Chapter 18 Chapter Thirteen The Rise of Islam
It is down to you that you may warn the people of Mecca, the "Mother of Cities" and its environs; that you may warn them that the "Doomsday" will undoubtedly come.At that time, some people will live in heaven forever, and some people will fall into hell fire.
Chapter Forty-Two
The emergence of Islam in the centuries from 600 to 1000 was an important turning point in the history of Eurasia and the world.The astonishing conquest of Muslim soldiers, like that of Alexander the Great some 1,000 years earlier, reunited the entire Middle East.After the collapse of Alexander's empire, the Romans finally forcibly ruled Asia Minor and Syria, dividing the Middle East into two parts, east and west, with the Euphrates River as the boundary.The east is composed of Iran and Iraq, which is the center of Persian civilization; the west includes the Balkan countries, Asia Minor, Syria, Egypt and North Africa, which has become the seat of Byzantine civilization. In the 7th and 8th centuries, the conquest of Islam ended this division. Under the flag of Islam, it unified all regions from the Pyrenees to Sindh, from Morocco to Central Asia.
Even more remarkable than these military expansions were the cultural achievements of Islam.Although the conquered regions had been the centers of humanity's oldest civilizations, by the eleventh century they had become linguistically Arabized and culturally Islamic.Arabic became the language of everyday life from Persia to the Atlantic, and the emerging Islamic civilization was an ingenious amalgamation of pre-Jewish, Persian-Mesopotamian, and Greco-Roman civilizations.This linguistic and cultural shift has survived to the present day, so that the Iraqis and Moroccans are as closely linguistically and culturally related as the British and Australians.
The Middle East before the Muslim invasion was ruled by two great empires: the Byzantine Empire and the Sasanian Dynasty.The former, with Constantinople as its capital, controlled the eastern Mediterranean region; the latter, with its capital in Ctesiphon, ruled the Tigris-Euphrates River Basin and the Iranian Plateau.The two empires have been feuding for a long time, one is a Christian country with a Greco-Roman culture, and the other is a Zoroastrian country with a Persian-Mesopotamian tradition. From 603 to 629, a series of wars broke out between Persia and Byzantium, leaving both sides vulnerable to the storms that gathered in the Arabian desert.
At this time, the Arabian Peninsula, in the eyes of its civilized neighbors, was a remote land of nomadic barbarians.However, in the second half of the 6th century, it became an economically important place due to changes in trade routes.The chaos in Egypt and the Byzantine-Persian wars made the traditional routes from the Red Sea to the Nile and the Persian Gulf to the Red Sea impassable.Merchants have therefore turned to the more difficult but safer route of transporting goods from Syria to Yemen via the western Arabian Peninsula, and from Yemen to and from the Indian Ocean.Mecca has benefited from the change of the commercial route. It is located in the middle of the commercial route and along the coast of the Arabian Peninsula. It is a transportation hub to Syria in the north, Yemen in the south, the Persian Gulf in the east, Jeddah Port in the Red Sea in the west and Africa by water.
Except for the south where agriculture and absolute monarchy are practiced, the rest of the Arabian Peninsula is nomadic and tribal.The chief, the elected chief of the tribe, was simply a man of high standing on equal footing, bound by the traditional habits of domination.Their main role is to command the fight and lead the people to defend the holy places in wartime.Most tribes were polytheistic and worshiped trees, springs and stones; these were believed to be the dwelling places of the invisible gods.They also believed in more personal gods; and believed that they were subordinate to a higher god called "Allah".Judaism and Christianity had come to Arabia from the north, winning over all the tribes of the frontiers and the isolated tribes of the rest of the peninsula.Compared with these religious beliefs, the polytheism, tribal wars and political divisions of the Arabian Peninsula seem too primitive and a shame for thoughtful Arabs.It is said that at the beginning of the 7th century, several "prophets" did appear, reflecting that efforts were being made to develop local theological religion at that time.Like every successful preacher, Muhammad expressed the aspirations of his time and fulfilled the demands of his time.
Muhammad, the most influential historical figure in the Middle Ages, was born in 569, the posthumous son of a merchant in Mecca.His mother passed away at the age of six, and he was raised by his grandmother first and then his uncle.Little is known about his teenage years.It is said that he went to Syria with his uncle and a caravan when he was 12 years old. During this trip, he may have acquired some knowledge about Judaism and Christianity.At the age of twenty-five Muhammad married a rich widow, who bore him several daughters and two sons, all of whom died in infancy.
When Muhammad was in his 40s, he went through a period of extreme mental stress.In the process, he came to believe that God had chosen him to be a prophet, to be the successor of Abraham, Moses, and Jesus.Someone asked him to describe the process of inspiration, and he replied that the entire scriptures of the Bible are in the kingdom of heaven, and each time he gets only a part, which is usually taught to him by the angel Gabriel and asked him to repeat it word by word.But the other people around him at this time could neither see the angel nor hear what he said.Muhammad's convulsions could have been epileptic seizures, not least because he said he heard a brass-like sound, a sound usually heard during epileptic seizures.In any case, Muhammad believed at this time that he had accepted God's call to prove the uniqueness and transcendent existence of Allah, to warn people that the "Doomsday Judgment" would eventually come, and to warn them that the reward for faithfulness was to go to heaven, and evil The punishment is hell.
The teachings of Muhammad, recorded shortly after his death, became the holy scriptures of Islam, a Protestant religion. "Islam" means "obedience to God's will." Muhammad did not establish a clergy organization, nor did he determine specific sacraments for saving souls, but he required believers to perform certain rituals, that is, the "five merits of Islam." Is: (1) Recitation: Believers must fully understand and absolutely accept the recitation of "There is no god except Allah; Muhammad is the messenger of Allah." (2) Prayer: Believers should pray five times a day, It is held in morning, noon, afternoon, evening, and evening: take off your shoes, kneel on a carpet, knock your head on the ground, and pray in all directions facing Mecca. (3) Lessons: Muslims should give generously as a tribute to Allah and as an act of piety. (4) Fasting: Muslims must fast from sunrise to sunset every day during the month of Ramadan. (5) Pilgrimage: Muslims should make a pilgrimage to Mecca once in their lifetime if conditions permit.
These ceremonies greatly strengthened the social bonding of believers.Together they prayed, they fasted, they took responsibility for their less fortunate brethren; they - rich and poor, yellow, white, brown and black - made the pilgrimage to Mecca together.Moreover, it also guides all aspects of believer's life, customs and hygiene, marriage and divorce, business and politics, crime and punishment, peace and war, etc.Thus, Islam is both a religious belief and a social code and political system.It not only provides religious commandments for believers, but also provides clear lessons for personal and public life.As in Christendom, there is no difference between secular life and religious life, between the world and the Church.In Isia, what belongs to Caesar belongs to God, and what belongs to God belongs to Caesar. "Sharia" is the holy scriptures. Until modern times, it was still the national law of the entire Muslim world, and it is still the case to a large extent in various countries.
Muhammad gradually persuaded the people to convert to these teachings.First of all, his immediate family and personal friends, who later enjoyed great prestige as "Companions of the Prophet."As this small group of converts developed, Mecca's wealthy merchants began to panic, fearing that Muhammad's teachings would weaken past religious beliefs and prevent worshipers from worshiping Mecca's holy relic, the Black Stone.As opposition grew, Muhammad was invited to Medina.It was an oasis city on the trade route about 300 miles north of Mecca.It was populated by a mixture of Arab and Jewish tribes, so Muhammad was welcomed as an arbiter. In 622, Muhammad moved to Medina. The Arabs called this event "Hijra", and the Islamic calendar uses the year when the event occurred as the era.
