Chapter 12 Chapter 8 The Civilizations of Greece and Rome (Part 2)
After the conquest of Alexander the Great, classical Greek culture spread throughout the Middle East, forming a new civilization; the term Hellenistic Age comes from this new civilization (see Chapter 7, Section 3).In 336 BC, after Alexander inherited the throne from his father Philip II, he first severely suppressed the rebellion of Thebes, so that other Greek city-states had to acquiesce in his rule; then, in 334 BC, he led the Macedonian soldiers Attack the Persians in the east.After crossing the Hellespont, it first invaded Asia Minor, then Syria, Egypt, and Mesopotamia; in 330 BC, it occupied Persepolis, the capital of Darius, and conquered the entire Persia.The next year, the conquerors continued eastward as far as the Hindu Kush and Bactria, and from there they marched on to India, penetrating deep into the Punjab.It was only because the soldiers refused to go any further that Alexander had to retreat from India to Babylon; in 323 BC Si died of sadism at the age of thirty-three.
After Alexander died of illness, his ministries would fight each other for control of the great empire for a long time; by the early 3rd century BC, three kingdoms had formed.One is the Kingdom of Macedonia, which returned to its original state and became a Hellenistic national kingdom with a small territory. Although it failed to directly rule the Greek city-states to the south, it basically controlled these areas.The other is the kingdom of Egypt under the rule of the Ptolemaic dynasty. It is rich in natural resources and has the sea and desert as a strong barrier. It is the longest-lasting one among the three kingdoms.The last was the kingdom under the Seleucids, which consisted of the Asian provinces of the empire and was the most extensive of the three kingdoms.Precisely because these kingdoms had vast land holdings, they had to wage constant, unwinnable wars with many enemies around them.They first ceded their provinces in India to the Indian king Chandragupta (see Chapter 9, Section 3), and then ceded Asia Minor to the Celtic invaders, Persia and Mesopotamia to the Pagans. Tia people.Finally, in the first century BC, Rome conquered the provinces left over from the old empire along the Mediterranean coast, conquering Macedonia and Egypt, thus ending the Hellenistic era.Beginning of the Roman era.
Although Alexander's empire was short-lived, the kingdoms that followed it survived in varying degrees of integrity for three centuries; during this time the Middle East also Hellenized.The rich lands of Egypt and the provinces of Asia offered unprecedented opportunities; attracted by these opportunities, thousands of Greek merchants, administrators, teachers, professionals, and mercenaries emigrated there from their respective city-states.Thus, the foundations were laid for a new Hellenistic civilization—a hybrid creation that differed from its classical predecessor in virtually every respect.
As the city-state was destroyed and weakened, the political structure underwent a fundamental change.In order to survive, the Greek city-states tried to establish alliances.The Achaean League included all the city-states in the Peloponnese except Sparta, and the Aetolian League included almost the entire central Greece except Athens.Although they are often portrayed as federations, they are really just alliances with little power in the central authority.They were too weak, and too late, to keep the city-states, before the arrival of the Roman legions, within the sphere of influence of one neighboring empire or another.
As far as the cities of the later kingdoms are concerned, they are quite different from the city-states of the classical age.They were internally divided by distinctions between Greek immigrants and native peoples.Moreover, it was always completely subordinate to one or the other empire.If the inhabitants of a city suffer because of a tyrannical king, or, worse, because of a cowardly king, there is nothing the city can do.Actual decisions are not made by citizens' assemblies, but in courts of law or on the battlefield.It is understandable, then, that the city-dwellers are all about amassing wealth and enjoying it, leaving the poor and slaves to fend for themselves.Thus, the civic spirit and social cohesion of the old city-state were replaced by selfishness and class struggle.
Fundamental changes have also taken place in economic conditions and economic institutions.The Greek mainland is not only politically murky, but also in economic decline.In the past, it relied on the export of wine, oil, and various manufactures in exchange for various grains and raw materials in its overseas colonies.However, by the end of the century BC these colonies had taken root, developing their own industries, vineyards and olive groves.As mentioned earlier, these mother states had experienced early prosperity similar to nineteenth-century Europe; now their development has been hindered by their former colonies, just as the development of Europe after the nineteenth century was hindered by the United States and the Soviet Union. hindrances are the same; moreover, both cases arise from essentially the same cause.
While Greece itself was economically weak, many Greeks became rich by emigrating to the Middle East, which is now open to them.They have made many contributions with their adventurous spirit and advanced business and financial methods.They discovered and circulated the vast treasures of gold and silver accumulated by the Persian dynasties; they adopted or more widely used technological inventions such as the air-suction piston pump, the water wheel, the auger and the hydraulic press.The Greeks also mastered large-scale public works and state enterprises, including irrigation systems, mines, quarries, salt pans, "imperial fields" and workshops for the manufacture of ornate fabrics and pottery.As a result, regional economic integration develops, with corresponding growth in regional trade and productivity.However, the distribution of income is extremely inappropriate.While speculators capitalized on the increased earnings, the number of slaves increased and the status of free laborers declined.In sum, this is a period not only of rising productivity, but of growing economic inequality and social conflict.Isocrates wrote: "Those who possess property would rather throw it into the sea than subsidize the poor. The poorest are not content to take the property of the rich, but deprive them of all their wealth."
The common man of the Hellenistic age was hit not only financially but also psychologically.As vast numbers of people are driven out of their traditional surroundings, they feel overwhelmed in the new big city.In the past, life was simpler on the outskirts of the old city.Law, morality, religion, and duty are all clearly defined and generally accepted.Now, all that was gone, and city dwellers found themselves in an amorphous world, especially since Hellenistic cities were often torn apart by ethnic, cultural, and class divisions.Rulers adopted titles such as savior and protector, in an effort to foster a mystique of personal allegiance.However, this approach does not provide a lasting solution to the problem.Everyone still faces the question of how to behave in the face of the overwhelming inhuman forces of the time.
Statue on a wall of Darius' capital Persepolis - The Spearman.
