京都，过着隐居生活。正是在镰仓幕府时期，蒙古人分别于1274年和1281年两度入侵日本。两次入侵，蒙古人都登上了日本领土，但均遭到日本人的顽强抵抗，后被大风暴击溃；大风暴消灭了远征军。日本人认为，是神的干预解救了他们，故称这些风暴为“神风”。
1333 年，主要由于朝廷的阴谋诡计以及武士阶层中不断增长的不满，镰仓幕府灭亡。这时，足利尊氏获得“征夷大将军”的称号，但他们的权力始终只限于京都及其近郊。在日本其他地区，地方封建主为控制尽可能多的土地而你争我夺。结果，是大地主即“大名”的兴起。16世纪初，这样的大名有几百个，他们都企图获得统治全日本的霸权。
大名控制时期，经济迅速发展，对日本社会产生了重要影响。除手工业之外，农业也取得了重大的技术进步，国家某些地区的亩产量明显地增加了一倍，甚至两倍。生产率的提高使贸易更加繁荣，使物物交换转变成货币经济。15、 16世纪，在各战略要道、沿海港口或主要寺庙所在地，城镇逐渐形成。在这些城镇中出现了日本的行会即“座”，它们同西方的行会一样，企图得到某些货物的生产或运输的垄断权，得到从事某种贸易或职业的垄断权。他们向地方当局缴纳酬金，以此获得这些垄断权，从而为行会成员争得更大的自由和更高的社会地位。
日本经济生产率的提高加快了内外贸易的进行。早在12世纪，富有进取心的日本人就已开始大胆地渡海到朝鲜和中国，为贸易和海上掠夺作准备。他们渐渐扩大了活动范围，到15世纪后期，这些海盗兼商人已活跃于整个东南亚。富有的日本移民和士兵也分布各地，尤其是分布在印度支那、暹罗和菲律宾。
如早些时候在西方类似的环境中所发生的情况一样，日本社会经济的发展开始消弱日本的封建制度。如果这一趋向无间断地继续发展下去，日本很可能步西欧之后尘，发展成为近代拥有海外帝国的、统一的民族国。但是，日本未能如此，而是撤回到与外界隔离的境地之中。
其主要原因似乎是西方强国对东南亚和东亚海域的入侵。它阻止了日本扩张主义的自然进程。如果西方人没有出现，日本人很可能在台湾和东南亚各地区获得立足点。然而这时，西方海上军事技术的明显优势以及西方传教士在日本各岛上的惊人作用，使日本人感到惊恐。为此，17世纪初，德川幕府采取锁国政策，使日本撤回到几乎完全与世隔离的境地之中。
锁国政策规定，所有传教士必须离开日本，其信徒必须放弃他们的宗教信仰。结果，所有外国人不得不离开日本，只有少数中国人和荷兰人例外，他们获准在有限制的条件下，在九州岛上的长崎港经商。另外，锁国政策禁止日本国民出国，违者处以死刑。这样，日本开始了两个多世纪的闭关自守。
最终结果，日本没有成为近代扩张主义的民族国；相反，德川幕府锁国政策的“围墙”，挡住了外界的影响，保护了日本的封建制度。日本同中国一样，付出的代价是社会制度变得陈腐、僵化。不过，两国之间存在着根本差别：日本并不象中国，没有形成极强大的、坚如磐石的帝国结构，德川幕府只是弥补了裂痕，因此，19世纪西方入侵时，与中国不同，日本能作出积极的、有创造性的反应。
Chinese stoneware figurine from the 6th century.
The Sui Dynasty (589-618) played the same role in Chinese history as the Qin Dynasty some eight centuries earlier.Both reunified China after a long period of chaos, and then both made very important contributions to China's development.However, in the process, they all oppressed the people heavily and encountered resistance from numerous vested interest groups, so that they all collapsed almost immediately after the death of their founders.
The great contributions of the rulers of the Qin Dynasty were: unifying the whole of China, building roads and excavating people to build the Great Wall, unifying weights and measures, unifying characters, expanding and consolidating the territory.The achievements of the rulers of the Sui Dynasty were very similar, and they were also extremely poor in terms of people's resources and financial resources.They rebuilt parts of the Great Wall that were in disrepair, and excavated the main stretch of the sprawling canal system known as the Grand Canal.This Grand Canal met the urgent need to connect the Yangtze River Basin, which has become the economic center of the country, with the north, which is still the political center, but the cost of property and life was very expensive.Later, a Chinese writer commented that Emperor Sui Yang, the initiator of this project, "shortened his dynasty by many years, but brought great benefits to future generations. Although he practiced tyranny, his rule will be Considered to be of immortal merit."
A series of wars to expand the territory also consumed a lot of manpower and material resources.These wars expanded the empire's territory to include Taiwan, Annan and Champa in Indochina, and Gansu in the northwest.However, the attempt to conquer the northernmost territory of North Korea failed miserably; North Korea was then divided into three kingdoms.Four consecutive invasions were repelled by the indomitable North Korean army.As a result, dissatisfied soldiers mutinied; and peasants all over the country also rebelled because of excessive taxes.Emperor Sui Yang fled to the south and was assassinated in 618.Several pretenders then fought for the throne, and the winner established the Tang Dynasty, which many Chinese and Western historians call the most glorious dynasty.
