Chapter 14 Chapter 10 Chinese Civilization
Compared with the disunity and discontinuity of Indian civilization, Chinese civilization is characterized by unity and continuity.China's development was not like what happened in India after the arrival of the Aryans or the Muslims or the British, without a noticeable sudden stop.Of course, many nomadic tribes invaded China and even took over certain dynasties; Sinicization.
The reason is that China is relatively isolated from the world, it is only invaded by nomads from the Northwest.China did not need to deal with the groups of peoples who invaded India with more complex cultures and thus were able to maintain their racial and cultural characteristics to varying degrees.The Chinese were originally Mongoloids, and as they expanded eastward into the Pacific Ocean and southward into Vietnam, they assimilated wandering invaders and more primitive tribes.Thus, the Chinese have shared one race and one culture throughout their history.In classical times this identity was further strengthened, as we shall see, when the Chinese unified their writing, which enabled intercourse between speakers of very different dialects.Unlike India, there are still 14 "national languages" today; English is one of them, and in Nehru's words, it acts as a "link" among the other 13 languages.
As important as cultural identity is in China, there has been an astonishing political unity across periods.This can be explained to a considerable extent by the peculiar secularism of Chinese civilization, the only great civilization which has not at any time produced a priestly class.It is true that the emperor was also a priest, who offered sacrifices to heaven for the benefit of all his subjects, but his religious duties were always secondary to his ruling duties.Therefore, the great divisions between priests and laity, between church and state that existed in other Eurasian civilizations did not exist in China.China also has nothing comparable to Indian epics, because Indian epics are full of metaphysics, and their content is mostly related to the salvation of individual souls.Chinese classics all emphasize the life of people in society, especially the relationship between family members and between the king and his subjects.This strong preference for the mundane provides a solid, fundamental basis for political organization and stability.And this foundation was further strengthened by a unique system practiced by the Chinese during these centuries - the selection of civil servants on the basis of national competitive examinations.It took two thousand years for anything like this to appear in the West or anywhere else.
The historical background described above can be used to help explain the Chinese civilization and Chinese history that this chapter will describe.
The Eastern Zhou Dynasty (771-256 B.C.) was an eventful period on the surface, when the dynasty was weak and the feudal lords fought each other endlessly (see Chapter 6, Section 4).However, it was also a period of fundamental social and economic changes that determined and permanently determined the course of China's development.The root cause of the change, as in India, was the adoption of iron.Iron was introduced into China very late, and did not appear in large quantities until around 600 BC.However, by the 5th and 1st centuries BC, it had left its mark on Chinese society and the Chinese government.
The manner in which iron affects is well known.New, more efficient iron tools made possible the expansion of agriculture southward from the former headwaters of the Yellow River to the heavily forested Yangtze River basin (equivalent to the expansion from India's Indus Valley to the Ganges River basin).Iron tools also facilitated the extensive drainage of watershed areas, the digging of canals to transport large quantities of goods over long distances, and the irrigation of the arid Northwest.
All of this meant a huge increase in productivity, which in turn boosted trade and industry and eventually commoditized much of the economy.Currency has been in use since earlier times, often in the form of seashells.Now copper coins have appeared and are increasingly used in various economic sectors.In the process of economic commercialization, a new class of merchants and craftsmen emerged.Free and wealthy, they no longer relied on the feudal lord as they had in the past; instead, they formed a new monetary aristocracy, and soon challenged the supremacy of the feudal lord.
As the economy commoditized, land became a property that could be bought and sold freely.Wealthy merchants acquired large amounts of land. In order to increase their income, the nobles no longer collected a certain amount of land rent from the village chiefs as in the past, but sent people to directly demand more land rent from the peasants.
Accompanying the economic change came a major political change, that is, the feudal system was transformed into a centralized system.Economic development and economic commodification provided the rulers of various feudal states with the financial resources necessary to establish centralization.At that time, a lot of land was newly reclaimed. The management of these lands was not within the scope of feudal relations, so the land rent was directly paid to the treasury of the princes, which especially increased the financial resources necessary for the establishment of centralization.In addition, the princes also increasingly monopolized the production and distribution of salt and iron for profit.As a result, the vassals were able to transform the fiefs formerly assigned to the nobility into administrative units run by officials from their own central government.This process of development was slow, but where it occurred, it greatly increased the wealth and power of the rulers, and correspondingly weakened the Chou dynasty in the capital.In fact, one of the basic reasons why the Qin rulers were able to successfully conquer the whole of China was that they took the above-mentioned measures first and benefited from them.We will discuss the Qin Dynasty in the third section of this chapter.
The chaos and reforms we discussed earlier have deeply affected Chinese thought, forcing them to reassess their own traditions, either to abandon them, or to adapt them to the needs of the times.Thus, the Eastern Zhou period was a period of great ideological and cultural change and creativity, reminiscent of the achievements of the Greek rationalist philosophers and Indian Tantras and other religious reformers under similar circumstances.
Because of the mundane nature of Chinese civilization, outstanding Chinese thinkers tended to be first and foremost practical statesmen, interested in winning over the acceptance of their views by the rulers of various countries.In the process of traveling and debating, they attracted believers and gradually formed various philosophical schools.At that time, thinking was so active that the Chinese called this period the period of "Hundred Schools of Thought".Here, we will explore several schools that have existed for many centuries and have had a significant impact on the development of Chinese civilization.
Although the founders of these schools were often bold reformers, they almost all believed in a golden age in the distant past and longed to be inspired by this golden age.This tendency is seen in most civilizations.The Golden Age is not only present in Chinese writings, but is also described in Aeneid, Vedas.But awareness and worship of the past are particularly strong among the Chinese.They therefore carefully preserved and studied the earlier writings, which they regarded as essential for the conduct of private and public affairs.
The most important of these ancient writings is the Five Classics, which is associated with Confucianism.According to the order in which they are usually discussed, the first is, that is, the book of divination.The book is full of folk omens and divination.For example:
The second is "Shu Jing", the history book.This book is composed of historical documents and speeches from the early Zhou Dynasty, although some of the materials are now known to be forged by later generations.The third volume, the collection of poems, consists of about 300 poems, most of which date from the early Zhou Dynasty.The fourth is the Lijing, the Book of Rites, which compiles from the broadest philosophical insights to the most detailed rules of conduct in daily life.The last is the "Spring and Autumn Classics", a short chronological history book that records major events that affected or took place in Lu from 722 to 481 BC.The state of Lu was the homeland of Confucius, and this chronicle was compiled by Confucius in accordance with tradition and based on earlier local records.