Since his teachings were largely based on Jewish teachings, legends, and scriptures, Muhammad hoped that he would be welcomed by the Jews of Medina as their prophet's successor, but the Jews of Medina scoffed at his request.So Muhammad turned against them, eventually expelled them from the city, and distributed their property among his followers.Since then, Islam has a more distinctive color of the Arab nation, and Mecca has replaced Jerusalem as the direction Muslims must worship.Muhammad gradually persuaded the Arabs in Medina to accept his religious beliefs, and based on his teachings, established a theocracy.
On the front of the flag it is written: "There is no god but Allah"; horse-riding musicians participate in the biggest festival of Muslims - the festival.This festival marks the final date of the annual pilgrimage to Mecca.
Based in Medina, Muhammad organized the attack on the Mecca caravans.Such raids are a generally accepted economic activity among Arab nomads.Today, they gather under the banner of the "Prophet", hoping to obtain the spoils and, by the way, the salvation of their souls.By 630, Muslims were strong enough to occupy Mecca; in Mecca, Muhammad made the black stone housed in the Kaaba a holy object of worship in Islam.So he reconciled, preserving the fundamental tenets of Islam and rooting them in traditional Arab customs.By the time of Muhammad's death in 632, most Arab tribes—though not all—had recognized his supremacy and paid him tribute.
In the past, in his own country, Muhammad had seen some idolatrous ceremonies.Now he brought to it a religion and an apocalyptic canon, a well organized and armed society and state that ruled the whole peninsula.Within a century, his followers went from victory to victory, building a mighty empire across Eurasia, and spreading his teachings.Today, this religion has 500 million adherents in the world.If the influence on the development of events is used as the standard, Muhammad is undoubtedly a giant in history.
Just because Muslim society was the product of Muhammad's genius, after his death, the various components of this society may be divided.Tribal chiefs believed that their obedience to Muhammad ended with his death.So they stopped paying tribute and regained their freedom of movement.This withdrawal, known in Islamic history as apostasy, or apostasy, sparked a series of planned wars.These wars subdued the "apostate" tribes and forced them to return to Islamic society.However, the members of the conquered tribe were sullen and disaffected, apparently rebelling at the first opportunity.The ideal way to disintegrate is to carry out foreign raids with the promise of the spoils that every Bedouin would love, so these raids do not start out as religious wars preaching doctrine.Muhammad did not expect that the Islamic Church became a worldwide faith, nor did he think that God had chosen him to preach to people other than Arabs.Precisely the need to keep the riotous Bedouins single-mindedly loyal to Medina was what led the Arabs to attack.
The leader of these raids was the caliph, or vicar, who was chosen to take the temporal place of the prophet.The Caliph was undoubtedly the successor of the Prophet Muhammad, but was primarily the secular head of society.Therefore, the election of Muhammad's father-in-law Abu Bakr as caliph only means that he is the protector of Islam, not the religious leader.It was under the leadership of Abu Bakr that the apostate tribes were forced to return to the ranks of believers, and the Arabs began their earliest foreign aggression.
In 634 Umar was elected caliph in succession to Wemb Bakr, and under his leadership the early aggression developed into a formal war of conquest.The reason for this is that the seemingly powerful Byzantine Empire and the Persian Empire soon exposed the essence of being strong on the outside but doing nothing on the inside.Not only were they weakened by a series of wars between the two countries, but their people were extremely disaffected by heavy taxes and religious persecution.Moreover, as entire tribes migrated north from all parts of the Arabian peninsula, attracted by fascinating legends of wealth, Muslim armies changed from small raiding parties to massive armed forces, and anyone who wanted them to return to their barren homeland Any attempt will lead to a new, possibly fatal "renegade".As a result, Muslim chiefs led Bedouin armies into Syria.Thus, the great conquests that followed show that they were not Islamic aggressions but expansions of Arab tribes.During the first few centuries, these expansions went north into the Fertile Crescent several times.The scale of this expansion was unprecedented at the time, partly because of the exceptional weakness of the two empires, and partly because of the unity and strength created by the new Islamic faith.
Once the Arabs began to invade, they made full use of their desert combat experience.They fought not on horses like the Byzantines and Persians, but on camels.This allows for an attack at will and, if necessary, retreat to the safety of the desert.Just as the later Vikings were able to plunder the coasts of Europe because they controlled the sea, the Arabs at this time used their "desert ships" to attack wealthy empires.No wonder the Arabs chose the cities on the edge of the desert as their main base in the conquered provinces.When the situation is stable, they use existing cities, such as Damascus; when necessary, they build new cities, such as Kufay and Basra in Iraq, and Fustedt in Egypt. The needs of the Arab Empire, just as Gibraltar, Malta and Singapore later met the needs of the British maritime empire.
In 636 the Arabs decisively defeated the Byzantines in the Yarmouk Valley, a tributary of the Jordan River.They attacked in a blinding sandstorm and almost wiped out the mixed Greek, Armenian and Syrian Christian forces.The emperor Heraclius fled into the monarchy of Constantinople, throwing all of Syria to the victor.Caliph Umar then turned to attack wealthy neighbor Iraq.The Semites there, who had partially converted to Christianity, resented the Persian and Zoroastrian rulers, contributed to the Arab victory. In the summer of 637, the Arabs achieved a great victory in Qadisia; the Persian emperor hurriedly evacuated the capital Tessifon, which was located near Qadisia, and fled eastward.
The astonishing victories of Yarmouk and Qadisiya brought unprecedented wealth to the Muslims, thereby further strengthening the large number of Bedouins from the southern desert.The frontier pressure was irresistible, and the Arab armies rolled onward, westward into Egypt and eastward into Persia.Within two years (639-641) they had conquered all of Egypt, but in Persia they met with staunch resistance for the first time.Although the imperial rule is weak and incompetent.Unpopular, but for the sake of freedom and Zoroastrian faith, the people of the whole nation are ready to fight against the Arab nomads who have always been regarded as the "evil of the desert".As the Muslims advanced, local resistance organized, forcing the invaders to pay a heavy price.Persia was not conquered until 651.Before that, in 644, Umar was assassinated by a Persian captive.
The successors of Umar's caliphate, driven by religious enthusiasm and greed of nomads, continued to raise the banner of Islam and took advantage of the victory to fight abroad.In North Africa, Arab armies, reinforced by local Berber converts, rushed into Morocco and then, across the Strait of Gibraltar, into Spain. In 711 they defeated Rodrigo, the last Visigoth king of Spain, and crossed the Pyrenees into France.However, in 732 they were defeated by Charles Martel at Tours, France.The battle is generally considered a major turning point in Western European history, though it is doubtful that even if the Muslims won, they would continue to push far from home.The same was true of Muslim expansion to the east. In 715 they captured Sindh in northwestern India, but were not able to advance further until centuries later, when Turkic peoples of the same religion invaded India from the north.Similarly, in 751, the Muslims defeated the Chinese in Talas in Central Asia, but failed to march on China.Talas, Sind, and the Pyrenees thus became the last limits of Muslim expansion at the level of military technology at that time.
This clearly shows the special significance of the one-year siege (717-718) when the Arabs failed to capture Constantinople.Since Constantinople was so close to the center of the empire, if they captured the city, they would have the potential to capture most of Eastern Europe.Of course, the Muslim Turks of the fifteenth century did exactly that.But if this event had happened about 10 plus years earlier, much of Eastern Europe would have been Arabized and Islamized and become an integral part of what is today the Muslim Middle East.
Despite these failures, the fact remains: what began as a religion in the desert grew into a mighty empire spanning Eurasia in just a century.By 750, Islam ruled a vast area from the Pyrenees to Sind, and from Morocco to the Chinese border (see Figure 13 "The Expansion of Islam before 1500").