The intellectual response tended to move away from the mundane, from rationality to mysticism.This was reflected in the legendary adventure activities and utopian literature that were quite popular at the time.When authors describe their ideal society, they picture not the city-states on the rocky ground of Greece, but a colorful wonderland at the end of the world.Among the novels of the era, those depicting utopian societies on islands in the Indian Ocean were particularly popular.These utopian societies were blessed with natural wealth that could satisfy all material needs, and the people who lived on the islands lived "simple and sober lives... free from envy and strife."This tendency towards escapism was also reflected in philosophies of the time such as cynicism, skepticism, hedonism, and asceticism.While these philosophies differ in many respects, they are generally concerned with the pursuit of individual happiness rather than social welfare.Their main purpose is to reconcile the politically impotent to the vagaries of life in an economically unstable, war-ridden world.
ruins of persepolis
If philosophy is the religion of the educated upper classes, the religion of the lower classes is very different.The lower classes practiced religions of Eastern origin—Mithraism, Gnosticism, the Egyptian mother god Isis, and the astral religion of the Chaldeans.All these religions promised the salvation of souls in the afterlife; all reassuringly assured the coming of heaven to meet the emotional needs of the downtrodden masses.Thus, the secularism and rationalism of classical Greece now gave way to mysticism and the afterlife.Considering these trends in philosophy and religion, it is surprising to note that the Hellenistic age made more scientific progress than any other period before the seventeenth century.This was partly due to the economic opportunities provided by Alexander's conquests.The vastly expanded market inspired people to improve technology and increase production.Successive wars among later kingdoms and between them and outside powers created the need for more complex weapons.Direct communication between Greek science and Middle Eastern science (not only Mesopotamian and Egyptian science, but also to a certain extent Indian science) also played a role in promoting.Finally, the Macedonian rulers of the Hellenistic states grew up in an atmosphere of the prestige of Greek learning, and they generously supported scientific research.This is especially the case in Egypt.The Alexandria Library Museum in Egypt is actually the earliest state-supported research institute in history.It includes observatories, laboratories, dissection rooms, botanical gardens, a zoo and a library with 500,000 to 700,000 volumes.At that time, there was an early "brain drain" in which philosophers, mathematicians, doctors, botanists, zoologists, astronomers, linguists, geographers, artists and poets throughout the Mediterranean world were Attracted by a comfortable and motivating atmosphere, excellent equipment, free board and lodging and enviable salaries, one after another came to Egypt.
The luminary in mathematics was Euclid.His "Elements of Geometry" starts from the axioms and postulates, and uses the deductive method to describe plane geometry, systematizing most of the mathematical knowledge.In astronomy, Hipparchus invented most of the instruments used until modern times and compiled the earliest charts of the constellations.Ptolemy's compilation of astronomical knowledge from the Hellenistic era is the most famous authoritative work before the Renaissance.The most original opinion is Aristarchus. He was the first to understand the grand scale of the universe, and believed that the sun, not the earth, lived in the center of the universe.His views, supported by very few, were seen as contrary to everyday experience and evil.Therefore, Ptolemy's "earth center" system was still generally accepted throughout the medieval era.Advances in astronomy led to the development of scientific geography.Eratosthenes, who presided over the Museum of Alexandria, calculated the circumference of the Earth and came up with a circumference of 24,700 miles; this was only 250 miles from the actual value and was not corrected until the 18th century.He also drew a map of the world's population and habitation with latitude marked, and inferred from the rise and fall of the tides of the Atlantic and Indian Oceans that the seas were connected, and that Europe, Asia and Africa formed a huge island.
In the Hellenistic era, most of the outstanding contributions of science were in medicine and mechanics.The museum encourages the study of anatomy, so doctors now understand for the first time the role of the heart in circulation, the importance of pulses, the function of sensory and motor nerves, and the gyri of the human brain.Most of this knowledge was spread through the great encyclopedic physician Galen; his writings were so impressive that doctors dared not question him, nor dared to try in new directions. until modern times.A prominent figure in mechanics was Archimedes, the founder of hydrostatics, the law of floating bodies that was later used to test the purity of metals.He also invented ingenious machines for war, and worked out the principles of the screw, the pulley, and the lever; concerning the latter, he is said to have said: 'Give me a fulcrum, and I can turn the earth over. "
In short, the historical significance of the Hellenistic era lies in that it broke the independent model of the East and the West formed in history and combined them into one.Now, for the first time, people think of the entire civilized world as a unit—a culturally highly developed core.At first, the Egyptians and Macedonians went to the East as conquerors and rulers, imposing the Hellenistic model.But, in the process, they themselves changed, making the resulting Hellenistic civilization an amalgam rather than a transplant from elsewhere.Finally, Eastern religions also spread to the West, greatly contributing to the transformation of the Roman Empire and medieval Europe.
In 217 BC, Greece held a peace conference to try to end the continuous war between the city-states.A representative of the Aetolian League, referring to the great struggle between Rome and Carthage in the western Mediterranean, warned that whoever won would become a threat to Greece. "For it is obvious even to those of us who do not care much about national affairs: In this war, whether the Carthaginians beat the Romans or the Romans beat the Carthaginians, the victor will never May be content with dominion over Italy and Sicily, they will surely come here." The warning was a priori.Peace was temporarily won, but within five years war broke out again.In the next hundred years, Rome defeated Carthage and turned eastward, first forcing the Macedonian and Greek city-states, and finally forcing the entire Hellenistic East to accept its rule.
What were the origins of this Italian city that so profoundly influenced the course of world history?If you look at the early history of the Greeks and Romans, you will notice that there are actually many similarities between the two.Both originated from the same race, just as the Achaeans and Dorians of the Indo-European language family entered Greece along the Balkan Peninsula, and the Latins of the Indo-European language family arrived at the south bank of the Tiber River along the Italian Peninsula. One of the Latin societies formed at that time, situated at the lowest point easily bridged over the Tiber and at the highest point accessible by boat, its strategic location, comparable to that of London on the Thames, made Rome from the first more important than the other Latin settlements are easier to conduct business and accept foreign influence.