The most outstanding philosophical teacher who turned from these classics to study and use them was Confucius.His influence was so far-reaching and long-lasting that the Chinese way of life over the past 2000 years can be justly characterized by one word, "Confucianism."Confucius (the Latin name for Confucius, or Master Kong) was born in 551 BC to a poor family of lower nobility who had to succeed in this world.But the world he faced at that time was hopeless, full of feudal separatist chaos, and no higher power could win the loyalty of the people no matter in terms of religion or secularism.This situation drove Confucius to travel among the courts, hoping to find a ruler who would adopt his ideas about ideal politics.He did hold a few smaller offices, but his influence on actual politics was so insignificant that he turned to educating the young, hoping that they would carry out his teachings more effectively.
Confucius finally discovered his strengths and made use of them.He proved himself to be a teacher with rare enthusiasm and adept at teaching.His teachings and his personal character are recorded in a book, the oldest copy of which seems to have been made about a hundred years after his death.The book is not an epic of self-sacrifice ending in martyrdom, but it is the fascinating record of a man's personality—wise, benevolent, troubled by his adult folly; , in addition, he has a desirable sense of humor.
Confucius' teachings are fundamentally conservative.He did not intend to damage the existing social order and social relations, and advocated "the monarch, the ministers, the father and the son".However, while he insisted that the ruler has the power to rule, he also insisted that the ruler should rule on the basis of correct moral principles.Like Plato, he wanted kings to be sages; he thought they could be sages if they possessed the five virtues of a gentleman—honesty, integrity, loyalty, grace, and benevolence (that is, empathy).
Confucius was also a rationalist in the age of serious superstition and fear of the supernatural.People believed in the prophetic importance of dreams, various forms of divination, and the fearsome power of the spirits of the dead.Although Confucius recognized ghosts and gods, he basically ignored them in his teachings.He said, "Knowing what you know is knowing, not knowing what you don't know." He also said, "If you don't know life, how can you know death?"
Confucius' teachings were not generally accepted, let alone implemented, during his lifetime.But they eventually caught on and became the official teachings of the state.One reason for this is that his views are fundamentally conservative and he accepts the status quo, which is naturally welcomed by the rulers at the top.Another reason is his emphasis on moral principles, which he insists are a prerequisite for the proper exercise of power.Finally, Confucius offers a philosophy of officialdom for the officials who became essential with the establishment of the imperial government two and a half centuries after his death.As a prominent Confucian scholar reminded the founder of the Han Dynasty, "You can win the world on horseback, but you cannot rule the world on horseback."
In the 2nd century BC, the teachings of Confucius were proclaimed the official teaching of the empire, and his classic works became the main study object of scholars and statesmen.Until more than 2000 years later, that is, until the fall of the Manchu Dynasty in 1911, Confucianism has been dominant in China.In fact, even after that, the influence of Confucius continued to exist, because the commander-in-chief Chiang Kai-shek advocated dedicating himself to Confucianism and applying the principles of Confucianism to solve the problems of the Republic of China.Until now, Taiwan's nationalist regime still celebrates Confucius' birthday as a national holiday, Teacher's Day.
After Confucianism, the most influential philosophy in China is Taoism.This is understandable, because the two theories just complement each other and meet the intellectual and emotional needs of the Chinese people.Confucianism emphasizes etiquette, obedience, and social responsibility, while Taoism emphasizes individual whims and obedience to the great patterns of nature.This model is interpreted as "Tao", that is, "Road", so followers of Taoism are now called Taoists.The key to obeying the Tao is to abandon ambition, avoid honor and responsibility, and return to nature in meditation.The ideal subject has big bones, strong muscles, and an empty head; the ideal ruler is one who "governs the people .
Completely different from Confucianism and Taoism is Legalism.The Legalists were practical statesmen, not philosophers; they were concerned with reforming society in order to strengthen the princes they served so that they could wage war and unify the country by force.They believe that the existence of nobles is out of date and should be eliminated by the military force of the country; while the masses of the people need to be forced to engage in productive labor.They regard businessmen and scholars as dispensable or superfluous, and therefore cannot be tolerated.Every aspect of life is regulated in detail by laws, which are made specifically to promote the economic and military power of the nation.The behavior of rulers should not be guided by the traditional virtues of benevolence and justice praised by Confucian scholars, but by the needs of real politics, no matter what the content of these needs.
Pottery: Archer, possibly Yan Mo, the god of death, this glazed pottery figure was found in a Tang Dynasty tomb and is now on display at the Victoria & Albert Museum in London.
When these principles of Legalism were adopted by the Qin rulers, their efficacy was shown.Using these principles, the Qin ruler set out to conquer other princes and establish the first empire.Then they extended the tight organization to the whole country with the usual ruthless means, but the result, as we shall see, was a reverse reaction, which brought down the empire within a few years after the death of its founder.Legalism has been discredited, while Confucianism, as mentioned above, has long been revered as the official teaching.However, in a sense, this is also a victory for the Legalists, because it is a principle of the Legalists that the government should protect and support an official creed.True, the victorious Confucian scholars never unleashed the heresy-persecuting zealotry characteristic of guardians of official orthodoxy; instead, they were content to monopolize social respect and government positions.In this way, other schools of thought were gradually forgotten; Taoism became the religion of the uneducated masses because it absorbed various superstitions and legends about elves and demons spread by the people. tolerant.
In China's thousands of years of history, there have been three great revolutions, which fundamentally changed China's political and social structure.The first occurred in 221 BC, it ended the feudal system of lords and established a centralized empire; the second occurred in 1911, it ended the empire and established the Republic of China; the third occurred in 1949, A regime led by the Communist Party was established.
It was the leaders of Qin who instigated the first great revolution.Qin was located in the Wei River basin in northwestern China. This geographical location itself contributed to Qin's victory, because most of the Wei River basin was difficult to enter and easy to defend.Qin rulers can attack other countries in the east without any worries.The location in a remote area also put the Qin army in a state of combat readiness due to frequent battles against barbarians.In fact, the Qin people were the first Chinese to replace bronze weapons with steel weapons and chariot soldiers with cavalry.Another important factor for Qin's victory is that in 318 BC, Qin occupied the grain-producing Great Plains of Sichuan; The relationship between Macedonia and the Greek city-states is the same.Finally, the Qin rulers were able and ambitious realists who were the first to apply Legalism and concentrate all power in their own hands.