After the first phase of expansion was complete, the Arabs settled down and enjoyed the fruits of victory.They are actually the occupying forces of their dependent countries, and most live in military towns, thereby controlling the surrounding countryside.Since the Caliph 'Umar had stipulated that his followers should not have fiefdoms in the occupied provinces, they were now enjoying government subsidies.Funding for these allowances comes from land confiscations by Islamic states and from taxes, which are higher for non-Muslims than for Muslims.Otherwise, non-Muslims were not disturbed or forced to convert.In fact, converting to Islam was extremely unpopular because it meant lower taxes.Therefore, believing in Islam is actually a privilege enjoyed by the Arabian knights and nobles who rule the vast majority of their subjects.
Soon, the growing number of "Mawali", that is, non-Arab Muslims, disrupted this situation.These Protestants flocked to the cities to serve the needs of the Arabs as employees, artisans, shopkeepers and merchants.As Muslims, they demanded equality with Arabs, but they were denied the opportunity. "Mawali" served in the Islamic army, and usually only participated in the war as infantry, because infantry received lower salaries and spoils than Arab cavalry.
As the empire expanded and wealth flowed from the provinces of the vassals into the cities, the "Mavalli" grew in number and wealth, but they were still denied access to the ruling group.Thus, they became unstable factors in the city, determined to achieve a social status equal to their economic power.The Umayyad Caliphate of Arabia, who had moved their capital from Medina to Damascus in 661, was beginning to be viewed with good reason as a parasitic group that had no effect after the war of conquest was completed.Therefore, the resistance movement against the Arab nobility was both a national and a social resistance movement.
The ten-year civil strife that broke out suddenly for the throne ended with the establishment of the Abbasid Caliphate in 750; the significance of the establishment of the Abbasid Dynasty far exceeded the simple change of dynasty. The "Mawali", especially the Persians, now replaced the old surplus of nobles.The Arab military ceased to be a paid and privileged class and was replaced by a royal standing army, which at first consisted mainly of Persians.The former military town has now become a huge commercial center under the control of "McWali".Some Arabs began to join the ranks of citizens and farmers, while others returned to nomadic life.
The structure of the empire also changed radically, notably in 762 when the capital was moved east from Damascus to Baghdad.This actually means that the Abbasid caliphate began to abandon the Mediterranean, accept Persian traditions, and seek Persian support.The caliph was no longer the chieftain of an Arab tribe, but a theocracy, the "shadow of Allah on the earth."Land power did not depend on tribal support, but on a salaried bureaucracy and a standing army.The caliphate thus became an Eastern monarchy, similar to the many village lordships of the former Ctesiphon, Persepolis, and Babylon.Under the order and protection afforded by this monarchy, a hybrid civilization, combining Jewish, Greco-Roman, and Persian-Mesopotamian cultural traditions, developed over the ensuing centuries.Islam is no longer just a code of law for the upper class of knights and nobles, but has become a new and distinctive civilization.
Caliph al-Mansour chose Baghdad as the seat of the Abbasid dynasty and foresaw the glorious vistas of this choice:
Mansur's expectations were quickly fully realized.Within a century, Baghdad's population was about 1 million.In the center of the city was a citadel, about two miles in diameter, containing the caliph's court, the neighbors of the officials, and the barracks of the Janissaries.A huge commercial center was established on the outskirts of the castle, and abundant products were provided by the rich Mesopotamia region.The main crops are wheat, barley, rice, dates and olives.The Abbasid dynasty expanded the area of arable land and increased production by draining swamps and developing irrigation projects.They also lowered taxes and imposed less servitude on peasants than previous rulers.However, this improvement was soon canceled by the speculation of wealthy merchants and landowners, and by the introduction of slave labor on many large estates.
The provinces also provided rich resources of metals such as silver from the Hindu Kush, gold from Nubia and Sudan, copper from Isfahan, and iron from Persia, Central Asia, and Sicily.Gemstones were found in many parts of the empire, and the waters of the Persian Gulf were also rich in pearls.Industry also flourished, the textile industry being the most important in terms of the number of people engaged in production and the value of the output.Linen, cotton, and silk commodities were produced in many places, both for local consumption and for export.Carpet making can be found almost everywhere, but Tabristan and Armenian products are the most outstanding. In 751, many Chinese were captured on the battlefield of Talas; the papermaking technology learned from these captives quickly spread throughout the Islamic world, and in 900, it was introduced to Spain.Other industries include pottery, metal manufacturing, soap and spices.
Such a prosperous economy, spread throughout the vast Abbasid empire, inspired unprecedented extensive trade between regions.As mentioned in the previous chapter, Muslim merchants either passed through Central Asia by land, or did business with India, Ceylon, Southeast Asia and China by water.They also traded extensively with Africa, obtaining gold, ivory, ebony, and slaves.A large number of Muslim coins found in Scandinavia from the 7th to the 11th centuries attest to the trade of Muslim merchants with the northern countries.They exchanged these currencies for furs, wax, amber, honey, and cattle.Such extensive trade has promoted the rapid development of the banking industry. As a result, branches have been set up in major cities, and checks drawn in Baghdad can be cashed in Morocco.
With a solid economic foundation, the Abbasid caliphs indulged in their extravagant palaces.Describes the most famous caliph, Harun Rashid (786-809), as a dissolute and cultured ruler, surrounded by a group of poets, musicians, singers, dancers, scholars and wits.Common indoor games are chess, dice and backgammon; outdoor sports include hunting, falconry, falconry, polo, archery, fencing, javelin throwing and horseback riding competitions.Harlan and Charlemagne were in the same era, but their respective capitals, Baghdad and Aix-la-Chapelle, are simply incomparable, just as Baghdad today cannot be compared with Paris, but the positions of the two need to be reversed. At the beginning of the 10th century, although a Byzantine envoy was familiar with the prosperity of Constantinople, what he saw and heard in Baghdad still left a deep impression on him.He spoke of the 23 palaces here, each with thousands of carpets and tapestries; , there are all kinds of domestic animals and wild animals.
The Abbasid dynasty was not only famous for its wealth and luxury, but also for its relatively free religious belief for a period of time. Obviously, this was absolutely absent in the West at that time.Sharia law can be used to illustrate this point to a certain extent.This divine law recognizes that Christians and Jews are followers of the Bible, just as Muslims are.Both have a holy book, the written book of revelation.Their faith was considered true, but not complete, because Muhammad had replaced Moses and Jesus Christ.Therefore, although Islam tolerates Christians and Jews and allows them to adhere to their beliefs, it carries certain restrictions and penalties.
For example, Caliph Harun ordered that all churches erected after the Muslim conquest must be demolished and all non-Muslims, i.e. Dimi, must wear prescribed attire.Harun's grandson also issued a decree: Christians and Jews must stick wooden devil images on the walls of their houses; they can only ride mules equipped with wooden saddles.Sharia judges also rule that the testimony of Christians or Jews against Muslims should not be accepted.Dimi always pay much more tax than Muslims.Obviously, they are second-class citizens.Their position, however, was somewhat superior to that of similar pagans in the West.They can maintain their original beliefs, enjoy normal property ownership, and belong to certain guilds.They were often appointed to serve in the state's higher institutions and, unlike the Jews and Muslims who had been treated in Spain after the Christian conquest of Spain, were not required to participate in jihad and were not exiled.
The Abbasid dynasty was also renowned for its achievements in the field of science.Admittedly, the tendency here is to preserve and develop what is already there, rather than to create something new.The greatest scientist Biruni (973-1048) once said: "We should be limited to doing what the ancients did, and perfecting what can be perfected." Its connections, its extraordinarily rich heritage from the great centers of civilization, contributed greatly to the genuine achievements of Islamic science.For example, Baghdad, known as the "city of wisdom", has a group of translators, a library, an observatory and a school.Scholars there translated and studied the works of Greek scientists and philosophers, as well as Persian and Indian scientific treatises.