The main foreign influences came from two civilized peoples who immigrated to Italy from abroad—the Etruscans and the Greeks (see Chapter 7, Section 2).The Etruscans, probably from Asia Minor, migrated north of the Tiber around 800 BC and then conquered the Latins to the south.Before their rule was overthrown, they passed on to the Romans their gods and goddesses, their knowledge of arches and vaults, and the typically Eastern practice of divination by examining animal entrails.The Greeks appeared shortly after the Etruscans, and they established several colonies in southern Italy and Sicily, including Tarentin, Syracuse, and Naples.Their contributions to the Latins were the alphabet, several arts and myths, certain religious ideas and practices, and included the identification of Roman and Greek gods—Zeus, Hermes, and Artemis in Greek mythology, namely Jupiter, Mercury and Diana in Roman mythology.
Around 500 BC, Rome expelled its last Etruscan king and began its career as an independent city-state.In just a few years, it conquered the surrounding peoples and controlled the entire Latin plain from the Apennines to the coast; the system of the formation of the Roman city-state was similar to that of the early Greek cities.Initially, the king had imperial power, that is, the highest power, and only the advisory committee composed of nobles and the popular assembly that could only express approval or opposition to legislation had certain binding force on the king.Later, as in Greece, the monarchy was abolished and the nobility became the rulers of society.The imperial power formerly held by the king passed now into the hands of two consuls; the consuls were elected for a one-year term and always held by noblemen.The Senate was the main legislature, as well as an aristocratic body, which remained unchanged even after admitting some commoners.
Part of a relief from the Etruscans, 6th century BC.This bronze-plated wooden relief depicts two warriors in combat.
When Rome accomplished what the Greek city-states could not do, that is, to conquer and unify the entire peninsula, the development of Rome and the Greek city-states was very different.Rome was able to subdue the Italian peninsula, but none of the Greek city-states could unify the mainland of Greece, let alone the entire Balkan Peninsula. Why?One reason is that the topography of the two is significantly different.The mountains of the Balkan Peninsula overlap, in fact, the name "Balkan" is derived from the Turkish word for mountain.Greece is full of intersecting and overlapping mountains, but Italy has only one Apennine Mountains running north-south with no transversal mountains in the middle, which is not difficult to cross.Therefore, the Italian peninsula is not divided into small areas, and it is correspondingly easier to unify and maintain unity.For example, since there were no mountains like the Balkans, the Roman road network, especially the Via Appiu, which followed the Italian boot from Rome to Brandision, united all of Italy.In fact, the Via Appio still exists and was used by British and American troops when they landed in southern Italy in 1943.
Another reason for the success of the Romans was their liberal approach to the other peoples of Italy.Earlier, Athens collected tribute and never extended the scope of its citizenship grants.Rome, on the other hand, granted about a quarter of the inhabitants of the peninsula full citizenship, and the rest Latin citizenship, a great and insufficient privilege.Liberty of the person is enjoyed by all, the only drawbacks being that there is no control over foreign affairs, and no compulsory conscription into the army.This policy saved Rome, because its Italian allies remained loyal to Rome during the crucial years when Hannibal of Carthage was invincible on the peninsula.
In the end, the Romans won because they had superior numbers and invented a brilliant strategy.In fighting their neighbors, they realized that the traditional 8,000-man phalanx was too large to command, especially in mountainous terrain.Therefore, they organized the army into "detachments" of 120 men; 30 detachments, or 3600 men, formed legions.The Legion also had cavalry to protect its flanks.In addition to the traditional helmets, shields, spears and swords, the Romans equipped their legions with effective offensive weapons, the iron-tipped javelins.When fighting, the legionnaires first threw javelins at the enemy from a distance, and then cleverly used the gaps in the enemy's formation to attack the escapees.
By 295 B.C. the Romans had won central Italy and pushed south, approaching the thriving Greek colonial city of Tarentan on the "breast" of the peninsula.The Tarentines asked for help from Pyrrhus, the king of Epirus in Greece, who was hailed by Hannibal as a general second only to Alexander.Pyrrho won two "Pyrrhus victories", but he could not afford to pay heavy losses for this, and the Romans, although their losses were even heavier, had 750,000 Italian fighters as their backup.So Pyrrhus retreated in 272 B.C., and before he left he said wisely, "What a battlefield I left for Rome and Carthage!" Only eight years later, in 264 B.C. , Rome and Carthage were at war in Sicily.
Before discussing the Punic Wars—named for the Latin name of the Phoenicians, Punicus—some democratization of Roman institutions must be mentioned.Since the commoners had supplied the manpower of the victorious legions, they were in a good position to demand political concessions.When their demands were denied, they resorted to the novel and effective method of striking, that is, they withdrew from the city together until all demands were met.One of the first benefits that the common people gained by using this method was the right to choose officials called tribunes to protect their own interests.The tribunes were elected by a new assembly of the people, which also took care of other matters concerning the masses.Other political concessions include writing laws and making them public, and limiting the amount of land any one individual can own.
Thus, by 265 BC, Rome, the Italian overlord, was undergoing a process of democratization.It is conceivable that this process of democratization would have resulted in Rome becoming the first democratic nation-state in world history.However, even if this possibility actually existed, it would be effectively eliminated by the series of foreign wars in which Rome was now involved.The war transformed Rome into a great empire.However, the war also profoundly changed the domestic system of Rome, and the premature failure of democratization was one of many disasters.
Rome's transformation from an Italian republic to a great empire was sudden and dramatic, reminiscent of Alexander's conquests.Indeed, both Macedonia and Rome shared some fundamental factors that explain their explosive expansion.They all developed excellent military equipment and military technology, and, unlike the Persian Empire and the Hellenistic countries of the Qing Dynasty, which were socially weak and fragmented, the former enjoyed the vital importance of social vitality and unity. The advantages.
Rome's great rival, Carthage, was originally a Phoenician colony, but by the time Alexander defeated Tyre in 332 BC, it had grown into a fully independent state.Since Carthage almost monopolized the transportation trade in the western Mediterranean, it gradually became rich and powerful.It controlled northwestern Africa, southern Spain, Sardinia, Corsica, and western Sicily, relying on a vast fleet and mercenary armies.Initially, there wasn't any direct conflict between Rome and Carthage for the simple reason that one was a land power and the other a sea power.When the Romans conquered southern Italy, however, conflict arose: Sicily was so close to the newly acquired Roman colonies that Carthage's growing influence over Sicily deeply worried the Romans.