The most obvious feature of the Tang Dynasty was imperial expansion.Through a series of major battles, its territory even surpassed that of the Han Dynasty.The Tang Dynasty established Chinese suzerainty in Central Asia, controlled the entire Tarim Basin, and crossed the Pamirs to control the countries in the Oxus River Basin and the upper reaches of the Indus River in Afghanistan.In addition, vast areas such as Tibet in the south, Mongolia in the northwest, Korea and Manchuria in the northeast were also forced to recognize China's suzerainty at this time.In the world at that time, only the empires of the Muslim Arabs in the Middle East could rival it.The victory of the Chinese should not be entirely attributed to their superior material power. The following account of the Eastern Turks about their relationship with the Tang Empire clearly illustrates this point:
A strong central government was rebuilt at home, making foreign conquest possible.As mentioned earlier (Chapter 10, Section 5), the Han Dynasty was subjugated by powerful local families who amassed large, self-sufficient, tax-free estates on which to build fortified manors, Successfully confronted the central government.The division of the country was facilitated by the emergence of Buddhist temples, which also challenged the imperial government due to their vast and growing land holdings.
The solution to this political division developed gradually over the centuries between dynastic regimes and was refined by Sui and Tang bureaucrats.It consisted of the "equal land system", ie: the central government allocated approximately 19 acres of land to each strong farmer.This is not to dispossess the land occupied by the big families, but to acquire land through other means, such as reclaiming land that was abandoned during the war.Moreover, only free farmers got land grants from the government, and in fact, not all of them got land.However, the "equal land system" did help to weaken the control of the big families and strengthen the rule of the Tang Dynasty.For a time it halted the growth of semi-feudal latifundia.It also increased state taxation, because while the politically powerful landowners did not pay taxes, the vast majority of small farmers did.In addition, peasants received military training to form a standing army, thus strengthening the military status of the imperial government.
The Tang also consolidated imperial power by developing a capable bureaucracy capable of running the country.The former Sui Dynasty revived the Han Dynasty's system of selecting officials on the basis of national competitive examinations.The Tang dynasty inherited and developed this system based on the basic Confucian tenet that recruiting talented people was a better solution to the country's problems than legal and institutional reforms typical of the West.The system, when fully formed, consisted of a series of examinations held in a complex series of ceremonies.The first is the local and county examinations, which are held every two or three years.About 8% of the candidates can pass the local examination and take the county examination in a few weeks.Those who were lucky enough to pass the exam (about half of the candidates) were eligible to hold smaller official positions and could further participate in the provincial examination in the provincial capital;Only 6 percent pass this "fence" and qualify for higher office.Usually only one-third of these people passed the highest palace examination, presided over by the emperor himself, and were admitted to the Hanlin Academy, China's most noble academic society; He was selected from the Hanlin Academy.
The original exam was entirely comprehensive, with a strong emphasis on the Confucian classics but also included other subjects such as law, teaching and political current affairs.Increasingly, these examinations focused on style and Confucian orthodoxy.The final result is the formation of a system: In theory, the door to official positions is open to all talents, but in practice it benefits those classes who have enough financial resources to study and prepare for many years.This does not mean that China was ruled by a hereditary aristocracy, but rather by a ruling group of scholars, the literati, who provided China with an effective and stable administration that won the admiration of Europeans.On the other hand, it is this system that stifles creativity and fosters obedience.As long as China remains relatively isolated in East Asia, it will continue to provide stability and continuity.But; with the encroachment of the vigorous West, it in turn served to prevent the Chinese from adjusting and responding effectively; until it was finally and completely abolished in 1905.
There are three highest management institutions in Beijing, they are Zhongshu Province, Menxia Province and Shangshu Province.The Zhongshu Province worked directly under the leadership of the emperor and formulated policies; the Menxia Province reviewed the Zhongshu Province's resolutions, and when necessary, rejected the resolutions for Zhongshu Province to reconsider; the Shangshu Province was responsible for implementing the Zhongshu Province and Menxia Province's resolutions.There are six departments under Shangshu Province: the Ministry of Officials, the Ministry of Households, the Ministry of War, the Ministry of Punishment, the Ministry of Industry, and the Ministry of Benefits; the Ministry of Rites is authorized to take charge of the examinations for civil servants.
The capital city of Chang'an, where these and other administrative institutions are located, is a large city of about one million people, criss-crossed by wide avenues, which are often crowded with Persians, Indians, Jews, Armenians and various Central Asians. people.They came to China as merchants, envoys and mercenaries.The Tang dynasty was more open to foreigners than any other period except the brief period of the Mongol Yuan dynasty.
Nowhere is this openness more evident than in matters of religion.The expansion of the empire's territory and the reopening of land and sea trade routes led to the influx of many foreign religious ideas and missionaries into China, especially Buddhism.Buddhism was first introduced to China from India during the Han Dynasty (see Chapter 7, Section 3). During the chaotic period of the vacancy of the throne after the Han Dynasty, it began to formally challenge the official Confucianism.During this period of turmoil, Confucianism was increasingly viewed with suspicion because its emphasis on filial piety and family loyalty seemed to weaken an already weakened state.Therefore, during the vacant period of the throne, the influence of Buddhism grew rapidly, and its influence reached its peak in the early Tang Dynasty.This period in Chinese history is sometimes referred to as the "Buddhist period."