Relying on the above-mentioned favorable conditions, the ruler of Qin continued to expand his territory and conquered one country after another around him.People at the time called "Qin a beast" in fear, and compared Qin's ruthless expansion to "nibbling".By 221 B.C., the ruler of Qin was master of all of China, and he adopted the title of First Emperor.Shi Huang is the "first emperor".His successor will be "the second emperor", so that it will be passed down from generation to generation, "to thousands of generations, and passed on endlessly."
The new emperor began to apply to the whole of China the legalist doctrines that had previously been brilliantly successful in his own country.He abolished all feudal countries and kingdoms, and divided the vast land into several administrative regions, each of which was equipped with a group of officials appointed by the central government and responsible to the central government.He also disarmed all the soldiers except his own army; ordered the old nobles of various countries to be relocated to the capital in order to monitor them;In addition, the new emperor centralized the economy by twisting weights, measures and currency.
From the perspective of later history, one of the most important reforms in China was the abandonment of the language with many writing styles developed earlier in the Kingdom of China, and replaced it with a unified language that can be understood by the whole of China.This unified script, due to the nature of the Chinese script, proved to be a very effective and durable glue for unification.This kind of writing is not based on a number of phonetic symbols representing the phonetic components of a word, but is composed of a large number of written symbols, or Chinese characters, each of which represents an object or an abstract concept.This method is exactly the same as the Western digital representation.Although Westerners can pronounce "5" as five, funf, cinque, or cinq, all Westerners know what the symbol "5" means.The same is the case with ideograms such as Chinese characters, which have meaning but no sound.Like numbers, they can be read, but each reader can pronounce them according to their own dialect.Thus, the new unified script of the Qin Dynasty (which has survived through several revisions until now) was readable and understandable by all educated Chinese, although their dialects were often incomprehensible to each other. Based on For the same reason, this kind of writing can also be understood by foreigners. Therefore, educated Japanese, Koreans or Vietnamese can read Chinese, but they cannot speak a single Chinese character. It is not difficult to imagine the importance of Chinese culture's influence on the entire East Asia.
From the perspective of later history, no matter how well-reasoned these reforms were at that time, they violated many vested interest groups and aroused fierce opposition.This was especially the case with the literati, since the doctrines and policies of the Legalists were their abhorrence.Therefore, the first emperor decided to order the "burning of books", so that the scholars of literati lost their intellectual backing.As a result, all the classics were burned, and only those books of practical value, such as those on medicine, agriculture, and divination, were preserved.However, the "book burning" project actually failed because the literati risked everything to hide the books or memorize them in full before handing them over.Later, after the fall of the Qin Dynasty, most of the works in the traditional literature were restored to their original state due to the previously hidden books and the memories of the old people.However, Qin's persecution effectively suppressed the situation of contention among a hundred schools of thought that was unique to the Zhou period.The golden age of Chinese thought is over.
Losses in knowledge are offset by significant economic benefits from more efficient use of human and natural resources.The unification of weights, measures and currencies facilitated economic development.The Chidao network built centered on the capital and extended to most remote areas in all directions.To maximize the use of these tracks, the emperor unified the axle lengths of Chinese two-wheeled vehicles—a measure necessary because the wheels left deep ruts in the loose sand, making each vehicle Either follow the existing ruts, or adapt them with new axles.The emperor also used the unity and power of the country to expand the border southwards into what is now Vietnam.In the northwest, the nomadic tribes were repelled, and in order to prevent them from making a comeback, the world-famous Great Wall was built.The Great Wall stretches for 1,400 miles from Inner Mongolia in the west to the sea in the east.In order to complete this gigantic project, a lot of lives were spent, so that today, more than 2,000 years later, people still talk about the fact that 1 million people died building the Great Wall, and every stone on the Great Wall is worth a human life.Just as literati cursed the emperor for "burning books", common people cursed the emperor for building the Great Wall.
It was this general aversion, combined with the Qin dynasty's lack of capable successors, that explained the popular rebellion and the collapse of the Qin dynasty in 207 BC, just four years after Shi Huang's death.Yet Qin's reign, though short-lived, left a deep and lasting mark on China.China has changed from a feudal state to a centralized empire, which lasted until the 20th century.It would be appropriate to say that China's Western name (China) comes from Qin (Ch'in).
Qin Shihuang abolished the enfeoffment system in one fell swoop. However, the Han emperor who followed Qin was more practical and cautious. He first restored the enfeoffment system a little bit, and then weakened it to an insignificant point.At the beginning, he granted fiefdoms to his sons and close relatives, but these fiefdoms were smaller than the feudal states of the previous Zhou period; moreover, they were scattered among the administrative districts directly governed by state officials.Later, in 127 BC, the Emperor Han issued another decree, stipulating that the eldest son could only inherit half of the fief, and the remaining fief should be distributed to other children.As a result, fiefdoms continued to shrink and their importance declined, becoming mere large estates.The imperial structure established by Qin Shihuang gradually recovered, but without the original fear and oppression.As a result, the Han Empire prospered for four centuries, about as long as the Roman Empire.
The Han Empire was also similar to the Roman Empire in terms of its vast territory.During the first 60 years, the Han rulers focused on restoring the country's strength and consolidating dynastic rule.However, by the time of the "warrior emperor" Wudi (141-87 BC), the boundaries of the empire had expanded considerably in all directions.The tribal areas to the south were annexed, but centuries of Chinese immigration and assimilation of the local peoples took place before this part of the empire came to be dominated by Chinese-speaking populations.The greatest expansion occurred to the west, where Chinese expeditions through Central Asia established contact with the Kushan Empire in northwestern India, thereby greatly increasing the volume of trade via the Silk Roads (see Chapter VII. Festival).
Late Qin Paintings: The Legendary Emperor Shun and His Court.Among these ministers was Yu the Great (died 2197 BC), who founded the Xia Dynasty, the first dynasty in history.
The nomadic Huns had a great advantage in cavalry because they had a large and inexhaustible supply of horses.In fact, the Chinese had to trade with nomadic tribes for the horses they needed for their cavalry.However, the Chinese had a decisive new weapon, the crossbow, which they invented in the later stages of feudal warfare.The crossbow is equipped with a mechanism for hooking the bowstring, and when the trigger is triggered, the arrow will be shot.Compared with ordinary bows, crossbows have a longer range and stronger penetration.Thanks to this weapon and the various resources at the disposal of the great empire, the territory of China during the Han Dynasty has begun to take on its present scale.