In astronomy, Muslims generally accepted the basic principles of the pre-Greeks without major theoretical breakthroughs.But they continued the astronomical observations of the ancients without interruption, allowing Renaissance astronomers to obtain records for about 900 years, providing the basis for their major discoveries.Muslims are very interested in mathematics because it is needed for both astronomy and business.Due to the influence of Babylon and India, they made great progress in mathematics, especially in popularizing the Indian decimal algorithm (see Chapter 9, Section 5).Although it is mistaken for Arabic numerals, this system can be used for arithmetic just as the alphabet was invented earlier for writing.It democratizes mathematics, making it suitable for everyday use by non-experts.The greatest mathematician of Islam, Muhammad ibn Musa (780-85O), was a Persian. He was named Huarazmi because he was born in Huacizimo (now Jifa) in the east of the Caspian Sea.His algebra text, written in Indian numerals, systematically expounded the earliest tables of trigonometric functions, used by both East and West for many centuries.He also co-edited an encyclopedia of geography together with other scholars.
In geography, as in astronomy, Muslims theoretically achieved little.But the huge empire territory and wide range of trade enabled them to accumulate systematic and reliable information about the Eurasian continent.For example, Biruni's famous work on India not only describes the geographical features of the country, but also describes the social system, religious beliefs and scientific achievements of the Indians.It can be said that at this point, until the 18th century, no one could match him.Muslims also drew nautical charts and maps.In these maps, Muslims are naturally centered on Mecca, just as Christian cartographers of the time were centered on Jerusalem.
Islamic medicine was also based on Greek medicine, but the greater geographic expansion of Islam brought Muslims knowledge of new diseases and medicines.They added ambergris, camphor, cinnamon, cloves, mercury, senna, and myrrh to ancient pharmacopoeias; and introduced new agents such as treacle, medicinal sugar water, and rosewater.Indeed, Arab medicines topped the list of cargoes shipped by Italian captains in the ports of the Middle East.Anesthesia with inhaled drugs began to be practiced in some surgical procedures; hibiscus and other drugs were used as pain relievers.Muslims were the first to build pharmacies and dispensaries, and founded the first pharmacy schools in the Middle Ages: practitioners were required to pass a national examination and obtain a license before they could operate; they also opened well-equipped hospitals, of which about 30 are known today .The famous Muslim doctors Muhammad Razi (844-926) and Abu Ali Hussein ibn Sina (98O-1037), who were honored by Europeans as "Razis" and "Avicenna", Years), are outstanding figures with profound knowledge from astronomy to botany, chemistry, etc. Their works have been used as textbooks in European medical schools until the 17th century.
Manuscripts of the Fourteenth Century: Avicenna and Scholars.
The contributions made by Muslims in chemistry are of even greater significance to the overall progress of science.To the traditions and practices of the Babylonians, Egyptians, and Greeks they added the extensive chemical knowledge of the Indians and Chinese; : The Philosopher's Stone that can turn base metals into precious metals and the golden elixir that can extend life infinitely.However, Muslim papers show that they were the first to develop cutting-edge experimental techniques dealing with medicines, salts and precious metals.As a result, they were able to develop local chemical industries producing soda, alum, ferric sulfate, nitrates, and other salts suitable for industry, especially textiles.
The Arabs consider their highest achievement to be poetry.Poems before Islam used to have public and social functions, and poets often appeared as eulogists or satirists.Describing war, advocating bravery, singing love, praising benefactors, cursing enemies, and praising tribes or camels, horses, etc. are the themes of poetry.Arabic poetry was enriched by the contributions of many non-Arabs, especially Persians, during the Abbasid period.However, Arabic literature has not borrowed from Greco-Roman literature at all, which is why it has always been unfamiliar and unknown to Westerners.Muslim scientists are gradually becoming familiar to Westerners, but Muslim poets are unknown.Even today, however, the Arabs find much joy and inspiration in their poetry, which has a monotonous rhythm, an intoxicating verbal effect, and a hypnotic power.
Apart from their own achievements, Muslims also made outstanding contributions in translating and adapting classical works.The Umayyad Caliph did not trust any non-Arabs and was not interested in their civilization.The Abbasid Caliph was different.They had strong support from Christians, Jews, and Persian Zoroastrians, and they were more generous. Baghdad, the "City of Wisdom", has a large number of translators. Among them, the famous Hounain Ibn and Ishaq (809-573) are Christians. He once visited Greek-speaking countries; collected manuscripts, and Assistants translated many works together, including works by Hippocrates, Galen, Euclid, Ptolemy, Plato and Aristotle.Another major translation center was in the city of Toledo in Muslim Spain. In the 12th and 13th centuries, the translators here included Jews, Spaniards and foreign scholars from all over Europe. This activity has far-reaching significance, because Western Europeans have no direct understanding of Greek knowledge, and even have not known its existence for a long time. Therefore , this scholarly achievement of the Muslims served to preserve the Greek classics until Western Europe was ready to resume their studies.
Finally, it should be emphasized that two fundamental ties, Arabic and Islam, united the various peoples of the Caliphate.The spread of Arabic is more remarkable than the conquest of the Arabs.到11 世纪时，它已代替古希腊语、拉丁语、科普特语和阿拉术语，在从摩洛哥到波斯的广大地区盛行，并一直持续到今天。这一人们共同使用的语言说明，在这一地区，尽管有苏丹黑人以及占优势的闪米特人，有基督教黎巴嫩人、科普特埃及人以及占优势的穆斯林，但却存在着一种彼此相同的感情。甚至在这片已经永久地被阿拉伯化的辽阔地区之外，阿拉伯语对其他穆斯林语也产生了深远的影响。阿拉伯语汇在这些语言中，如希腊和拉丁语汇在英语中一样被普遍使用；其中有些语言（乌尔都语、马来语、斯瓦希里语和一次世界大战前的土耳其语）都是用阿拉伯文字母拼写的。