Relief from the tomb of Emperor Tang Taizong (597-649): a chestnut war horse.
Although Buddhism gained a great deal of wealth and influence in China, it became completely Sinicized in the process, and at the same time contributed greatly to the emergence of Neo-Confucianism.At that time, Chinese family religious beliefs were very free and their thinking was extremely open; therefore, various Buddhist sects gradually formed.The most famous of these is the Zen sect, which was later introduced to Japan and is also called "Zen Buddhism".This sect emphasizes meditation and self-reliance, and is the only sect that continues to be vigorous and rational after the Tang Dynasty.Another feature of Sinicization is that the state tries to control and even bribe monasteries and temples in accordance with the typical Chinese concept that religion should serve the national interest and function as a state spiritual institution.
Attempts at control failed, and the government finally adopted a policy of outright persecution.Buddhists emphasize the salvation of the individual's soul, but not the commitment of family obligations, which is exactly the opposite of the basic Chinese tradition.Monks and nuns are isolated from the world and also run counter to Chinese traditions and are considered inhumane and anti-social.In the first place, the government, coveting the vast property and estates accumulated by the monasteries over the centuries, has carried out a series of persecutions which have greatly weakened Buddhism in China, though not completely as in India itself ( See Section 3 of Chapter VII).Similar to the situation in the West, this persecution is limited to Buddhist institutions and monks, not ordinary believers.As a result, the influence of Buddhist intervention was negligible as far as the overall development of Chinese civilization was concerned.It is true that Buddhism made significant contributions to Chinese philosophy, metaphysics, art and literature, but it did not transform Chinese society in general in the way Christianity transformed European society.
Finally, it should be pointed out that although Buddhism was the most influential foreign religion in China at that time, it was by no means the only one.The land of freedom that accommodated Buddhism also accommodated other religions, as Rubin's experience clearly illustrates.Rubin was a Nestorian, and the Chinese called him Aluoben.He arrived in Hou Dynasty in 635 AD and was received by the emperor.The emperor ordered that his book be translated into Chinese.Since the emperor was so impressed with the messenger and his beliefs, the emperor issued the following edict:
During the last century and a half of their reign, Tang rulers faced the usual problems of a dynasty in decline.The empire spent more than it taxed.Likewise, population growth outpaced land supply, and peasant families could no longer get small plots of land. The "land equalization system" was destroyed, and rich and noble families once again searched for farmers to expand their land.Since the tax system was based on poll taxes, the burden of taxes to pay for the ever-increasing expenditure of the empire fell on the peasants, whose holdings of land were dwindling.
The government responded by gradually replacing poll taxes with land taxes.This increased taxation, but did not prevent the decline of the number of free farmers.This decline means a corresponding reduction in human resources for the Self-Defense Forces and corvee.The defense of the empire increasingly relied on foreign mercenaries and "barbarian" tribes in the frontiers; these were far less reliable than the self-defense armies of the past.Therefore, in 751, the Chinese army failed in Yunnan in the south and Taluosi in Central Asia.The latter battle was particularly important because it enabled the victorious Muslim Arabs to convert a vast area that had been one of the earliest strongholds of Buddhism to Islam.
The Tang emperors managed to continue to rule for another century and a half, but it was a period of deteriorating conditions.The inappropriate stimulating luxury of the capital, combined with continuous drought and widespread famine, brought rebellion in many provinces.The court was aided by local military chiefs and various "barbarian" tribes in the border areas, but these peoples soon broke free from the court's control, ignoring the emperor's orders and fighting among themselves for the succession of the doomed court.As a result, in 907 a rebel leader deposed the last Tang emperor and sacked the city of Chang'an.By this time the empire had been torn apart, and the so-called "Five Dynasties" period had begun, which lasted half a century.Finally, a talented military general reunified the country and established a new dynasty, the Song Dynasty.Like the Tang Dynasty, the Song Dynasty lasted about three centuries (960-1279).
It should be pointed out that the split between Tang and Song was only half a century apart, and it has become a model for the future history of China.The country never again experienced the centuries-long chaos that followed the collapse of the Han Dynasty.The reason is that since the Tang Dynasty, Chinese civilization has been huge and deeply rooted, and it is impossible to form a long-term split state.Perhaps this civilization would have become more innovative and creative if the unity of the empire had been replaced by the variety of the West.This is just one "if" that has to be considered in history.But one thing is indisputable: the Chinese themselves view the split and the ensuing chaos as abnormal and unfortunate.There is an old saying: "Just as one sky cannot have two suns, China cannot have two countries or two emperors."
Compared with the rulers of the Han and Tang dynasties, the emperors of the Song Dynasty were obviously very passive in foreign relations.They did not launch a major campaign to restore the empire's territory in the heart of Eurasia.Instead, the second emperor of the Song Dynasty wanted only to recover the territory between Beijing and the Great Wall from nomadic control, but he failed miserably.His successors gave up their claim to this area, and even "gifted" to the nomads every year, which was actually paying tribute in disguise.Thus, the Song never recovered Manchuria's northeastern territories, nor did it recover the northwestern territories that would have provided the overland route to the west.