Not only in terms of territory, but also in terms of population, the Han Empire can also be compared with the Roman Empire.The census in AD 1 (which is said to be relatively accurate) showed that there were 12.2 million households in the Han Empire, with a total population of 59.6 million.The population of the Roman Empire during the period of Augustus (27 BC-AD 14) is estimated to be 3000 to 50 million in Europe, slightly less in Asia, and less than 20 million in Africa.
At the head of the Han Empire was the Emperor, who was not only vested with all temporal power but was also responsible for the actual happiness and prosperity of his subjects.The emphasis on the emperor's personal dignity was reflected in every aspect of his daily activities—in the long ceremonies at court or temple he presided over, in the robes prescribed for each occasion, in the presence of large groups of Officials, courtiers, eunuchs, and concubines were by his side, and there were beautiful carriages for his travels, and a grand mausoleum for his body to be buried with solemn ceremony in the future.
Beneath the emperor were two senior officials, the modern equivalent of the chancellor and prime minister.They are in constant contact with the emperor and are responsible for the actual work of the government.Below them are the Jiuqing, who are in charge of the following responsibilities: religious etiquette, palace guards, taking care of imperial chariots and horses, punishing criminals, accepting respect and tribute from foreign leaders, recording the names of the royal family and clan, collecting state taxes, and managing Empire finances.
In addition to the central government, there are local bureaucracies that manage states, counties, counties, and townships in turn.Lower level bureaucrats were assigned tasks such as collecting taxes (whether grain, textiles, or cash), catching criminals, maintaining roads, canals, and granaries, and providing stage horses and a chain of post stations to maintain the empire's postal service.
It is said that in the first century AD, there were 130,000 officials in the bureaucracy, and there was only one official for every 400 or 500 residents on average.The number of officials was small enough compared to the total population; this was typical throughout Chinese history and can be explained by the limited role played by the imperial state.There is a Chinese proverb that says, "Governing a country is like cooking a small fish: don't overdo it."Therefore, the responsibilities of serving the society that are taken for granted in the modern world have not been assumed by successive Chinese governments. The above-mentioned responsibilities of the nine ministers can clearly show this point.Rather, the primary role of the Chinese state was to collect taxes, defend the country from foreign aggression, and consolidate the dynasty from internal subversion.
The bureaucracy is a privileged group, but not hereditary.During the Han Dynasty, a unique system was invented to select civil servants through a national competitive examination.In 124 BC, a kind of imperial university was established, enrolling students specially trained for government departments.The school continued to expand, and by the second half of the 1st century BC, the total number of students reached 3,000; by the end of the Han Dynasty, the total number of students had reached 30,000.When this form of examination was later fully developed, it was held at three levels; passing at any level gave one of the three degrees.These three degrees are roughly equivalent to bachelor's degree, master's degree and doctorate degree in Western universities.In principle, all people can take the exam, but in fact, because applicants need to go through long-term study, only those from rich families are eligible.On the other hand, donations from villages, clans, or guilds often gave the children of the poor the opportunity to study.
Since the exams were based on Confucian classics, the empire was actually governed by Confucian scholars according to the principles of morality.Every official is assigned to be an official in a place other than his hometown to ensure that he cannot use his position to develop family power in the local area.The result was an administrative system far more efficient and responsive than any other before the modern age.Indeed, the merit-based selection of civil servants was a major factor in the persistence of China's imperial system from Qin Shi Huang onwards into the 20th century.However, there is another side to the examination system.Since it was based on the recognition of only one doctrine, it produced a stubborn orthodoxy and arrogance among some intellectuals, which was one of the reasons for China's fall centuries later with the invasion of the West.
Although China suffered great damage due to the backwardness of science and industry after entering modern times, the situation in China during the Han Dynasty was completely different.At that time, China was technologically shoulder to shoulder with the rest of Eurasia; in many areas it was still a leader, and it has maintained it until recent centuries.During the hundreds of years of the Han Dynasty, the most important inventions in China were the water mill, the shoulder yoke that greatly improved the efficiency of horse use, iron casting technology, papermaking and pottery glazing.High-quality paper made from rags has been available since about AD 100, and soon replaced the bulky wood and bamboo sticks used for writing.But since paper is not as durable as wood chips, and it existed long before the invention of printing, it cannot but be paradoxically attributed to paper for the loss of some books.Although the great invention of papermaking is of invaluable importance to later generations, from the perspective of preserving Chinese literary works, this invention may be premature.Still, the invention of pottery glazing, which eventually gave rise to porcelain, was a pure boon.Those glazed pottery not only reached the level of artistic creation, but also was a great progress from the point of view of hygiene; for smooth porcelain was easier to keep clean than the rough pottery or wooden utensils used before.
The outstanding contribution to literature in the Han Dynasty is mainly manifested in writing history.Historical writing is welcome by a people who look to past experience to guide the present.China's five Confucian classics ("Shi", "Li", "Yi", "Spring and Autumn") contain a large number of various historical materials.But in the first century BC, a historical work appeared that was more comprehensive and complex than any previous work.
This historical work is "Historical Records". "Historical Records" was written by two generations of father and son, but the original author is generally believed to be his son Sima Qian, because he wrote the main part of the book.Sima Qian, as the official historian of the imperial court, has the right to browse the books and archives collected by the state.In addition, he traveled extensively across the country, and during his travels, he used materials from libraries in various places.So the history book he wrote is not so much an original work as it is a compilation of all the historical materials he can get access to.It is only when he writes about various events and people in his time that he expresses his personal views and writes a history with unique insights.As he modestly explained, "My narration is only a systematization of materials handed down from the past. Therefore, it is not creation, but a truthful expression."
This approach has obvious deficiencies, not least in that it lacks the dramatic and consistent style often found in the writings of earlier historians such as Herodotus.On the other hand, it did collect and preserve for posterity an astonishing amount of historical material drawn from books and archives of the time. "Historical Records" has a total of about 1.5 million characters, and is actually a comprehensive general history.It has 130 chapters, including chronicles, chronology of the Qing Dynasty, biographies of famous people in the Han Dynasty, and various treatises on etiquette, music, astrology, astronomy, economy, foreign customs, etc.Later Chinese historians highly respected Sima Qian and copied his methods. Therefore, China's history compilation work that lasted for thousands of years left behind a large amount of historical materials that no other country can match.