伊斯兰教也是一条强有力的纽带，一条比基督教更有力得多的纽带，因为它不仅是一种信仰，而且是社会的和政治的体系以及生活的总方法（见本章第二节）。如同语言为阿拉伯世界打下基础一样，宗教信仰也为伊斯兰教文明提供了基础。众所周知，伊斯兰教文明在征服后几个世纪中，逐渐发展成为一种带有基督教、犹太教、琐罗亚斯德教和阿拉伯宗教的成分，带有希腊-罗马、波斯-美索不达亚米的行政、文化和科学各成分的综合体。因此，它不仅仅是古代各种文化的拼凑，而是原有文明的新的综合。它虽然来源不一，但却明显带有阿拉伯伊斯兰教的特征。
哈伦·赖世德统治时朝，阿拔斯王朝达到鼎盛，随即便衰落下去，其情景使人联想起罗马帝国的崩溃。首先存在着帝国疆域广阔这样一个问题，这在用马和船只作为交通工具的时代里，是一个非常实际的问题。边远省份远离首都达3000英里，因此，不足为奇，西班牙于756年、摩洛哥于788年、突尼斯于800年，首先摆脱了帝国的统治。
同罗马帝国的情况一样，阿拉伯帝国也存在着开支问题；就当时的经济和技术而言，帝国的开支显然过大，无力补偿。巴格达朝廷的极度奢侈和日益庞大的官僚机构的浩大开支，超过了技术的发展，结果，财政危机迫使哈里发委派各省总督为当地税务的包收者。这些总督用他们征来的税收，支付地方军队和官员的薪俸，并向国库交纳指定的款额。这一情况使总督兼包税人不久便和军事将领达成协议，两者一起成为各省的实际统治者。到9世纪中叶，哈里发已失去对军事和行政的控制，并逐渐被土耳其雇用军随意废立。13世纪，穆林斯历史学家邦德里，清楚地描述了由中央集权制帝国向封建自治国家过渡的情况：
毫无例外，帝国的衰弱导致了蛮族的入侵。正如罗马帝国遭到来自莱茵河和多瑙河对岸的侵略一样，哈里发统治这时也遭受了来自北部、南部和东部的进攻。十字军由北入侵占领了西班牙。西西里和叙亚利，而这三个地区穆斯林的不和却便利于这一入侵。在西西里岛；1040年，当地王朝灭亡后爆发了内战，这对诺曼人从意人利南部入侵该岛十分有利。到1091年时，整个西西里岛被征服，混杂的基督教-穆斯林居民沦于诺曼底国王的统治。
迪奥斯科里斯手稿中的一页：咳嗽药的配方和一位正在配制此药的医生。阿拉伯人对医学界的贡献是相当大的；大批药品由意大利船只运往欧洲。
同样，在西班牙，伍麦叶王朝于1031 年被推翻，整个国家分裂成许多小国，由各“党派”即代表各民族的宗派统治。这些民族包括阿拉伯人、柏柏尔人、当地前穆斯林伊比利亚人和“斯拉夫人”。斯拉夫人，即欧洲奴隶，主要来自中欧和东欧。他们同突厥人受阿拔斯王朝雇佣一样，被伍麦叶王朝雇来充当雇佣军，并象突厥人那样，最终统治了他们的主人。穆斯林西班牙的分裂，使北部基督教国家能向南扩张。到1085年，他们占领了重要城市托莱多。到13世纪末，穆斯林只剩下半岛最南端的格拉纳达。
西西里岛和西班牙失陷于基督教国家是长期的，但叙利亚的情况则不同。这里，几个穆斯林国家自相残杀的战争，使十字军从1096 年起迅速向前推进，抵达叙利亚海岸，进入巴勒斯坦，建立了四个国家：埃泽萨伯国（1078年）、安条克公国（1098年）、耶路撒冷王国（1O99年）和特里波利伯国（1109年）。这些国家都以西方封建方式建成，然而，它们缺乏根基，从未同化穆斯林阿拉伯臣民。它们的存在依靠欧洲零星到达的援兵的支持。而且，这些国家都位于沿海地区，很容易遭受内地组织的抵抗运动的袭击。但只要周围的穆斯林世界处于分裂状态，这些国家就能生存下去。萨拉赫丁，即西方人所称的萨拉丁，结束了这种分裂状态。他统一了穆斯林叙利亚和埃及，包围了十字军公国，于1187年开始反攻。他在1193年逝世以前已收复了耶路撒冷，把西方人从所有地区驱除出去，只剩下一条狭长的沿海地区。随后一个世纪中，这一地区也被占领，穆斯林的再征服宣告完成。
除北面这些十字军的猛攻外，哈里发统治还遭到了来自摩洛哥南部、塞内加尔和尼日尔地区的柏柏尔人，以及上埃及地区的希拉勒和苏莱姆两个阿拉伯贝都因部落的进攻。这些部落席卷利比亚和突尼斯，到处劫掠破坏。正是这一入侵，而不是更早的7世纪阿拉伯人的入侵摧毁了北非文明。14世纪阿拉伯著名的历史学家、北非人伊本·赫勒敦，这样记载了他的祖国所遭到的破坏：
最后，第三股侵略军是来自东方的突厥人和蒙古人。他们的入侵持续了好几个世纪，所侵略的地区实际上包括整个欧亚大陆，从而构成了世界历史上重要的一章。突厥人和蒙古人的侵略范围及其影响，完全可以和阿拉伯伊斯兰教的征服相匹敌。实际上，这两者间存在着密切的关系，许多突厥人和蒙古人皈依了伊斯兰教，随后，又将池们的信仰扩张到遥远的新地区。下章将叙述突厥人和蒙古人的侵略过程及其意义。
On the front of the flag it is written: "There is no god but Allah"; horse-riding musicians participate in the biggest festival of Muslims - the festival.This festival marks the final date of the annual pilgrimage to Mecca.
Based in Medina, Muhammad organized the attack on the Mecca caravans.Such raids are a generally accepted economic activity among Arab nomads.Today, they gather under the banner of the "Prophet", hoping to obtain the spoils and, by the way, the salvation of their souls.By 630, Muslims were strong enough to occupy Mecca; in Mecca, Muhammad made the black stone housed in the Kaaba a holy object of worship in Islam.So he reconciled, preserving the fundamental tenets of Islam and rooting them in traditional Arab customs.By the time of Muhammad's death in 632, most Arab tribes—though not all—had recognized his supremacy and paid him tribute.
In the past, in his own country, Muhammad had seen some idolatrous ceremonies.Now he brought to it a religion and an apocalyptic canon, a well organized and armed society and state that ruled the whole peninsula.Within a century, his followers went from victory to victory, building a mighty empire across Eurasia, and spreading his teachings.Today, this religion has 500 million adherents in the world.If the influence on the development of events is used as the standard, Muhammad is undoubtedly a giant in history.
Just because Muslim society was the product of Muhammad's genius, after his death, the various components of this society may be divided.Tribal chiefs believed that their obedience to Muhammad ended with his death.So they stopped paying tribute and regained their freedom of movement.This withdrawal, known in Islamic history as apostasy, or apostasy, sparked a series of planned wars.These wars subdued the "apostate" tribes and forced them to return to Islamic society.However, the members of the conquered tribe were sullen and disaffected, apparently rebelling at the first opportunity.The ideal way to disintegrate is to carry out foreign raids with the promise of the spoils that every Bedouin would love, so these raids do not start out as religious wars preaching doctrine.Muhammad did not expect that the Islamic Church became a worldwide faith, nor did he think that God had chosen him to preach to people other than Arabs.Precisely the need to keep the riotous Bedouins single-mindedly loyal to Medina was what led the Arabs to attack.
The leader of these raids was the caliph, or vicar, who was chosen to take the temporal place of the prophet.The Caliph was undoubtedly the successor of the Prophet Muhammad, but was primarily the secular head of society.Therefore, the election of Muhammad's father-in-law Abu Bakr as caliph only means that he is the protector of Islam, not the religious leader.It was under the leadership of Abu Bakr that the apostate tribes were forced to return to the ranks of believers, and the Arabs began their earliest foreign aggression.
In 634 Umar was elected caliph in succession to Wemb Bakr, and under his leadership the early aggression developed into a formal war of conquest.The reason for this is that the seemingly powerful Byzantine Empire and the Persian Empire soon exposed the essence of being strong on the outside but doing nothing on the inside.Not only were they weakened by a series of wars between the two countries, but their people were extremely disaffected by heavy taxes and religious persecution.Moreover, as entire tribes migrated north from all parts of the Arabian peninsula, attracted by fascinating legends of wealth, Muslim armies changed from small raiding parties to massive armed forces, and anyone who wanted them to return to their barren homeland Any attempt will lead to a new, possibly fatal "renegade".As a result, Muslim chiefs led Bedouin armies into Syria.Thus, the great conquests that followed show that they were not Islamic aggressions but expansions of Arab tribes.During the first few centuries, these expansions went north into the Fertile Crescent several times.The scale of this expansion was unprecedented at the time, partly because of the exceptional weakness of the two empires, and partly because of the unity and strength created by the new Islamic faith.