The First Punic War (264-241 BC) forced the Romans to turn to the sea for the first time.They built up a navy, and by turning naval battles into deck battles, they stubbornly defeated the Carthaginians and took Sicily.At this time, the desperate struggle between the two great powers was inevitable.Rome spent 20 years subjugating the Celtic tribes in the Po valley, thereby increasing its reserve army of peasant soldiers.In order to compensate for the loss of Sicily, Carthage strengthened its control over Spain.Based in Spain, the great Carthaginian strategist Hannibalcan led his army across the Alps in 218 BC and boldly invaded Italy, thus starting the Second Punic War (218-201 BC).He defeated the Romans in battle after battle, notably at the great Battle of Cannae (216 BC).However, the loyalty of the Roman allies to Rome prevented him from winning the final victory.When the Roman army landed near Carthage, the invincible Hannibal was called back from Italy to help, but was defeated at home.Once again Roma exhausted its opponents.In 201 BC, Carthage was forced to conclude a peace treaty and, as a result, retained only a small piece of its own territory, walls, and ten ships—just enough to drive out the pirates.Despite this catastrophic defeat, the Carthaginians enjoyed a remarkable economic recovery.However, this could only frighten Rome, and ruthlessly launched the Third Punic War (149-146 BC).As a result, Carthage was captured, the city was completely destroyed, and the remaining population was enslaved.
With these three Punic Wars, Rome entered into a chain reaction: conquest begets further conquest.One reason was the overwhelming power of Rome; the removal of Carthage made it the preeminent power in the Mediterranean.Additionally, conquest has obvious benefits, with each new province receiving a steady stream of loot, slaves, and tribute.In the end, challenges and engagements have always been inextricably associated with the vastness of imperial territory.For example, Philip V of Macedonia aided Hannibal during the Second Punic War, so after Rome destroyed Carthage.Turned to attack Macedonia.The ensuing Macedonian War was only the Romans' major powers in the Middle East - Macedonia, Syria of the Seleucid Dynasty, and Egypt of the Ptolemaic Dynasty.The first in a series of wars caused by the skillful sowing of dissension between the Aetolian League and the Achaean League of the Greek city-states.
Thus, in rapid succession the Romans devastated and annexed Macedonia, Greece, Pergamon, Bithynia, and Cilicia in Asia Minor, then Seleucid Syria, and finally, Egypt in 31 BC.The Romans also took over later Hellenistic states in the East in this way, but in Asia they acquired only a few provinces along the Mediterranean coast.The entire interior fell to Parthia, making Parthia Rome's main rival in the east.At that time, Eurymus Caesar had a great reputation. He conquered (58-49 BC) all Gaul between the English Channel and the Mediterranean Sea.Finally, in the first century AD, Rome began its long-term occupation of Britain and consolidated its occupation by building a fortification between the Firth of Clyde and the Firth of Forth.This is roughly the extent of Roman rule in Northern Europe.
Rome treated its newly acquired provinces less leniently than it had earlier treated its Italian allies.The governors of the provinces appointed by the Senate could do whatever they wanted as long as they sent large amounts of tribute, taxes, grain, and slaves to Rome itself.As a result, wanton exploitation and extortion ensue.In the following indictment Cicero describes the evil government of the governor Gaius Veles in Sicily (73-71 BC), which was common, not uncommon at the time.He said:
The Roman state was almost as adversely affected by these policies as the outer territories.Many of Italy's small farmers were bankrupted by the devastation caused by Hannibal's many conquests, and by years of service abroad during the wars.Cheap grain and legions of slaves continued to flow from the conquered lands to Rome, so the peasants had to sell their land to a new and extremely wealthy class.The rich were eager to amass large estates, because agriculture was still, in their minds, the only respectable occupation for a man of quality.So in Italy, in the 2nd century BC, there was an increasing number of large estates that were not owned by landowners but worked by slaves.Landless peasants migrated to the cities to live in squalor, once again competing with slaves for available work.All the official concern was to provide them with "bread and a circus" lest there be a commotion.City life, while not secure, is at least exciting and attractive.Although the poets loudly praised the beauty of rural life, the peasants themselves did not think so, and continued to flock in droves to Rome, which the historian Sallust called "public toilets" at the time.
The political achievements of the Roman Empire were as bitter as the economic ones.The early democratization tended to turn in the opposite direction as the regiment's Senate commanded successive victories in overseas wars, its prestige and power greatly increased.Nor did the new urban underclass cease to be the basis of popular government, for they were always ready to sell their votes or support demagogues who promised to relieve them of their plight.In addition, the nature of the army changed and became a destructive force.The imperial responsibilities required a large standing army, and the conscripting of the bourgeois for short periods of time no longer sufficed.Therefore, anyone who volunteered to serve in the army could join the army, and bankrupt farmers began to serve in the army for a long time.As a result, the Roman legions changed from civilian armies to professional armies.Soldiers are now loyal first and foremost, not to the state, but to their commanders; from whom they look to receive a share of the spoils of war and lands to share among all.Generals increasingly began to regard the legions entrusted to their command as their own vassals, which they used to enrich themselves.
The expansion of empires also had a destructive effect on culture.Originally, the traditional virtues of the Romans were the virtues of poor, hard-working peasants.But the old teachings of thrift, asceticism, and industry were quickly forgotten when great wealth began pouring into the capital.The frantic scramble for money, the conspicuous extravagance of the nouveau riche, and the indifference to all human social norms became the main features of the end of the Republic.Someone complained at the time: "Rome has become a city where the price of a mistress is higher than that of an arable land, and a pot of kippers is more expensive than a plowman."