All Chinese historians also believe in the concept of "Mandate of Heaven".They believed that as long as the emperor had the virtues of justice, benevolence and sincerity, he could rule as a representative of God.When the emperor no longer exhibits these virtues, and acts tyrannically over the state, he is automatically deprived of the mandate; then rebellion against him is not a crime, but a punishment from God through the rebels.Thus, Chinese historians, while often aware of the various social and economic factors that contributed to the decline of dynasties, always regarded these factors as irrelevant to what they believed to be a more fundamental factor—whether the ruler had the right moral character— —Compared to, it is in a secondary position.As a result, Chinese historiography tends to compile various primary sources rather than allow historians to put forward their own analysis on various issues.The organizational structure of history books is based on the rise and fall of dynasties explained according to the role of destiny.
People have traditionally interpreted Chinese history as a history of repeated dynastic cycles, a tradition that conceals some fundamental changes that have occurred at certain times behind the appearance of cycles.Of course, the rise and fall of dynasties is indeed cyclical.The founder of any dynasty is always a capable and courageous activist, but after a few generations, his descendants who grew up in the court environment are likely to become weak and dissolute.While sometimes a strong ruler or an able, loyal minister manages to stem the corruption, the general tendency is to go downhill until a successful uprising overthrows the dynasty and restarts the familiar cycle.
Even more fundamental than the dynastic cycle, however, is the so-called cycle of economic management.This cycle begins with the tranquility and prosperity common to every major dynasty at its founding.The restoration of social stability leads to an increase in population and expansion of production scale, which in turn increases income and enriches the national treasury.However, the combination of personal ambition, family influence, and institutional pressures must sooner or later cause the emperors to take on too many obligations.他们将人力和财力分散到公路、运河、防御工事、宫殿、宫廷铺张和边疆战争上。因而，每个王朝在它建立约100年后都开始面临财政上的种种困难。
为了弥补亏空，政府提高赋税，赋税大部分沉重地压在中国社会的主要成分自耕农头上。每个朝代开始时，自耕农总是占农民的大多数。但是，随着赋税的增加，他们愈来愈被迫将自己的小块土地让与大地主，而自己则沦为佃农。地主凭借与他们的财产相当的政治影响，只交纳微不足道的税，所以他们占有的土地愈多，政府的岁入愈下降，落在数目日趋减少的自耕农头上的赋税愈增加。这样，形成一个恶性循环——赋税增加，岁入下降，公路和沟渠的整修被忽视，生产率下降，最后是饥荒、盗匪活动和全面的农民起义。在这同时，边防可能也被忽略，招致游牧部落越境前来劫掠。常常正是这种内乱和外侵的结合，使摇摇欲坠的王朝溃灭，为新的开端扫清道路。
这实质上是汉朝初期的模式。“好战的皇帝”武帝（公元前141-87年）赢得了一系列重大胜利，把中国的疆界远远地扩展到中亚。但是在这过程中，使帝国的资源耗粮过度。为了应付危机，他采取了种种措施，包括货币贬值、出卖官爵和重建国家对盐、铁、酒的垄断经营。虽然在他统治期间，他仍能设法对付支出，但他的后继者们由于纳税自耕农的数目下降而更深地陷入困境之中。大规模的起义爆发了，甚至在朝廷，各种预兆也被解释成是上帝的警告，说王朝的末日快到了。
实际上，王朝只是被王莽暂时地篡位（公元9-25年）。王莽原是很有权势的大臣，已控制朝廷约30年。他大胆处理根本的经济问题，下令将私有大地产收归国有，重新分配给纳税的农民。这一改革和其他一些改革使富裕家族疏远了他，他们激烈地反对这位篡位者。在这同时，黄河下游的灾变使数百万人无家可归，驱使破产的农民加入盗匪和叛乱活动。游牧部落也趁机利用这种混乱局面入侵中国，洗劫首都，并于公元23年在首都杀死王莽。继承王莽王位的是前汉朝皇帝的一位远亲。
后汉（公元25-222年）的历史基本上与前汉相同。在前、后汉交替之间的长期战争中，许多旧贵族和大地主被消灭。therefore.在王朝复兴后的开始阶段，税收是足够的。但是，纳税农民又开始被压榨，于是，向下的螺旋运动又一次开始了。 184年，中国东部和四川爆发大起义，直到215年才被镇压下去。王朝经过这次打击再也恢复不过来了。
当时的形势与罗马最后阶段的情况颇为相象。自耕农的大批死亡也毁坏了原先的农民应征军，使其为职业军队所取代。职业军首先忠于的是他们的将领，因而将领们可以对中央政府置之不理。大地主们也公然蔑视政府，他们逃税，并用种种合法和非法的手段来扩大自己的地产。无依无靠的农民们为了躲避蛮族入侵者或政府税吏，只好沦为地主们的实际上的农奴，以求得经济和人身的保障。大的家族把庄园改变为要塞，实际上在各自所在地接管了政府的统治。他们的庄园基本上自给自足，所以贸易相应地衰落，城市相应地缩小。公元222年，汉朝在纷乱的农民起义、军阀政变和游牧部落的侵袭中退出历史舞台。中国进入长期分裂和混乱的局面，正和西方罗马帝国崩溃后的情况相似。
Pottery: Archer, possibly Yan Mo, the god of death, this glazed pottery figure was found in a Tang Dynasty tomb and is now on display at the Victoria & Albert Museum in London.
When these principles of Legalism were adopted by the Qin rulers, their efficacy was shown.Using these principles, the Qin ruler set out to conquer other princes and establish the first empire.Then they extended the tight organization to the whole country with the usual ruthless means, but the result, as we shall see, was a reverse reaction, which brought down the empire within a few years after the death of its founder.Legalism has been discredited, while Confucianism, as mentioned above, has long been revered as the official teaching.However, in a sense, this is also a victory for the Legalists, because it is a principle of the Legalists that the government should protect and support an official creed.True, the victorious Confucian scholars never unleashed the heresy-persecuting zealotry characteristic of guardians of official orthodoxy; instead, they were content to monopolize social respect and government positions.In this way, other schools of thought were gradually forgotten; Taoism became the religion of the uneducated masses because it absorbed various superstitions and legends about elves and demons spread by the people. tolerant.