This was a fatal weakness of the Song Dynasty, which made it very easy for nomads to invade. The "gift-giving" policy had been practiced for a century and a half, and disaster struck when the Song emperors rashly tried to reclaim the northeast territories.Encouraged by the new invaders from northern Manchuria, who had defeated the nomads who dominated the Northeast, the King of Song decided to retake the area.Taking advantage of this apparent opportunity, he sent troops into Manchuria.As a result, instead of an easy victory, it suffered a disastrous defeat, which led to a massive invasion of northern China.The defenses of the Song Dynasty fell apart, and the court was left in the Yangtze River Valley and southern regions of central China.Therefore, the second half of the Song Dynasty, from 1127 to 1279, was called the "Southern Song Dynasty".The first half period, from 960 to 1127, is called the "Northern Song Dynasty".
The initial failure of the Song Dynasty to recover the border provinces and the subsequent loss of the northern half of China were severely condemned by later Chinese historians.Although this criticism cannot be denied, it is also true that many aspects of Chinese civilization reached their peak during the Tang and Song centuries.This is especially true in the field of culture.During these centuries, great encyclopedias of Buddhist scriptures and Confucian classics appeared; comprehensive histories of dynasties were written by many scholars; masterpieces of great poets and artists emerged; highly regarded; fine china almost as thin as glass and as transparent; the invaluable invention of printing, which was exploited to copy and distribute Dali Buddhist scriptures: science and technology made remarkable advances that are not yet fully understood (see twelfth Chapter III).
Apart from its cultural achievements, it is worth noting that during the Song Dynasty, a veritable commercial revolution took place, which had great significance for the whole of Eurasia.The business revolution has its roots in the dramatic increase in productivity in the Chinese economy.The steady development of technology has increased the output of traditional industries.Similarly, the introduction of early-maturing varieties of rice has allowed crops to be ripened twice a season in places where they could only be ripened once a season in the past, thereby promoting agriculture.In addition, the new water conservancy projects built in the Song Dynasty greatly expanded the irrigated area of paddy fields.It is estimated that rice production doubled between the 11th and 12th centuries.
Increased productivity made possible a corresponding increase in population, which in turn further boosted production.The rapid expansion of economic activity has also increased trade volumes.For the first time in China there appeared large cities centered mainly on commerce rather than administration.
Foreign trade has grown by leaps and bounds, which is more significant than domestic trade.Since the Han Dynasty in China, the scale of China's foreign trade has been quite large.In the Tang Dynasty, especially the Song Dynasty, the volume of foreign trade far exceeded any previous period.Underpinning this rapid trade growth is, of course, China's unprecedented economic productivity.Improvements in seamanship—among them the compass, flat-bottomed boats with adjustable central vertical lifts, and the use of cloth sails in place of bamboo sails—were also important.Finally, the activity of the Muslim merchants and sailors to engage in trade hastened the development of foreign trade; they were at that time the great entrepreneurs of the Asiatic seas.
As a result, the seaport, instead of the ancient land route, became the main medium of China's connection with the outside world for the first time.At that time, China's economy was dominant, which can be seen from the fact that most of China's exports were manufactured goods, such as silk, porcelain, calligraphy and painting, etc., while most of its imports were raw materials, such as spices, ores, and horses.Finally, it should be pointed out that during the Song Dynasty, the Chinese engaged in foreign trade on a large scale for the first time, and no longer mainly relied on foreign middlemen.Therefore, China in the Song Dynasty was developing towards becoming a maritime power.But the most important fact for Chinese history and world history is that this potential never materialized.In addition, and equally important, the veritable commercial revolution of the Song Dynasty did not have any explosive impact on Chinese society, while the corresponding commercial revolution in the West had an explosive impact on Western society (see Section 5 of this chapter).
Although the rule of the Southern Song Dynasty was limited to half of China, this half of China was exceptionally peaceful and prosperous.Meanwhile, northern China was ruled by a branch of the Manchu Jurchens known as the Jin.Around 1215, they asked the Southern Song for aid against the intractable Mongols who were driving them out of Beijing.The Southern Song Dynasty did not know the power of the Mongols, so they sent infantry who were good at fighting siege warfare to aid them. When the Jin dynasty fell in 1234, the Southern Song emperor rashly attempted to bring northern China under his rule.The Mongols immediately retaliated by invading southern China.The war lasted for decades, since the Mongols first wanted to occupy other lands; but the Song Dynasty finally fell in 1279 when the last Song emperor died in a naval battle.A new Mongol dynasty, the Yuan Dynasty, began its rule until 1368.
For the first and only time, China was ruled entirely by nomads; these nomads were not partially sinicized by earlier contacts with the empire.One of the first actions taken by these barbarian conquerors was to raze cities and incorporate new subjects into traditional Mongol tribal society.But they were soon told that this was impossible and that there were more favorable options:
The Mongols heeded this advice and established an administrative structure essentially identical to that established by previous Chinese rulers.At the same time, they were able to maintain their own identity, because the experience of nomadic life separated them from their subjects in terms of language, customs and laws.They also intentionally employ many foreigners to counter the suspicious Chinese majority.Marco Polo was the most famous of the foreign officials, but most of them were Muslims from Central Asia.