From the above, it can be seen that the period from the end of the Punic Wars in 146 BC to the end of the Roman Republic in 27 BC was a period of crisis - class struggle, slave uprisings and increasing military intervention in politics - period.At the beginning, Tiberius Gracchus and his brother Guyo Gracchus bravely carried out a reform movement.They tried to use the status of tribunes that they had won by election to implement a moderate land distribution scheme.However, the rulers of the oligarchy firmly opposed it and did not hesitate to use violence to achieve their goals.In 133 BC Tiberius was killed along with about 300 of his supporters.After 12 years, Guyo was also forced to commit suicide, and the Senate resumed its rule.
The ending of the Gracchus shows that no leader can win without a superior force at his disposal.Thus, it is those generals who won popular applause and support in the long frontier war who are now on the stage of history.Marius, the general who defeated the Numidian tribes in North Africa, was one of them.He was opposed to Sulla who defeated King Mithridates in Asia Minor.Their two factions fought a de facto civil war for several years before Sulla made himself the sole master of Rome.Before Sulla retired in 80 BC, he had sought to restore the senate's historical role as political arbiter.In fact, the Senate at this time was already powerful and monopolized power, making Rome only a republic in name.However, the Senate, which has the highest power, failed to stabilize the situation.In 73 BC, the great Spartacus slave uprising broke out and threatened the existence of the country for a while.In the end, however, the deep-pocketed Empire won.Spartacus was killed in battle, and the road to Rome was lined with followers of Spartacus who were crucified.
Rome and its empire survived by establishing individual dictatorships that absorbed the strength of every segment of society.Although this is obvious in retrospect, Julius Caesar's great contribution is that he saw it clearly and acted on it at the time.Caesar rose to prominence as the conqueror of Gaul, and he also built a strong and loyal army.In 49 B.C. he crossed the Rubicon that separated his province from Italy, and in a series of brilliant battles defeated the armies of the Senate, commanded by his rival, Pompey.Caesar was now the undisputed master of the empire.What Caesar would have done if he came to rule is not clear, for he was murdered by representatives of the old oligarchy in 44 BC.
After Caesar's death, his adopted son and heir Octavian waged a 13-year war for power with the political adventurer Mark Antony.Octavian defeated Antony and Cleopatra in the naval battle of Actium (31 BC), and since then he has ruled alone.He was then thirty-three years old, the age at which the great Alexander died, and Octavian lived another forty-four years; Base.
In 27 BC, the Senate awarded Octavian the statues of "Augustus" and "Grand Marshal".