In China's thousands of years of history, there have been three great revolutions, which fundamentally changed China's political and social structure.The first occurred in 221 BC, it ended the feudal system of lords and established a centralized empire; the second occurred in 1911, it ended the empire and established the Republic of China; the third occurred in 1949, A regime led by the Communist Party was established.
It was the leaders of Qin who instigated the first great revolution.Qin was located in the Wei River basin in northwestern China. This geographical location itself contributed to Qin's victory, because most of the Wei River basin was difficult to enter and easy to defend.Qin rulers can attack other countries in the east without any worries.The location in a remote area also put the Qin army in a state of combat readiness due to frequent battles against barbarians.In fact, the Qin people were the first Chinese to replace bronze weapons with steel weapons and chariot soldiers with cavalry.Another important factor for Qin's victory is that in 318 BC, Qin occupied the grain-producing Great Plains of Sichuan; The relationship between Macedonia and the Greek city-states is the same.Finally, the Qin rulers were able and ambitious realists who were the first to apply Legalism and concentrate all power in their own hands.
Relying on the above-mentioned favorable conditions, the ruler of Qin continued to expand his territory and conquered one country after another around him.People at the time called "Qin a beast" in fear, and compared Qin's ruthless expansion to "nibbling".By 221 B.C., the ruler of Qin was master of all of China, and he adopted the title of First Emperor.Shi Huang is the "first emperor".His successor will be "the second emperor", so that it will be passed down from generation to generation, "to thousands of generations, and passed on endlessly."
The new emperor began to apply to the whole of China the legalist doctrines that had previously been brilliantly successful in his own country.He abolished all feudal countries and kingdoms, and divided the vast land into several administrative regions, each of which was equipped with a group of officials appointed by the central government and responsible to the central government.He also disarmed all the soldiers except his own army; ordered the old nobles of various countries to be relocated to the capital in order to monitor them;In addition, the new emperor centralized the economy by twisting weights, measures and currency.
From the perspective of later history, one of the most important reforms in China was the abandonment of the language with many writing styles developed earlier in the Kingdom of China, and replaced it with a unified language that can be understood by the whole of China.This unified script, due to the nature of the Chinese script, proved to be a very effective and durable glue for unification.This kind of writing is not based on a number of phonetic symbols representing the phonetic components of a word, but is composed of a large number of written symbols, or Chinese characters, each of which represents an object or an abstract concept.This method is exactly the same as the Western digital representation.Although Westerners can pronounce "5" as five, funf, cinque, or cinq, all Westerners know what the symbol "5" means.The same is the case with ideograms such as Chinese characters, which have meaning but no sound.Like numbers, they can be read, but each reader can pronounce them according to their own dialect.Thus, the new unified script of the Qin Dynasty (which has survived through several revisions until now) was readable and understandable by all educated Chinese, although their dialects were often incomprehensible to each other. Based on For the same reason, this kind of writing can also be understood by foreigners. Therefore, educated Japanese, Koreans or Vietnamese can read Chinese, but they cannot speak a single Chinese character. It is not difficult to imagine the importance of Chinese culture's influence on the entire East Asia.
From the perspective of later history, no matter how well-reasoned these reforms were at that time, they violated many vested interest groups and aroused fierce opposition.This was especially the case with the literati, since the doctrines and policies of the Legalists were their abhorrence.Therefore, the first emperor decided to order the "burning of books", so that the scholars of literati lost their intellectual backing.As a result, all the classics were burned, and only those books of practical value, such as those on medicine, agriculture, and divination, were preserved.However, the "book burning" project actually failed because the literati risked everything to hide the books or memorize them in full before handing them over.Later, after the fall of the Qin Dynasty, most of the works in the traditional literature were restored to their original state due to the previously hidden books and the memories of the old people.However, Qin's persecution effectively suppressed the situation of contention among a hundred schools of thought that was unique to the Zhou period.The golden age of Chinese thought is over.
Losses in knowledge are offset by significant economic benefits from more efficient use of human and natural resources.The unification of weights, measures and currencies facilitated economic development.The Chidao network built centered on the capital and extended to most remote areas in all directions.To maximize the use of these tracks, the emperor unified the axle lengths of Chinese two-wheeled vehicles—a measure necessary because the wheels left deep ruts in the loose sand, making each vehicle Either follow the existing ruts, or adapt them with new axles.The emperor also used the unity and power of the country to expand the border southwards into what is now Vietnam.In the northwest, the nomadic tribes were repelled, and in order to prevent them from making a comeback, the world-famous Great Wall was built.The Great Wall stretches for 1,400 miles from Inner Mongolia in the west to the sea in the east.In order to complete this gigantic project, a lot of lives were spent, so that today, more than 2,000 years later, people still talk about the fact that 1 million people died building the Great Wall, and every stone on the Great Wall is worth a human life.Just as literati cursed the emperor for "burning books", common people cursed the emperor for building the Great Wall.
It was this general aversion, combined with the Qin dynasty's lack of capable successors, that explained the popular rebellion and the collapse of the Qin dynasty in 207 BC, just four years after Shi Huang's death.Yet Qin's reign, though short-lived, left a deep and lasting mark on China.China has changed from a feudal state to a centralized empire, which lasted until the 20th century.It would be appropriate to say that China's Western name (China) comes from Qin (Ch'in).
Qin Shihuang abolished the enfeoffment system in one fell swoop. However, the Han emperor who followed Qin was more practical and cautious. He first restored the enfeoffment system a little bit, and then weakened it to an insignificant point.At the beginning, he granted fiefdoms to his sons and close relatives, but these fiefdoms were smaller than the feudal states of the previous Zhou period; moreover, they were scattered among the administrative districts directly governed by state officials.Later, in 127 BC, the Emperor Han issued another decree, stipulating that the eldest son could only inherit half of the fief, and the remaining fief should be distributed to other children.As a result, fiefdoms continued to shrink and their importance declined, becoming mere large estates.The imperial structure established by Qin Shihuang gradually recovered, but without the original fear and oppression.As a result, the Han Empire prospered for four centuries, about as long as the Roman Empire.