Kublai Khan moved the Mongol capital from Hara and Lin to Beijing, respectfully performed traditional Confucian imperial rituals, and essentially became a Chinese emperor.He also tried to appease them by exempting Confucian literati from paying taxes, but the literati remained largely at odds with him.They were dissatisfied with the many foreigners who actually served in an international administration, and with the Mongol tolerance and patronage of various foreign religions; such as Islam and Nestoria (see Chapter XIV Sections 4 and 5).
The Mongol rule in China, due to its nature and short duration, did not leave a deep impression on the country.Perhaps the choice of Beijing as the capital is the most enduring contribution.Beijing is located in the North China Plain, at the transportation hub between Central Asia in the west and Manchuria in the east. It is still an important military, economic and administrative center.Because China was then part of the larger Mongol Empire, which covered most of Eurasia, Mongol rule also contributed to a dramatic increase in overland trade (see Chapter 12, Section 2).The widespread use of paper money also facilitated commerce.Paper money was first used in the Song Dynasty, and the Mongols developed it further.Marco Polo repeatedly expressed surprise at the use of paper money, as his companion, an Italian merchant, put it in the following passage:
The talented Kublai Khan died in 1294 at the age of 80, and was succeeded by his grandson, the equally talented Tiemu'er.But Tie Mu'er died very early, and the Khans after him were weak and incompetent, indulging in court life all day long.Internecine struggle broke out in the imperial court, and what was even more serious was that the Yellow River often flooded, causing widespread famine in northern China.Uprisings broke out in most of the provinces, and it was only competition among the leaders that kept Mongol rule so long.Finally, an able civilian put an end to the chaos.Like the founder of the Han Dynasty, he seized the opportunity to rise up and become the "son of heaven" by virtue of his natural talents in times of crisis.Thus, the Chinese Ming Dynasty was established in 1368 and ruled until 1644.
From the overthrow of the Mongols to the emergence of the Republic, the Ming (1368-1644) and Qing (1644-1912) dynasties ruled China for more than 500 years.These centuries constituted one of the great periods in human history of orderly administration and peaceful social life.The main reason for this unprecedented and lasting stable situation is that a new Confucian metaphysics called "New Confucianism" occupies an absolute dominant position.This revival of Confucian thought mainly occurred in the chaotic period after the fall of the Tang Dynasty; the needs of the times at that time obviously went beyond the scope of memorizing Confucian classics by rote.Consequently, many scholars have embarked on a radical reappraisal of the question of man and the universe.
The leading figure in this work was Zhu Xi (1129-1200).When he was young, he studied Buddhism and Taoism, but was dissatisfied with both, and turned to Confucian classics.With his outstanding synthesis, he developed a method of interpretation.This method of interpretation synthesized elements of Buddhism and Taoism, and was more satisfactorily adapted to his time.His method is basically that of the empiricist rationalist.He taught that the universe is governed by the laws of freedom and this should be understood and respected.He also believed in the goodness of man and his perfection; he likened man to a dusty mirror, which, once dusted off, will be as bright as ever.Therefore, evil is the result of neglect and lack of education and can be corrected.
Zhu Xi's influence on the Chinese Confucian world can be compared with Thomas Aquinas' influence on the Western Christian world.Just as Aquinas soon codified the philosophies of Aristotle and St. Paul into a formal scholasticism, Zhu Xi incorporated contemporary Chinese thinking into the Neo-Confucian synthesis.Like Aquinas, Zhu Xi, with his extraordinary powers of understanding and persuasion, prevented the further development of philosophy.This was especially true during the Ming Dynasty, when there was a clear sense of national superiority and a retrospect to past traditions as a reaction against the pre-foreign Mongol rule.In this atmosphere, Zhu Xi came to be regarded as the final and absolute authority. "Since the time of the philosopher Zhu Xi," said a Ming scholar, "the truth has been clearly revealed to the world. We no longer need any books, but only practice."
After the Confucian classics annotated on autobiographical notes became the basis for civil service examinations, this new Confucianism constituted the official orthodoxy of the empire until the late nineteenth century.The result was a reinforcement of growing social rigidity with rational additions and elaborations of principles.This is very conducive to the continuity of the incomparable Chinese civilization, but at the cost of forming a kind of absurd conformity against all the originality and new ideas of the outside world.
The stability of Chinese society was due not only to Neo-Confucianism but also to the stubbornness of the so-called aristocratic ruling class—a force that held both land and office in an agrarian-based bureaucratic empire.As landowners and moneylenders, the nobility controlled the economic life of the villages and towns.Lack of land and capital enabled them to force up rents and interest rates; frequent natural disasters made bankrupt mortgagee de facto indentured serfs to local aristocratic families.In the late Ming Dynasty, it was not uncommon to see aristocratic families with thousands of such contract farmers.