Visitors will notice that in the overcrowded dwellings of the poor there are no sanitary facilities of any kind, replaced by elaborate public toilets with marble seats and statues of gods or heroes.As a result, there was the inevitable by-product: the potties were placed on the street.Such cases were common, and there are several references to the custom in Roman law.It is also worth noting that there is no lighting equipment on the street, and on moonless nights, the entire capital is plunged into darkness.Everyone hid at home, and no one ventured out, except the blind, for when they went out they were escorted by slaves with torches to protect them from robbers.The poet Juvenals of the day quipped that whoever went out to dinner without making a will would be accused of carelessness.
But our imaginary tourist would also find that there were other features of Rome, notably the disparity between the rich few and the poor, that were familiar to them.For example, although Cicero was not the richest member of the Senate, he owned six villas, each with a full team of servants and gardeners.If a tourist commented on the war hero Luculus, saying that a certain country house he used in summer was well designed, but it was not suitable for winter living, Luculus would laugh and say: "Do you think my Doesn’t it feel like cranes and storks don’t change their dwellings with the seasons?” On the other hand, the common perception that the rich in Rome were greedy and corrupt is simply not true.上流社会传统的行为规范和礼仪是谴责那些公开炫耀其生活腐化、行为无节制的人。实际上，当时上流社会最普遍信奉的是斯多葛哲学，这种哲学强调忠于职守和人与人之间的兄弟相处、因而，罗马上流社会的普通成员并非老是沉湎于纵酒宴乐之中，而是追求奢侈、欢乐而又不失理智的比较恬静的生活。
然而，不管富人们过的生活有无节制，反正和穷人的生活很不同。穷人们住房缺乏、房租高、工资低。他们那挤满人的住房都是些东倒西歪、易遭火灾的建筑物，尤其是楼上，虽然房租较低，可得不到水。供给罗马大量水的渠道有11 条，可是大部分水都由管道输送到富人的住宅、公共澡堂和喷泉。住后楼下的街道人来人往，嘈杂极了。小贩大声叫卖货物，兑换钱的人敲着硬币，修补匠敲打锤子，玩蛇人吹奏长笛，乞丐向过路人哀诉自己的不幸。夜间也不两样。由于白天禁止运输车从街上通过，太阳一落，立即出现一长列由运货马车、驮畜和起马车人组成的队伍。据尤维纳利斯说，这一夜间运输使罗马人注定要永久失眠，除非他们住到与世隔绝的别墅里去。他曾问道：“住在这种地方，有可能睡觉吗？沿狭窄、弯曲的街道行进的马车声、赶牲畜人吃喝牲畜停下的咒骂声，使海豹或者皇帝克劳狄本人都无法入睡。”
安东尼·庇护圆柱上的浮雕：被骑兵包围的步兵。
这种环境下的生活所以尚过得下去，是因为国家提供了大量娱乐活动。其中最受欢迎的是赛车和角斗赛。罗马大竞技场有14 万个座位，是罗马六个赛马场中最大的一个。虽然驾驶赛马的人出身微贱，通常是奴隶，但如果他们能一直得胜，也可获得巨大声誉和大量财产。街道和住房墙上贴着他们的无数张画像。角斗赛在有5万个座位的罗马大斗兽场进行，角斗形式多种多样，场面残酷。有些人让各种凶猛的动物如熊、象、犀牛、狮子等互相拼斗或与持有武器的人相斗。还有些人让通常装备各种武器的角斗士互相格斗，直至倒地死去。特别使人震惊的是规模空前的大屠杀。在提留斯为罗马大斗兽场举行落成仪式的那一天，杀死了5000头牲畜。图拉真曾让IO000名达契亚俘虏互相角斗至死。
一幅浮雕的局部：被罗马士兵斩首的日耳曼贵族。
罗马豪华的公共浴室也为较好地度过闲暇时间提供了条件。这些公共浴室是精心建造的，戴克里先时期的公共浴室占地32 英亩，卡拉卡拉时期的公共浴室占地27英亩。这种公共浴室当然比结构简单的浴池要多得多。它们除提供热水浴、温水浴和冷水浴以外，还没有锻炼身体的设备、休息室、花园和图书馆。总之，它们是规模宏大的“运动俱乐部”，它们令人钦佩地促进了“健全的头脑寓于健康的身体”这一思想。
最后，罗马在这几个世纪里也是帝国文化的中心。这一文化如前所述，基本上源出希腊，尤其在文学、艺术和哲学诸领域（见第七章第三节）。但是在工程和法律方面，罗马人因为爱好实践，作出了自己重要的贡献。比较典型的是，罗马人虽在理论科学上没什么建树，可在开挖沟渠、铺设下水道网、建造桥梁和公路方面是很出色的。公路筑得极好，其底层是置于坚硬泥土中的大石头，中层为沙砾，上层是大石板。路面被仔细地造成中凸形，使路面的水排入公路两侧的沟渠。这些出色的公路连同途中的桥梁因建造得好，一直使用到中世纪，有些甚至使用到现在。同样，罗马的建筑物也和希腊的大不相同，主要是些世俗建筑物，如浴室、圆形剧场、运动场和凯旋门等。
罗马人在思想意识方面也许最重要的一个贡献是，他们的法律是基于理性而不是习俗。罗马人最早的法律是于公元前45O 年前后制定的《十二铜表法》，是一部简单、保守、代表农业民族的成文法。随着商业和帝国的发展，生活愈益复杂，原先的法律不再能满足需要。外国人在罗马可能遭到关押，他的财产可能被没收，就是一个典型的问题。遇上这种情况，适用什么法律呢，尤其是考虑到当时存在这样的观念：一个民族无论去何处，总携带它自己的法律。罗马人设立专门法庭来审理这类案件。多次审理的结果使他们认识到，外来民族中有许多法律制度，但是近乎普遍适用的法律原则只有少数几条。因而他们制定了一部新的法律——《万国法》，即国际法。他们认为这部法律对罗马人与非罗马人皆可适用。
罗马人发展的最终的法律观念也就是自然法的观念。自然法不是起源于司法实践，而是从斯多葛派关于有一个理性之神统治宇宙的思想中产生的。或者，用西塞罗的话来说，自然法超出于单纯的风俗习惯或公众舆论之上，“是由大自然确立起来的，通过健全的理智方能发现，而且对所有的时代和所有的民族都一样有效”。虽然法律专家们并不认为自然法无形中对罗马民法起了限制作用，但是他们确实把它看作是人类立法应当顺从的楷模。这一基本原则是罗马的一个伟大贡献，至今仍在起作用。实际上，罗马法是后来公元6世纪中期在查士丁尼法典中系统化的，从而构成欧洲拉丁国家、拉丁美洲国家、魁北克省和路易斯安那州现存法律制度的基础。
八、后期帝国，公元284-467年