The Han Empire was also similar to the Roman Empire in terms of its vast territory.During the first 60 years, the Han rulers focused on restoring the country's strength and consolidating dynastic rule.However, by the time of the "warrior emperor" Wudi (141-87 BC), the boundaries of the empire had expanded considerably in all directions.The tribal areas to the south were annexed, but centuries of Chinese immigration and assimilation of the local peoples took place before this part of the empire came to be dominated by Chinese-speaking populations.The greatest expansion occurred to the west, where Chinese expeditions through Central Asia established contact with the Kushan Empire in northwestern India, thereby greatly increasing the volume of trade via the Silk Roads (see Chapter VII. Festival).
Late Qin Paintings: The Legendary Emperor Shun and His Court.Among these ministers was Yu the Great (died 2197 BC), who founded the Xia Dynasty, the first dynasty in history.
The nomadic Huns had a great advantage in cavalry because they had a large and inexhaustible supply of horses.In fact, the Chinese had to trade with nomadic tribes for the horses they needed for their cavalry.However, the Chinese had a decisive new weapon, the crossbow, which they invented in the later stages of feudal warfare.The crossbow is equipped with a mechanism for hooking the bowstring, and when the trigger is triggered, the arrow will be shot.Compared with ordinary bows, crossbows have a longer range and stronger penetration.Thanks to this weapon and the various resources at the disposal of the great empire, the territory of China during the Han Dynasty has begun to take on its present scale.
Not only in terms of territory, but also in terms of population, the Han Empire can also be compared with the Roman Empire.The census in AD 1 (which is said to be relatively accurate) showed that there were 12.2 million households in the Han Empire, with a total population of 59.6 million.The population of the Roman Empire during the period of Augustus (27 BC-AD 14) is estimated to be 3000 to 50 million in Europe, slightly less in Asia, and less than 20 million in Africa.
At the head of the Han Empire was the Emperor, who was not only vested with all temporal power but was also responsible for the actual happiness and prosperity of his subjects.The emphasis on the emperor's personal dignity was reflected in every aspect of his daily activities—in the long ceremonies at court or temple he presided over, in the robes prescribed for each occasion, in the presence of large groups of Officials, courtiers, eunuchs, and concubines were by his side, and there were beautiful carriages for his travels, and a grand mausoleum for his body to be buried with solemn ceremony in the future.
Beneath the emperor were two senior officials, the modern equivalent of the chancellor and prime minister.They are in constant contact with the emperor and are responsible for the actual work of the government.Below them are the Jiuqing, who are in charge of the following responsibilities: religious etiquette, palace guards, taking care of imperial chariots and horses, punishing criminals, accepting respect and tribute from foreign leaders, recording the names of the royal family and clan, collecting state taxes, and managing Empire finances.
In addition to the central government, there are local bureaucracies that manage states, counties, counties, and townships in turn.Lower level bureaucrats were assigned tasks such as collecting taxes (whether grain, textiles, or cash), catching criminals, maintaining roads, canals, and granaries, and providing stage horses and a chain of post stations to maintain the empire's postal service.
It is said that in the first century AD, there were 130,000 officials in the bureaucracy, and there was only one official for every 400 or 500 residents on average.The number of officials was small enough compared to the total population; this was typical throughout Chinese history and can be explained by the limited role played by the imperial state.There is a Chinese proverb that says, "Governing a country is like cooking a small fish: don't overdo it."Therefore, the responsibilities of serving the society that are taken for granted in the modern world have not been assumed by successive Chinese governments. The above-mentioned responsibilities of the nine ministers can clearly show this point.Rather, the primary role of the Chinese state was to collect taxes, defend the country from foreign aggression, and consolidate the dynasty from internal subversion.
The bureaucracy is a privileged group, but not hereditary.During the Han Dynasty, a unique system was invented to select civil servants through a national competitive examination.In 124 BC, a kind of imperial university was established, enrolling students specially trained for government departments.The school continued to expand, and by the second half of the 1st century BC, the total number of students reached 3,000; by the end of the Han Dynasty, the total number of students had reached 30,000.When this form of examination was later fully developed, it was held at three levels; passing at any level gave one of the three degrees.These three degrees are roughly equivalent to bachelor's degree, master's degree and doctorate degree in Western universities.In principle, all people can take the exam, but in fact, because applicants need to go through long-term study, only those from rich families are eligible.On the other hand, donations from villages, clans, or guilds often gave the children of the poor the opportunity to study.
Since the exams were based on Confucian classics, the empire was actually governed by Confucian scholars according to the principles of morality.Every official is assigned to be an official in a place other than his hometown to ensure that he cannot use his position to develop family power in the local area.The result was an administrative system far more efficient and responsive than any other before the modern age.Indeed, the merit-based selection of civil servants was a major factor in the persistence of China's imperial system from Qin Shi Huang onwards into the 20th century.However, there is another side to the examination system.Since it was based on the recognition of only one doctrine, it produced a stubborn orthodoxy and arrogance among some intellectuals, which was one of the reasons for China's fall centuries later with the invasion of the West.
Although China suffered great damage due to the backwardness of science and industry after entering modern times, the situation in China during the Han Dynasty was completely different.At that time, China was technologically shoulder to shoulder with the rest of Eurasia; in many areas it was still a leader, and it has maintained it until recent centuries.During the hundreds of years of the Han Dynasty, the most important inventions in China were the water mill, the shoulder yoke that greatly improved the efficiency of horse use, iron casting technology, papermaking and pottery glazing.High-quality paper made from rags has been available since about AD 100, and soon replaced the bulky wood and bamboo sticks used for writing.But since paper is not as durable as wood chips, and it existed long before the invention of printing, it cannot but be paradoxically attributed to paper for the loss of some books.Although the great invention of papermaking is of invaluable importance to later generations, from the perspective of preserving Chinese literary works, this invention may be premature.Still, the invention of pottery glazing, which eventually gave rise to porcelain, was a pure boon.Those glazed pottery not only reached the level of artistic creation, but also was a great progress from the point of view of hygiene; for smooth porcelain was easier to keep clean than the rough pottery or wooden utensils used before.
The outstanding contribution to literature in the Han Dynasty is mainly manifested in writing history.Historical writing is welcome by a people who look to past experience to guide the present.China's five Confucian classics ("Shi", "Li", "Yi", "Spring and Autumn") contain a large number of various historical materials.But in the first century BC, a historical work appeared that was more comprehensive and complex than any previous work.