These nobles also possessed a certain social status, indeed, this is what the Chinese term "nobility" signifies.In practice, however, land ownership is a prerequisite that provides the necessary funding for years of study and makes the learner a social status holder, qualifying for a position in the bureaucracy.Thus, the ties between the local nobility and the imperial bureaucracy were very close and mutually supportive.Government officials serving in other provinces often found the local dialect difficult to understand, and had to rely entirely on the guidance and guidance of the local nobles.
It makes sense to distinguish between bureaucrats and aristocrats, but Ming and Qing China were ruled jointly by them.Both the imperial authorities and the local nobles were very interested in maintaining the status quo to their mutual advantage, and they cooperated to the end.Previously, occasional dynasties had attempted to forcibly redistribute land, or other such reforms, while the Ming and Qing rulers avoided any conflict with aristocratic hegemony.
It is instructive that, in stark contrast to the above situation, the Ming government tried its best to control and oppress the merchant class.This is the fundamental and most meaningful difference between Chinese society and Western society.In the West, the bourgeoisie enjoyed a considerable degree of autonomy from the outset, owing to the diversity of the societies in which it lived; moreover, this autonomy has grown over time (see Chapter 18, Section 4).In China, there was indeed a corresponding merchant class, and they only enjoyed the benefits of the real commercial revolution in the Song Dynasty (see Section 3 of this chapter).In addition, most of the major technological inventions in the Middle Ages came from China.Unlike in the West, however, neither the commercial revolution nor technological progress had a revolutionary impact on China that would radically change society.The fundamental reason, as mentioned in Chapter 11, Section 6, is the continuity of Chinese history, that is, the Sui Dynasty was essentially the continuation of the Han Dynasty, and the Tang and Song were the continuation of the Sui Dynasty. 1912 Imperial history ends.Therefore, the traditional bureaucratic and aristocratic ruling group, with Neo-Confucianism as its spiritual pillar, devoured the role of new technology and economic development.But in the West, after the fall of the Roman Empire, there was no successor.Instead a new and complex civilization emerged; where, far from being buried, gunpowder, compasses, printing, and sea-going ships were put to good use, producing a new, first European, and then the whole world, China included. Explosive impact.
This kind of explosive influence is absolutely impossible in China, because the imperial institutions here are too closed and restrained.For example, Chinese businessmen and industrialists often joined local guilds headed by masters, but these guild masters were required to obtain proof of permission from the government and were charged with running the operations of each guild member.Ship merchants were also organized under the leadership of port masters, who were also accountable to the government.What's more, the government monopolized the production and distribution of many commodities for consumption by the court and administration, including weapons, textiles, pottery, leather goods, clothing, and wine.In addition, the government has complete control over the production and distribution of basic commodities such as salt and iron that are necessary for the entire population.These restrictions deprived Chinese businessmen of the opportunity to become unfettered entrepreneurs, depriving the economy of the possibility of free development; they also contributed to the corruption and degeneration of officials, because court officials could use their privileged position to manipulate state monopoly goods into Personal profit.
Another domestic restrictive policy of the Chinese ruling clique is to do everything possible to oppose foreign operations.Chinese immigrants migrated slowly to Southeast Asia before the Europeans arrived.In the Philippines, there are probably not as many Spaniards as there are Chinese at any given time. In 1603, 32 years after the establishment of the Spanish colony of Manila, there were about 20,000 Chinese here, compared to about 10,000 Spaniards. These Chinese actually controlled the economic life of the colony and extended their control to other islands in this archipelago. .It was in this year, 1603, that the Chinese in Manila suffered a massacre; an official in the neighboring mainland province of Fujian condoned the massacre, and condemned all Chinese overseas as unworthy sons of the ancestral grave. People the emperor cares about.The Chinese in Manila and their Chinese compatriots in Southeast Asia are still being massacred on a regular basis to this day.Likewise, in 1712, the emperor issued an edict prohibiting the Chinese from doing business and settling in Southeast Asia.Five years later, another edict allowed those Chinese who had settled abroad to return home without fear of punishment. In 1729, another decree was promulgated, stipulating the specific date for returning to the country, and those overseas Chinese who failed to return within the time limit would not be allowed to return to the country.What a stark and astonishing contrast this was with the Western countries, which were soon actively establishing overseas colonies and establishing trading companies, and were even ready to defend these enterprises by force against any threat.
During this extraordinary history of the early 15th century, Ming Dynasty seafaring, with its outstanding technology and astonishing scope, clearly proved China's leading position in the world's seafaring industry.However, the emperor issued an edict prohibiting further overseas expeditions and imposing immediate execution of this order (chapter 12, section 1).This is one of the clearest and most important manifestations of the Chinese official's negative attitude towards overseas activities.
While the exact motives for this edict are unknown, it is worth noting that its issuance was possible because Chinese merchants lacked the political power and social status enjoyed by Western merchants.It was the fundamental difference in institutional structure and outward thrust that turned China's power inward at this critical juncture in world history, leaving the world's oceans to the venture of the West.The implausible but inevitable outcome was that the great "Chinese Empire" was eclipsed for centuries by the barbarians of the West.