罗马的伟大时代随着公元180 年马可·奥勒留的去世而告结束。他的前任们有一段时间是将继承权传给确有才能的养子们，这一制度使极有才能的统治者得以一个接一个地上任。但是，马可·奥勒留让他的亲生儿子康茂德作继承人。其结果是灾难性的。康茂德无视其作为帝国首脑应尽的职责，将大部分时间用于观看车赛和角斗赛。公元193年，康茂德遇刺身亡，他之后的统治者绝大部分和他一样不称职。那时，奥古斯都为保护首都安全而创立的训练有素、报酬优厚的禁卫军已不受控制，皇帝只有在得到禁卫军支持时才得以掌权。从公元235年至284年这一段时期里，有过近24个皇帝，可只有一个是因年老或患病而死。中央的分裂必然会削弱边境的防御。西方的边远行省遭到诸日耳曼部落的蹂躏，东方的边远行省受到萨萨尼亚人的重新崛起的波斯帝国的侵犯。
公元3 世纪时，帝国的衰微由于坚强而有才干的皇帝戴克里先（公元284—305年）和君士坦丁（公元312－317年）先后即位而一度中止。他们为加强帝国统一采取了不少政策，对各方面实行严格管制是其中的三项，是应种种急需而逐步实施的。由于某些农田无人耕种，帝国就要求村庄为这些被放弃的土地交纳集体税。由于通货膨胀日益加剧，帝国就颁布有名的物价敕令（公元301年），规定数千种商品和劳务的最高价格价格根据商品质量和劳务种类的不同而不同。由于利息率不断猛涨，就将利息率限制在6—12%之间，利息率的高低取决于所冒风险的大小。某些产品的短缺引起对出口商品的禁止，如各种粮食和诸如铁、青铜、武器、军队装备以及马等“战略物资”。对这些方面的控制实质上一直扩大到等级制度方面。君士坦丁要求每个士兵的儿子继续当士兵，除非他不适宜服兵役。同样，农业劳动者须永久地、世世代代地务农。这一趋势后来扩大到被认为必不可少或后继无人的各行各业。
在这一困难时期采取的另一政策是实行分区治理。帝国经济状况的恶化证明这样做是必需的。戴克里先将国土一划为二，东半部归他自己管辖，西半部由他新任命的共同皇帝分掌。当君士坦丁在博斯普鲁斯海峡西岸古希腊殖民城市拜占庭的所在地建立一个新都时，这一划分进一步强固了。新都选择这一地点是很鼓舞人心的，因为这座不久后被称为君士坦丁堡的新城由于海峡两端狭窄而易于防守，并为抵达地处边区的极其重要的多瑙河和幼发拉底河提供了便利的通路。因而，君士坦丁堡成为当时世界上的一座伟大城市，成为罗马和西部帝国灭亡后的数世纪里、东罗马帝国即拜占庭帝国引以自豪的首都。
较后的数世纪里，给后世以深刻影响的另一政策与基督教和帝国政府之间的关系有关。君士坦丁作出了通过与基督教合作而不是镇压基督教来谋求稳定和统一的重大决定。这表示历时数世纪的对宗教的一贯态度和做法已告结束。帝国后阶段，多变的日常生活使愈来愈多的人转向各种救世宗教以寻求安慰，就跟早先在希腊化东方所发生的情况一样（见本章第四节）。对皇帝和官方多神教的崇拜已不再能满足人们精神上的需要。赞美神秘的东方诸神的各种宗教性团体为世界、行为准则以及如何免除罪恶和死亡，提供了令人满意的解释。
诸新宗教中，基督教最为成功。它提出了“一个上帝”即“全能上帝”的教义，来代替多神教的希腊、罗马诸神和广为传播的一种教的东方崇拜对象。基督教带来了救世主耶稣——耶稣不是神话中提到的迷宫里的暧昧人物，尽管他是上帝的儿子，却令人惊叹地过着尘世生活——的安慰：“我给你们带来了所有人都将获得极大欢乐的消息。”基督教还保证拯救信徒的灵魂，但是，它不是通过许诺一个星光灿烂的来世，而是通过基督本人复活所预示的个人的复活，使信徒醒悟过来。所有一切中最重要的也许是，基督教在一个混乱不宁的时代，在老百姓感到无家可归、为生活所抛弃之时，提供了友谊。所有基督徒都是兄弟，他们的聚会常被称作'阿加比”，意为希腊语中的“爱”。他们相互帮助，用自己的虔诚和克己树立了一个能鼓舞人的、富有感染力的榜样。因而，在旧秩序的法律和哲学日益落后于潮流、日益行不通之时，基督教为弱者和地位微贱者提供了顺应潮流的东西和希望。
到公元64 年罗马城遭大火时，基督徒已数目大增，以致使尼禄相信，谴责基督徒为祸患、开始历史上对基督徒多次迫害的第一次，是策略的。但是，这仅仅使殉难者死后得到神圣的名声，驱使人们努力改变宗教信仰。在4世纪初对基督徒进行了最后一次大迫害之后，皇帝君士坦丁颁布米兰敕令（313年），承认基督徒不再为异教徒，准许基督教同其他宗教一样享有信仰自由。最后，皇帝狄奥多西（379－395年）使基督教实际上成为国教。虽然罗马旧贵族和普教者尤里安皇帝（361－ 363年）为了改宗异教，曾打了一场顽强的维护异教的战争，但到4世纪末，还是基督教占居统治地位。
正象皇帝们采纳基督教是为了促进社会统一那样，他们采用华丽盛大的东方宫廷礼仪也基于这同一原因。戴克里先与授自己以“第一公民”称号的奥古斯都不同，替自己取名乔维安，意即朱庇特在尘世的代表，而君士坦丁皈依基督教后，也摆出付神圣的架式。自此以后，皇帝们的权力被认为是从神那里得来的，而不是公民们授予的。因此，现在的朝廷仪式使皇帝显得遥远而不可接近。皇帝头戴饰宝石的皇冠，身穿镇金的紫绸长袍，所有臣民都须拜倒在皇帝面前，只有少数权贵在得到准许时可吻皇帝长袍的边。帝国高级官吏也同样享有荣华富贵——掌管财务的人成为“负责神圣的赏赐物的伯爵”，帝国议会被称为“神圣的参议会”。
3 世纪和4世纪的皇帝们采用这些措施，勇敢地力求阻挡帝国的衰落。如果光凭决心和努力便能成事，他们原本可取得惊人的成功。实际上，他们确也多少稳定了形势，但只是暂时的。他们作巨大努力的最后结果是延缓而不是避免了帝国的灭亡。从406年起，西罗马的皇帝们已无力阻止高卢、西班牙和非洲的法兰克人、勃艮第人、西哥特人和汪达尔人的长期的大规模入侵。他们也未能制止410年和450年蛮族人两度洗劫罗马这一最大侮辱。最后，也就是476年，西罗马最后一个皇帝罗慕路斯·奥古斯图卢斯在日耳曼即匈奴雇佣军军官奥多亚塞的逼迫下不得不退位。
这一事件虽然现被普遍地当作西罗马帝国灭亡的标志，但在当时，只是说明帝国长达两个多世纪的分崩瓦解的过程已告结束，并没引起多少注意。如果要了解“罗马陷落”的原因，如果可使用大动乱这一传统说法，那就必须确定这一长期然而无情的衰落，直至湮没无闻的过程的动力是什么。
充当应对“陷落”负责的工具的，当然是日耳曼蛮族。因而，有位法国历史学家断言说：“罗马文明不是自然消亡的，而是被扼杀的。”这一判断可找到一些理由证明其正确性，尤其是如果至今还记得：在较早世纪中被称为日耳曼人的无数小部落后来合并成法兰克人、阿勒曼尼人和哥特人的较大的政治单位。然而，即使那样，也不是不可抵挡的游牧部落全凭数量上的优势扫除一切。历史学家们估计，入侵意大利的东哥特人只有10万左右，征服西班牙和法自南部的前开德人也只有10万左右，越过直布罗陀海峡进入北非的汪达尔人总共才8万，占该地区土著居民的1% 。
所以，问题仍然是——罗马为什么会“陷落”？最近，有位美国历史学家说：“虽然战争显然是灭亡的原因……但帝国的机质性病是经济。”实际上，这一“机质性病”不仅在罗马帝国，而且在诸希腊化国家、古典希腊甚至更早的古代文明中，都可见到。它们都为生产率低下这一基本问题所折磨。生产率低下是因为，在取得诸如冶金术、犁、轮子、帆和太阳历这些核心发明的新石器时代之后，未能大大地促进技术的发展。
技术阻滞不前的根本原因看来在于奴隶制度，奴隶制度是所有这些文明的普遍公认的组成部分。甚至在古典希腊，虽然那里的奴隶制度从未象在罗马那样猖獗过，但如前所述，亚里士多德已宣称，有些人生来是统治者，有些人生来是被统治者；如果后者拒绝接受预先注定的命运，那么象追猎“野兽”一样追逐他们直至捕获，“自然是正当的”。