Once the Arabs began to invade, they made full use of their desert combat experience.They fought not on horses like the Byzantines and Persians, but on camels.This allows for an attack at will and, if necessary, retreat to the safety of the desert.Just as the later Vikings were able to plunder the coasts of Europe because they controlled the sea, the Arabs at this time used their "desert ships" to attack wealthy empires.No wonder the Arabs chose the cities on the edge of the desert as their main base in the conquered provinces.When the situation is stable, they use existing cities, such as Damascus; when necessary, they build new cities, such as Kufay and Basra in Iraq, and Fustedt in Egypt. The needs of the Arab Empire, just as Gibraltar, Malta and Singapore later met the needs of the British maritime empire.
In 636 the Arabs decisively defeated the Byzantines in the Yarmouk Valley, a tributary of the Jordan River.They attacked in a blinding sandstorm and almost wiped out the mixed Greek, Armenian and Syrian Christian forces.The emperor Heraclius fled into the monarchy of Constantinople, throwing all of Syria to the victor.Caliph Umar then turned to attack wealthy neighbor Iraq.The Semites there, who had partially converted to Christianity, resented the Persian and Zoroastrian rulers, contributed to the Arab victory. In the summer of 637, the Arabs achieved a great victory in Qadisia; the Persian emperor hurriedly evacuated the capital Tessifon, which was located near Qadisia, and fled eastward.
The astonishing victories of Yarmouk and Qadisiya brought unprecedented wealth to the Muslims, thereby further strengthening the large number of Bedouins from the southern desert.The frontier pressure was irresistible, and the Arab armies rolled onward, westward into Egypt and eastward into Persia.Within two years (639-641) they had conquered all of Egypt, but in Persia they met with staunch resistance for the first time.Although the imperial rule is weak and incompetent.Unpopular, but for the sake of freedom and Zoroastrian faith, the people of the whole nation are ready to fight against the Arab nomads who have always been regarded as the "evil of the desert".As the Muslims advanced, local resistance organized, forcing the invaders to pay a heavy price.Persia was not conquered until 651.Before that, in 644, Umar was assassinated by a Persian captive.
The successors of Umar's caliphate, driven by religious enthusiasm and greed of nomads, continued to raise the banner of Islam and took advantage of the victory to fight abroad.In North Africa, Arab armies, reinforced by local Berber converts, rushed into Morocco and then, across the Strait of Gibraltar, into Spain. In 711 they defeated Rodrigo, the last Visigoth king of Spain, and crossed the Pyrenees into France.However, in 732 they were defeated by Charles Martel at Tours, France.The battle is generally considered a major turning point in Western European history, though it is doubtful that even if the Muslims won, they would continue to push far from home.The same was true of Muslim expansion to the east. In 715 they captured Sindh in northwestern India, but were not able to advance further until centuries later, when Turkic peoples of the same religion invaded India from the north.Similarly, in 751, the Muslims defeated the Chinese in Talas in Central Asia, but failed to march on China.Talas, Sind, and the Pyrenees thus became the last limits of Muslim expansion at the level of military technology at that time.
This clearly shows the special significance of the one-year siege (717-718) when the Arabs failed to capture Constantinople.Since Constantinople was so close to the center of the empire, if they captured the city, they would have the potential to capture most of Eastern Europe.Of course, the Muslim Turks of the fifteenth century did exactly that.But if this event had happened about 10 plus years earlier, much of Eastern Europe would have been Arabized and Islamized and become an integral part of what is today the Muslim Middle East.
Despite these failures, the fact remains: what began as a religion in the desert grew into a mighty empire spanning Eurasia in just a century.By 750, Islam ruled a vast area from the Pyrenees to Sind, and from Morocco to the Chinese border (see Figure 13 "The Expansion of Islam before 1500").
After the first phase of expansion was complete, the Arabs settled down and enjoyed the fruits of victory.They are actually the occupying forces of their dependent countries, and most live in military towns, thereby controlling the surrounding countryside.Since the Caliph 'Umar had stipulated that his followers should not have fiefdoms in the occupied provinces, they were now enjoying government subsidies.Funding for these allowances comes from land confiscations by Islamic states and from taxes, which are higher for non-Muslims than for Muslims.Otherwise, non-Muslims were not disturbed or forced to convert.In fact, converting to Islam was extremely unpopular because it meant lower taxes.Therefore, believing in Islam is actually a privilege enjoyed by the Arabian knights and nobles who rule the vast majority of their subjects.
Soon, the growing number of "Mawali", that is, non-Arab Muslims, disrupted this situation.These Protestants flocked to the cities to serve the needs of the Arabs as employees, artisans, shopkeepers and merchants.As Muslims, they demanded equality with Arabs, but they were denied the opportunity. "Mawali" served in the Islamic army, and usually only participated in the war as infantry, because infantry received lower salaries and spoils than Arab cavalry.
As the empire expanded and wealth flowed from the provinces of the vassals into the cities, the "Mavalli" grew in number and wealth, but they were still denied access to the ruling group.Thus, they became unstable factors in the city, determined to achieve a social status equal to their economic power.The Umayyad Caliphate of Arabia, who had moved their capital from Medina to Damascus in 661, was beginning to be viewed with good reason as a parasitic group that had no effect after the war of conquest was completed.Therefore, the resistance movement against the Arab nobility was both a national and a social resistance movement.
The ten-year civil strife that broke out suddenly for the throne ended with the establishment of the Abbasid Caliphate in 750; the significance of the establishment of the Abbasid Dynasty far exceeded the simple change of dynasty. The "Mawali", especially the Persians, now replaced the old surplus of nobles.The Arab military ceased to be a paid and privileged class and was replaced by a royal standing army, which at first consisted mainly of Persians.The former military town has now become a huge commercial center under the control of "McWali".Some Arabs began to join the ranks of citizens and farmers, while others returned to nomadic life.
The structure of the empire also changed radically, notably in 762 when the capital was moved east from Damascus to Baghdad.This actually means that the Abbasid caliphate began to abandon the Mediterranean, accept Persian traditions, and seek Persian support.The caliph was no longer the chieftain of an Arab tribe, but a theocracy, the "shadow of Allah on the earth."Land power did not depend on tribal support, but on a salaried bureaucracy and a standing army.The caliphate thus became an Eastern monarchy, similar to the many village lordships of the former Ctesiphon, Persepolis, and Babylon.Under the order and protection afforded by this monarchy, a hybrid civilization, combining Jewish, Greco-Roman, and Persian-Mesopotamian cultural traditions, developed over the ensuing centuries.Islam is no longer just a code of law for the upper class of knights and nobles, but has become a new and distinctive civilization.
Caliph al-Mansour chose Baghdad as the seat of the Abbasid dynasty and foresaw the glorious vistas of this choice:
Mansur's expectations were quickly fully realized.Within a century, Baghdad's population was about 1 million.In the center of the city was a citadel, about two miles in diameter, containing the caliph's court, the neighbors of the officials, and the barracks of the Janissaries.A huge commercial center was established on the outskirts of the castle, and abundant products were provided by the rich Mesopotamia region.The main crops are wheat, barley, rice, dates and olives.The Abbasid dynasty expanded the area of arable land and increased production by draining swamps and developing irrigation projects.They also lowered taxes and imposed less servitude on peasants than previous rulers.However, this improvement was soon canceled by the speculation of wealthy merchants and landowners, and by the introduction of slave labor on many large estates.
The provinces also provided rich resources of metals such as silver from the Hindu Kush, gold from Nubia and Sudan, copper from Isfahan, and iron from Persia, Central Asia, and Sicily.Gemstones were found in many parts of the empire, and the waters of the Persian Gulf were also rich in pearls.Industry also flourished, the textile industry being the most important in terms of the number of people engaged in production and the value of the output.Linen, cotton, and silk commodities were produced in many places, both for local consumption and for export.Carpet making can be found almost everywhere, but Tabristan and Armenian products are the most outstanding. In 751, many Chinese were captured on the battlefield of Talas; the papermaking technology learned from these captives quickly spread throughout the Islamic world, and in 900, it was introduced to Spain.Other industries include pottery, metal manufacturing, soap and spices.