Because Chinese civilization and empire continued in uninterrupted continuity into modern times, they dominated East Asia, whereas no country in the West could control the West.Thus, in East Asia, the political and cultural diversity that prevailed in the West after the collapse of the Roman Empire did not develop.The only exceptions are the steppes and deserts of the far north and west; here, where agriculture was impossible due to climatic constraints, nomads developed a unique, non-Chinese, pastoral way of life .In contrast, in neighboring Vietnam, Korea, and Japan, there were no climatic obstacles, so agriculture developed and Chinese civilization spread.Among these three countries, Japan was the least dominated by the Chinese giant, both politically and culturally, and therefore played a correspondingly more important role in the history of East Asia and the world.The next few sections of this chapter will describe the development of Japan before the Western invasion.
The formation of Japanese history is largely influenced by geographical location, which is very similar to the British Isles on the other side of Eurasia.Yet the Japanese islands are even more isolated than the British Isles: they are 115 miles from the mainland, while the English Channel is only five miles wide.The Japanese were only seriously threatened by foreign aggression in the 13th century before being defeated by the Americans.因此，可以说日本人离大陆非常近，足以从伟大的中国文明中得到益处；但又可以说非常远，可以随意选择和拒绝。事实上，日本人对从国外引进的东西都异常敏感和警惕。尽管日本人被普遍认为是一个善借用的民族，但由于所处的与世隔绝的位置，他们较之其他任何人数和发展水平与其大致相等的民族，独立地发展起一个更大部分是属于他们自己的文化。
日本人基本上属于从东北亚迁移来的蒙古种人的一支，但最初居住在北方诸岛的、多毛的高加索虾夷人，有助于该种族的形成；由南方迁移来的马来人和波利尼西亚人可能也有助于该种族的形成。早期的日本由许多氏族组成，每个氏族由世袭的祭司族长统治。将近公元1世纪末时，邪马台氏族征服其它氏族，建立了一个松弛的政治和宗教的霸权；其首领是天皇，其氏族之神成为全民族的神。
6 世纪起，中国文明大规模传入日本，这一氏族组织遭到破坏。由朝鲜传入日本的佛教，是文化变革的媒介，在日本起了与基督教在欧洲日耳曼人和斯拉夫人中所起的完全相同的作用。学者、教师、工匠和僧侣从大陆渡海而来，随身带来了新的生活方式和新的宗教信仰。而那些游历“天朝”的日本人，作为热情的皈依者，回国后所起的作用更为重大。他们对变革的推动，最终导致大化改新。大化改新于645年开始，它试图以中国唐朝为模式，将日本改变成中央集权制国家。按照中国的模式，日本也分成若干省和地区，由从天皇和国家议舍那里取得权力的总督和地方行政官统治。此外，以天皇名义将所有土地收归国有，分给农户耕种。新的拥有土地的耕种者需向中央政府纳土地税和劳务税，前者以稻米的形式支付，后者有时包括服兵役。
施行这些和其他一些变革的目的是加强帝国的权力，而且，他们是在与前氏族组织相比较后才这样做的。但实际上，日本天皇离一个高度中央集权制国家的当然首脑相差甚远。强有力的世袭贵族强行对这种中国式的、最终将导致其垮台的行政机构作某些变更。虽然任命官员可能同中国一样要通过考试，任人唯贤，但实际上旧贵族仍成功地获取了显要地位和权力。同样，旧贵族还保留着大片土地；而这些土地通常是免税的，成为国家行政体制外的采邑。在这期间，藤原家族完善了两头政治，即双重政府体制。他们实际统治国家，为天皇选择是后，担任行政和军事的高级职务。而天星则过着奢侈的隐居生活，既不治理朝政，也不与民众接触，他的主要职责是保证世世代代有人继承，延续不断。这种双重政府体制在中国是没有先例的，始终以日本的形式保持下来直到19世纪日本的国门被欧洲人打开为止。