This historical work is "Historical Records". "Historical Records" was written by two generations of father and son, but the original author is generally believed to be his son Sima Qian, because he wrote the main part of the book.Sima Qian, as the official historian of the imperial court, has the right to browse the books and archives collected by the state.In addition, he traveled extensively across the country, and during his travels, he used materials from libraries in various places.So the history book he wrote is not so much an original work as it is a compilation of all the historical materials he can get access to.It is only when he writes about various events and people in his time that he expresses his personal views and writes a history with unique insights.As he modestly explained, "My narration is only a systematization of materials handed down from the past. Therefore, it is not creation, but a truthful expression."
This approach has obvious deficiencies, not least in that it lacks the dramatic and consistent style often found in the writings of earlier historians such as Herodotus.On the other hand, it did collect and preserve for posterity an astonishing amount of historical material drawn from books and archives of the time. "Historical Records" has a total of about 1.5 million characters, and is actually a comprehensive general history.It has 130 chapters, including chronicles, chronology of the Qing Dynasty, biographies of famous people in the Han Dynasty, and various treatises on etiquette, music, astrology, astronomy, economy, foreign customs, etc.Later Chinese historians highly respected Sima Qian and copied his methods. Therefore, China's history compilation work that lasted for thousands of years left behind a large amount of historical materials that no other country can match.
All Chinese historians also believe in the concept of "Mandate of Heaven".They believed that as long as the emperor had the virtues of justice, benevolence and sincerity, he could rule as a representative of God.When the emperor no longer exhibits these virtues, and acts tyrannically over the state, he is automatically deprived of the mandate; then rebellion against him is not a crime, but a punishment from God through the rebels.Thus, Chinese historians, while often aware of the various social and economic factors that contributed to the decline of dynasties, always regarded these factors as irrelevant to what they believed to be a more fundamental factor—whether the ruler had the right moral character— —Compared to, it is in a secondary position.As a result, Chinese historiography tends to compile various primary sources rather than allow historians to put forward their own analysis on various issues.The organizational structure of history books is based on the rise and fall of dynasties explained according to the role of destiny.
People have traditionally interpreted Chinese history as a history of repeated dynastic cycles, a tradition that conceals some fundamental changes that have occurred at certain times behind the appearance of cycles.Of course, the rise and fall of dynasties is indeed cyclical.The founder of any dynasty is always a capable and courageous activist, but after a few generations, his descendants who grew up in the court environment are likely to become weak and dissolute.While sometimes a strong ruler or an able, loyal minister manages to stem the corruption, the general tendency is to go downhill until a successful uprising overthrows the dynasty and restarts the familiar cycle.
Even more fundamental than the dynastic cycle, however, is the so-called cycle of economic management.This cycle begins with the tranquility and prosperity common to every major dynasty at its founding.The restoration of social stability leads to an increase in population and expansion of production scale, which in turn increases income and enriches the national treasury.However, the combination of personal ambition, family influence, and institutional pressures must sooner or later cause the emperors to take on too many obligations.他们将人力和财力分散到公路、运河、防御工事、宫殿、宫廷铺张和边疆战争上。因而，每个王朝在它建立约100年后都开始面临财政上的种种困难。
为了弥补亏空，政府提高赋税，赋税大部分沉重地压在中国社会的主要成分自耕农头上。每个朝代开始时，自耕农总是占农民的大多数。但是，随着赋税的增加，他们愈来愈被迫将自己的小块土地让与大地主，而自己则沦为佃农。地主凭借与他们的财产相当的政治影响，只交纳微不足道的税，所以他们占有的土地愈多，政府的岁入愈下降，落在数目日趋减少的自耕农头上的赋税愈增加。这样，形成一个恶性循环——赋税增加，岁入下降，公路和沟渠的整修被忽视，生产率下降，最后是饥荒、盗匪活动和全面的农民起义。在这同时，边防可能也被忽略，招致游牧部落越境前来劫掠。常常正是这种内乱和外侵的结合，使摇摇欲坠的王朝溃灭，为新的开端扫清道路。
这实质上是汉朝初期的模式。“好战的皇帝”武帝（公元前141-87年）赢得了一系列重大胜利，把中国的疆界远远地扩展到中亚。但是在这过程中，使帝国的资源耗粮过度。为了应付危机，他采取了种种措施，包括货币贬值、出卖官爵和重建国家对盐、铁、酒的垄断经营。虽然在他统治期间，他仍能设法对付支出，但他的后继者们由于纳税自耕农的数目下降而更深地陷入困境之中。大规模的起义爆发了，甚至在朝廷，各种预兆也被解释成是上帝的警告，说王朝的末日快到了。
实际上，王朝只是被王莽暂时地篡位（公元9-25年）。王莽原是很有权势的大臣，已控制朝廷约30年。他大胆处理根本的经济问题，下令将私有大地产收归国有，重新分配给纳税的农民。这一改革和其他一些改革使富裕家族疏远了他，他们激烈地反对这位篡位者。在这同时，黄河下游的灾变使数百万人无家可归，驱使破产的农民加入盗匪和叛乱活动。游牧部落也趁机利用这种混乱局面入侵中国，洗劫首都，并于公元23年在首都杀死王莽。继承王莽王位的是前汉朝皇帝的一位远亲。
后汉（公元25-222年）的历史基本上与前汉相同。在前、后汉交替之间的长期战争中，许多旧贵族和大地主被消灭。therefore.在王朝复兴后的开始阶段，税收是足够的。但是，纳税农民又开始被压榨，于是，向下的螺旋运动又一次开始了。 184年，中国东部和四川爆发大起义，直到215年才被镇压下去。王朝经过这次打击再也恢复不过来了。
当时的形势与罗马最后阶段的情况颇为相象。自耕农的大批死亡也毁坏了原先的农民应征军，使其为职业军队所取代。职业军首先忠于的是他们的将领，因而将领们可以对中央政府置之不理。大地主们也公然蔑视政府，他们逃税，并用种种合法和非法的手段来扩大自己的地产。无依无靠的农民们为了躲避蛮族入侵者或政府税吏，只好沦为地主们的实际上的农奴，以求得经济和人身的保障。大的家族把庄园改变为要塞，实际上在各自所在地接管了政府的统治。他们的庄园基本上自给自足，所以贸易相应地衰落，城市相应地缩小。公元222年，汉朝在纷乱的农民起义、军阀政变和游牧部落的侵袭中退出历史舞台。中国进入长期分裂和混乱的局面，正和西方罗马帝国崩溃后的情况相似。