Such a prosperous economy, spread throughout the vast Abbasid empire, inspired unprecedented extensive trade between regions.As mentioned in the previous chapter, Muslim merchants either passed through Central Asia by land, or did business with India, Ceylon, Southeast Asia and China by water.They also traded extensively with Africa, obtaining gold, ivory, ebony, and slaves.A large number of Muslim coins found in Scandinavia from the 7th to the 11th centuries attest to the trade of Muslim merchants with the northern countries.They exchanged these currencies for furs, wax, amber, honey, and cattle.Such extensive trade has promoted the rapid development of the banking industry. As a result, branches have been set up in major cities, and checks drawn in Baghdad can be cashed in Morocco.
With a solid economic foundation, the Abbasid caliphs indulged in their extravagant palaces.Describes the most famous caliph, Harun Rashid (786-809), as a dissolute and cultured ruler, surrounded by a group of poets, musicians, singers, dancers, scholars and wits.Common indoor games are chess, dice and backgammon; outdoor sports include hunting, falconry, falconry, polo, archery, fencing, javelin throwing and horseback riding competitions.Harlan and Charlemagne were in the same era, but their respective capitals, Baghdad and Aix-la-Chapelle, are simply incomparable, just as Baghdad today cannot be compared with Paris, but the positions of the two need to be reversed. At the beginning of the 10th century, although a Byzantine envoy was familiar with the prosperity of Constantinople, what he saw and heard in Baghdad still left a deep impression on him.He spoke of the 23 palaces here, each with thousands of carpets and tapestries; , there are all kinds of domestic animals and wild animals.
The Abbasid dynasty was not only famous for its wealth and luxury, but also for its relatively free religious belief for a period of time. Obviously, this was absolutely absent in the West at that time.Sharia law can be used to illustrate this point to a certain extent.This divine law recognizes that Christians and Jews are followers of the Bible, just as Muslims are.Both have a holy book, the written book of revelation.Their faith was considered true, but not complete, because Muhammad had replaced Moses and Jesus Christ.Therefore, although Islam tolerates Christians and Jews and allows them to adhere to their beliefs, it carries certain restrictions and penalties.
For example, Caliph Harun ordered that all churches erected after the Muslim conquest must be demolished and all non-Muslims, i.e. Dimi, must wear prescribed attire.Harun's grandson also issued a decree: Christians and Jews must stick wooden devil images on the walls of their houses; they can only ride mules equipped with wooden saddles.Sharia judges also rule that the testimony of Christians or Jews against Muslims should not be accepted.Dimi always pay much more tax than Muslims.Obviously, they are second-class citizens.Their position, however, was somewhat superior to that of similar pagans in the West.They can maintain their original beliefs, enjoy normal property ownership, and belong to certain guilds.They were often appointed to serve in the state's higher institutions and, unlike the Jews and Muslims who had been treated in Spain after the Christian conquest of Spain, were not required to participate in jihad and were not exiled.
The Abbasid dynasty was also renowned for its achievements in the field of science.Admittedly, the tendency here is to preserve and develop what is already there, rather than to create something new.The greatest scientist Biruni (973-1048) once said: "We should be limited to doing what the ancients did, and perfecting what can be perfected." Its connections, its extraordinarily rich heritage from the great centers of civilization, contributed greatly to the genuine achievements of Islamic science.For example, Baghdad, known as the "city of wisdom", has a group of translators, a library, an observatory and a school.Scholars there translated and studied the works of Greek scientists and philosophers, as well as Persian and Indian scientific treatises.
In astronomy, Muslims generally accepted the basic principles of the pre-Greeks without major theoretical breakthroughs.But they continued the astronomical observations of the ancients without interruption, allowing Renaissance astronomers to obtain records for about 900 years, providing the basis for their major discoveries.Muslims are very interested in mathematics because it is needed for both astronomy and business.Due to the influence of Babylon and India, they made great progress in mathematics, especially in popularizing the Indian decimal algorithm (see Chapter 9, Section 5).Although it is mistaken for Arabic numerals, this system can be used for arithmetic just as the alphabet was invented earlier for writing.It democratizes mathematics, making it suitable for everyday use by non-experts.The greatest mathematician of Islam, Muhammad ibn Musa (780-85O), was a Persian. He was named Huarazmi because he was born in Huacizimo (now Jifa) in the east of the Caspian Sea.His algebra text, written in Indian numerals, systematically expounded the earliest tables of trigonometric functions, used by both East and West for many centuries.He also co-edited an encyclopedia of geography together with other scholars.
In geography, as in astronomy, Muslims theoretically achieved little.But the huge empire territory and wide range of trade enabled them to accumulate systematic and reliable information about the Eurasian continent.For example, Biruni's famous work on India not only describes the geographical features of the country, but also describes the social system, religious beliefs and scientific achievements of the Indians.It can be said that at this point, until the 18th century, no one could match him.Muslims also drew nautical charts and maps.In these maps, Muslims are naturally centered on Mecca, just as Christian cartographers of the time were centered on Jerusalem.
Islamic medicine was also based on Greek medicine, but the greater geographic expansion of Islam brought Muslims knowledge of new diseases and medicines.They added ambergris, camphor, cinnamon, cloves, mercury, senna, and myrrh to ancient pharmacopoeias; and introduced new agents such as treacle, medicinal sugar water, and rosewater.Indeed, Arab medicines topped the list of cargoes shipped by Italian captains in the ports of the Middle East.Anesthesia with inhaled drugs began to be practiced in some surgical procedures; hibiscus and other drugs were used as pain relievers.Muslims were the first to build pharmacies and dispensaries, and founded the first pharmacy schools in the Middle Ages: practitioners were required to pass a national examination and obtain a license before they could operate; they also opened well-equipped hospitals, of which about 30 are known today .The famous Muslim doctors Muhammad Razi (844-926) and Abu Ali Hussein ibn Sina (98O-1037), who were honored by Europeans as "Razis" and "Avicenna", Years), are outstanding figures with profound knowledge from astronomy to botany, chemistry, etc. Their works have been used as textbooks in European medical schools until the 17th century.
Manuscripts of the Fourteenth Century: Avicenna and Scholars.
The contributions made by Muslims in chemistry are of even greater significance to the overall progress of science.To the traditions and practices of the Babylonians, Egyptians, and Greeks they added the extensive chemical knowledge of the Indians and Chinese; : The Philosopher's Stone that can turn base metals into precious metals and the golden elixir that can extend life infinitely.However, Muslim papers show that they were the first to develop cutting-edge experimental techniques dealing with medicines, salts and precious metals.As a result, they were able to develop local chemical industries producing soda, alum, ferric sulfate, nitrates, and other salts suitable for industry, especially textiles.
The Arabs consider their highest achievement to be poetry.Poems before Islam used to have public and social functions, and poets often appeared as eulogists or satirists.Describing war, advocating bravery, singing love, praising benefactors, cursing enemies, and praising tribes or camels, horses, etc. are the themes of poetry.Arabic poetry was enriched by the contributions of many non-Arabs, especially Persians, during the Abbasid period.However, Arabic literature has not borrowed from Greco-Roman literature at all, which is why it has always been unfamiliar and unknown to Westerners.Muslim scientists are gradually becoming familiar to Westerners, but Muslim poets are unknown.Even today, however, the Arabs find much joy and inspiration in their poetry, which has a monotonous rhythm, an intoxicating verbal effect, and a hypnotic power.