在文化上同样改变了中国的模式。日本人借用了汉字，但发偎了他们自己的书写体系借鉴了儒家学说，但更改了它的道德标准，调整了它的政治学说，以适应他们的社会结构。在保留其本族的神道教的同时，日本人还接受了佛教，但对之作了修改，以满足他们自己的精神需要。以后都长安为模型，日本人首先在奈良，然后在京都建立了帝国新都。但十分清楚，庙宇、楼阁、神龛和花园都具有日本的特征。帝国朝廷成为高度发展的文化和艺术活动的中心。11世纪，紫式部女士在她的著名小说中，以轻快的笔调描写了宫廷生活。但这部小说也反映了一个日渐颓废、见卓完全热衷于追求美感和肉欲的社会。这种堕落在下个世纪中变得更为严重，它有助于新的封建时期的到来那时，政权从帝国朝廷转入强有力的乡村武士的手中。
645 年的大化改新所引进的中国的帝国体制，对日本长期有效。但到12世纪时，这种体制被日本的种种封建制度所破坏和取代。一个原因是，各省统治者太喜欢优美的京都，往往将他们的权力和职责授予地方部属。另一原因是，有势力的地方家族和佛教团体对土地总是垂涎欲滴，经常用武力强占土地。只要免税制度继续存在，他们就想开垦荒地。这些倾向使纳税土地的数量减少，意味着拥有耕地的农民的捐税负担增加；于是这些农民或是逃亡北部边境地区，用武力赶走住居在那里的虾夷人，或是将自己连同土地一起交托给拥有采邑的贵族。这样，他们可以免税，并得到保护，但却因此变成农奴。结果，到12世纪末，纳税土地只是整个耕地面积的百分之十，甚至更少，地方权力被新的农村贵族所接管。
与此同时，由于帝国军队的瓦解，这一贵族成为居统治地位的军事力量。大化改新规定所有20 岁到60岁的男人服兵役。但这些应征士兵必须自带武器和粮食，而且还不免除固定的捐税负担。这种做法是行不通的，于739年被废除。国家军事职务通常由软弱的宫廷贵族担任，只是挂挂名而且。结果，反对虾夷人的战争则由农村贵族指挥。他们已成为骑兵武士，其军事战斗力逐渐增强，最后完全超过了帝国军队。这时，在这些农村贵族和他们的侍从，即武士（字面上的意思是“为人服务的人”）之间形成了一种封建关系。这种关系以理想化的道德即“武士道”为基础。武士在法律和礼仪上享有特权，但反过来必须绝对效忠于他们的封建领主。
到12 世纪，日本已由相互竞争的各封建领主集团控制。一段时期内，藤原氏通过利用他们所具有的力量帮助一方或另一方，还能维持势力均衡。最后，源赖朝在这些封建领主中获胜。1192年，天皇任命他为“征夷大将军”（征服蛮族大元帅），并有权指定他的继承人。作为大将军，赖朝是全军的总司令，负责王朝的内外防御。赖朝定镜仓为大本营，以天皇的名义控制全国；天皇则继续留在京都，过着隐居生活。正是在镰仓幕府时期，蒙古人分别于1274年和1281年两度入侵日本。两次入侵，蒙古人都登上了日本领土，但均遭到日本人的顽强抵抗，后被大风暴击溃；大风暴消灭了远征军。日本人认为，是神的干预解救了他们，故称这些风暴为“神风”。
1333 年，主要由于朝廷的阴谋诡计以及武士阶层中不断增长的不满，镰仓幕府灭亡。这时，足利尊氏获得“征夷大将军”的称号，但他们的权力始终只限于京都及其近郊。在日本其他地区，地方封建主为控制尽可能多的土地而你争我夺。结果，是大地主即“大名”的兴起。16世纪初，这样的大名有几百个，他们都企图获得统治全日本的霸权。
大名控制时期，经济迅速发展，对日本社会产生了重要影响。除手工业之外，农业也取得了重大的技术进步，国家某些地区的亩产量明显地增加了一倍，甚至两倍。生产率的提高使贸易更加繁荣，使物物交换转变成货币经济。15、 16世纪，在各战略要道、沿海港口或主要寺庙所在地，城镇逐渐形成。在这些城镇中出现了日本的行会即“座”，它们同西方的行会一样，企图得到某些货物的生产或运输的垄断权，得到从事某种贸易或职业的垄断权。他们向地方当局缴纳酬金，以此获得这些垄断权，从而为行会成员争得更大的自由和更高的社会地位。
日本经济生产率的提高加快了内外贸易的进行。早在12世纪，富有进取心的日本人就已开始大胆地渡海到朝鲜和中国，为贸易和海上掠夺作准备。他们渐渐扩大了活动范围，到15世纪后期，这些海盗兼商人已活跃于整个东南亚。富有的日本移民和士兵也分布各地，尤其是分布在印度支那、暹罗和菲律宾。
如早些时候在西方类似的环境中所发生的情况一样，日本社会经济的发展开始消弱日本的封建制度。如果这一趋向无间断地继续发展下去，日本很可能步西欧之后尘，发展成为近代拥有海外帝国的、统一的民族国。但是，日本未能如此，而是撤回到与外界隔离的境地之中。
其主要原因似乎是西方强国对东南亚和东亚海域的入侵。它阻止了日本扩张主义的自然进程。如果西方人没有出现，日本人很可能在台湾和东南亚各地区获得立足点。然而这时，西方海上军事技术的明显优势以及西方传教士在日本各岛上的惊人作用，使日本人感到惊恐。为此，17世纪初，德川幕府采取锁国政策，使日本撤回到几乎完全与世隔离的境地之中。
锁国政策规定，所有传教士必须离开日本，其信徒必须放弃他们的宗教信仰。结果，所有外国人不得不离开日本，只有少数中国人和荷兰人例外，他们获准在有限制的条件下，在九州岛上的长崎港经商。另外，锁国政策禁止日本国民出国，违者处以死刑。这样，日本开始了两个多世纪的闭关自守。
最终结果，日本没有成为近代扩张主义的民族国；相反，德川幕府锁国政策的“围墙”，挡住了外界的影响，保护了日本的封建制度。日本同中国一样，付出的代价是社会制度变得陈腐、僵化。不过，两国之间存在着根本差别：日本并不象中国，没有形成极强大的、坚如磐石的帝国结构，德川幕府只是弥补了裂痕，因此，19世纪西方入侵时，与中国不同，日本能作出积极的、有创造性的反应。