Apart from their own achievements, Muslims also made outstanding contributions in translating and adapting classical works.The Umayyad Caliph did not trust any non-Arabs and was not interested in their civilization.The Abbasid Caliph was different.They had strong support from Christians, Jews, and Persian Zoroastrians, and they were more generous. Baghdad, the "City of Wisdom", has a large number of translators. Among them, the famous Hounain Ibn and Ishaq (809-573) are Christians. He once visited Greek-speaking countries; collected manuscripts, and Assistants translated many works together, including works by Hippocrates, Galen, Euclid, Ptolemy, Plato and Aristotle.Another major translation center was in the city of Toledo in Muslim Spain. In the 12th and 13th centuries, the translators here included Jews, Spaniards and foreign scholars from all over Europe. This activity has far-reaching significance, because Western Europeans have no direct understanding of Greek knowledge, and even have not known its existence for a long time. Therefore , this scholarly achievement of the Muslims served to preserve the Greek classics until Western Europe was ready to resume their studies.
Finally, it should be emphasized that two fundamental ties, Arabic and Islam, united the various peoples of the Caliphate.The spread of Arabic is more remarkable than the conquest of the Arabs.到11 世纪时，它已代替古希腊语、拉丁语、科普特语和阿拉术语，在从摩洛哥到波斯的广大地区盛行，并一直持续到今天。这一人们共同使用的语言说明，在这一地区，尽管有苏丹黑人以及占优势的闪米特人，有基督教黎巴嫩人、科普特埃及人以及占优势的穆斯林，但却存在着一种彼此相同的感情。甚至在这片已经永久地被阿拉伯化的辽阔地区之外，阿拉伯语对其他穆斯林语也产生了深远的影响。阿拉伯语汇在这些语言中，如希腊和拉丁语汇在英语中一样被普遍使用；其中有些语言（乌尔都语、马来语、斯瓦希里语和一次世界大战前的土耳其语）都是用阿拉伯文字母拼写的。
伊斯兰教也是一条强有力的纽带，一条比基督教更有力得多的纽带，因为它不仅是一种信仰，而且是社会的和政治的体系以及生活的总方法（见本章第二节）。如同语言为阿拉伯世界打下基础一样，宗教信仰也为伊斯兰教文明提供了基础。众所周知，伊斯兰教文明在征服后几个世纪中，逐渐发展成为一种带有基督教、犹太教、琐罗亚斯德教和阿拉伯宗教的成分，带有希腊-罗马、波斯-美索不达亚米的行政、文化和科学各成分的综合体。因此，它不仅仅是古代各种文化的拼凑，而是原有文明的新的综合。它虽然来源不一，但却明显带有阿拉伯伊斯兰教的特征。
哈伦·赖世德统治时朝，阿拔斯王朝达到鼎盛，随即便衰落下去，其情景使人联想起罗马帝国的崩溃。首先存在着帝国疆域广阔这样一个问题，这在用马和船只作为交通工具的时代里，是一个非常实际的问题。边远省份远离首都达3000英里，因此，不足为奇，西班牙于756年、摩洛哥于788年、突尼斯于800年，首先摆脱了帝国的统治。
同罗马帝国的情况一样，阿拉伯帝国也存在着开支问题；就当时的经济和技术而言，帝国的开支显然过大，无力补偿。巴格达朝廷的极度奢侈和日益庞大的官僚机构的浩大开支，超过了技术的发展，结果，财政危机迫使哈里发委派各省总督为当地税务的包收者。这些总督用他们征来的税收，支付地方军队和官员的薪俸，并向国库交纳指定的款额。这一情况使总督兼包税人不久便和军事将领达成协议，两者一起成为各省的实际统治者。到9世纪中叶，哈里发已失去对军事和行政的控制，并逐渐被土耳其雇用军随意废立。13世纪，穆林斯历史学家邦德里，清楚地描述了由中央集权制帝国向封建自治国家过渡的情况：
毫无例外，帝国的衰弱导致了蛮族的入侵。正如罗马帝国遭到来自莱茵河和多瑙河对岸的侵略一样，哈里发统治这时也遭受了来自北部、南部和东部的进攻。十字军由北入侵占领了西班牙。西西里和叙亚利，而这三个地区穆斯林的不和却便利于这一入侵。在西西里岛；1040年，当地王朝灭亡后爆发了内战，这对诺曼人从意人利南部入侵该岛十分有利。到1091年时，整个西西里岛被征服，混杂的基督教-穆斯林居民沦于诺曼底国王的统治。
迪奥斯科里斯手稿中的一页：咳嗽药的配方和一位正在配制此药的医生。阿拉伯人对医学界的贡献是相当大的；大批药品由意大利船只运往欧洲。
同样，在西班牙，伍麦叶王朝于1031 年被推翻，整个国家分裂成许多小国，由各“党派”即代表各民族的宗派统治。这些民族包括阿拉伯人、柏柏尔人、当地前穆斯林伊比利亚人和“斯拉夫人”。斯拉夫人，即欧洲奴隶，主要来自中欧和东欧。他们同突厥人受阿拔斯王朝雇佣一样，被伍麦叶王朝雇来充当雇佣军，并象突厥人那样，最终统治了他们的主人。穆斯林西班牙的分裂，使北部基督教国家能向南扩张。到1085年，他们占领了重要城市托莱多。到13世纪末，穆斯林只剩下半岛最南端的格拉纳达。
西西里岛和西班牙失陷于基督教国家是长期的，但叙利亚的情况则不同。这里，几个穆斯林国家自相残杀的战争，使十字军从1096 年起迅速向前推进，抵达叙利亚海岸，进入巴勒斯坦，建立了四个国家：埃泽萨伯国（1078年）、安条克公国（1098年）、耶路撒冷王国（1O99年）和特里波利伯国（1109年）。这些国家都以西方封建方式建成，然而，它们缺乏根基，从未同化穆斯林阿拉伯臣民。它们的存在依靠欧洲零星到达的援兵的支持。而且，这些国家都位于沿海地区，很容易遭受内地组织的抵抗运动的袭击。但只要周围的穆斯林世界处于分裂状态，这些国家就能生存下去。萨拉赫丁，即西方人所称的萨拉丁，结束了这种分裂状态。他统一了穆斯林叙利亚和埃及，包围了十字军公国，于1187年开始反攻。他在1193年逝世以前已收复了耶路撒冷，把西方人从所有地区驱除出去，只剩下一条狭长的沿海地区。随后一个世纪中，这一地区也被占领，穆斯林的再征服宣告完成。
除北面这些十字军的猛攻外，哈里发统治还遭到了来自摩洛哥南部、塞内加尔和尼日尔地区的柏柏尔人，以及上埃及地区的希拉勒和苏莱姆两个阿拉伯贝都因部落的进攻。这些部落席卷利比亚和突尼斯，到处劫掠破坏。正是这一入侵，而不是更早的7世纪阿拉伯人的入侵摧毁了北非文明。14世纪阿拉伯著名的历史学家、北非人伊本·赫勒敦，这样记载了他的祖国所遭到的破坏：
最后，第三股侵略军是来自东方的突厥人和蒙古人。他们的入侵持续了好几个世纪，所侵略的地区实际上包括整个欧亚大陆，从而构成了世界历史上重要的一章。突厥人和蒙古人的侵略范围及其影响，完全可以和阿拉伯伊斯兰教的征服相匹敌。实际上，这两者间存在着密切的关系，许多突厥人和蒙古人皈依了伊斯兰教，随后，又将池们的信仰扩张到遥远的新地区。下章将叙述突厥人和蒙古人的侵略过程及其意义。