奴隶制度的影响是有害且多方面的。它使奴隶失去改进其所操行业的传统操作方法的积极性；只要有大量的奴隶劳动力可获取，它也使主人丧失促进技术革新的动机。因而，在韦斯巴芗统治时期，当在令罗马圣皮特罗广场坚立一座方尖碑时，虽然当时有位发明者提出了一项可以大大方便竖碑的技术措施，但皇帝为了不让奴隶们有空可闲，宁愿让他们继续从事体力劳动。同样，水车虽然早在公元前1世纪已为帝国东部行省所知道，可直到公元4世纪奴隶来源枯缩之时，才为罗马所采用。
占有奴隶的社会自然倾向于把体力劳动与奴隶相联系，从而认为从事体力劳动有损于自由民的尊严；这种倾向也是同样有害的。古希腊散文家普卢塔克说，伟大的阿基米德
奴隶制度通过这些不同的方面，在实行平等主义的新石器时代之后的数千年中，不断地阻止技术革新。奴隶制度对国内市场也起了抑制的经济影响，因为奴隶显然无力购买自己的劳动成果，这就限制了国内购买力。
帝国结构上这些根本的缺点在一段时间里由于帝国扩张以及随之而来的大量的战利品、贡物、粮食和奴隶而得到遮蔽。但是，在当时那样的技术发展水平上，帝国的扩张受到种种限制，这些限制是由后勤和交通方面的需求所决定的。罗马同中国一样，前进到一定程度，就再也不能前进了。那一限度一经达到，帝国疆界就固定下来，甚或开始缩小，于是，从前隐藏的帝国结构上的缺点渐渐显露出来。
阿什博纳姆《旧约全书》的首五卷中的一页；用拉丁文写成，被认为是西哥特人唯一的金泥写本；它多少表明了罗马对已促成其陷落的诸蛮族部落有着持久的影响。
军队从前一直是获取奴隶和物质财富的有用的来源，而现在成为沉重而不可避免的负担。同样，扩张时期肿胀起来的官僚机构，现到了收缩时期，证明是难以忍受的。过度的支出导致最终无法控制的通货膨胀。例如，在埃及，公元1 世纪时，一个计量单位的小麦的价格为六个德拉克马，公元276年时涨为200个德拉克马，314年时涨为9000个德拉克马，334年时涨为78000个德拉克马，334年后不久涨为20O多万个德拉克马。面对这样的通货膨胀，货币变得毫无价值，在某些场合，又回复到物物交换。物物交换的趋向随工业不断向农村和外省传播而加速。工业传播的原因是多方面的，包括帝国交通工具的恶化和奴隶供给量的下降，后者使发掘新的劳动刀来源成为必需。工业从城市转移到乡村和大庄园意味着帝国在实行重新分配。大庄园不仅拥有农业劳动者，而且有各种工匠，因而变得愈来愈自给自足。而大庄园愈自给自足，帝国经济则愈分解为一个个自给自足的单位。
经济上的分散必然伴随以政治上的分权。随着贸易的衰落和国家岁入的减少，帝国大厦不再能支持下去，并慢慢地开始崩溃。这一因素促使戴克里先和君士坦丁不顾一切地努力以帝国的法令来支撑帝国大厦。但是，帝国的疾病是“机质性的”，而非表面的，所以一切严格管制虽然起了维持、加强统治的作用，但最终还是没有用的。不过，严格管制不是帝国衰微的原因，而是试图阻止衰微的一剂无效的药。正如一位经济史学家所指出的，“危机先于严格管制”。
因此，西罗马帝国“陷落“而东罗马帝国却没有的主要原因就在于，西部的经济不及东部的先进发达。意大利农业从未象中东冲积土流域的农业那样多产。意大利的谷物产量“平均不过是播种量的四倍”。所以，中欧和北欧的沃土在中世纪的技术发展到能够有效地开发它们之前，只好耐心地等待。同样，西部的工业也发生得比较迟，普遍落后于东部的工业。意大利的情况就是这样，高卢的情况更是如此，高卢是西部唯一的另一个曾有工业根基的行省。所以，虽然整个罗马帝国是因“机质性病”而毁灭，但帝国的西部最不坚固，首先屈服，而东部则又生存了一千年。
西罗马帝国尽管灭亡了，可确也留下了丰富的遗产。最显而易见的是物质方面的遗迹——圆形剧场、竞技场、庙宇、导水管、公路和桥梁。还有就是语言方面的遗产——欧洲的罗曼诸语言。罗马法如前所述，至今仍大量存留在欧洲和南北美洲许多同家的法律体系中。今日天主教会的组织和仪式也要大大归功于昔日罗马帝国的组织和宗教传统。最后，“罗马和平”曾带来长达二个世纪的相对和平和繁荣，从而留下一个代替希腊人的城邦独立原则的帝国统一的传统。在此以后的数世纪里，正是这一传统做起全欧洲蛮族王公们争当大元帅、东罗马帝国统治者或沙皇的妄想和野心。
Statue on a wall of Darius' capital Persepolis - The Spearman.
The intellectual response tended to move away from the mundane, from rationality to mysticism.This was reflected in the legendary adventure activities and utopian literature that were quite popular at the time.When authors describe their ideal society, they picture not the city-states on the rocky ground of Greece, but a colorful wonderland at the end of the world.Among the novels of the era, those depicting utopian societies on islands in the Indian Ocean were particularly popular.These utopian societies were blessed with natural wealth that could satisfy all material needs, and the people who lived on the islands lived "simple and sober lives... free from envy and strife."This tendency towards escapism was also reflected in philosophies of the time such as cynicism, skepticism, hedonism, and asceticism.While these philosophies differ in many respects, they are generally concerned with the pursuit of individual happiness rather than social welfare.Their main purpose is to reconcile the politically impotent to the vagaries of life in an economically unstable, war-ridden world.
ruins of persepolis
If philosophy is the religion of the educated upper classes, the religion of the lower classes is very different.The lower classes practiced religions of Eastern origin—Mithraism, Gnosticism, the Egyptian mother god Isis, and the astral religion of the Chaldeans.All these religions promised the salvation of souls in the afterlife; all reassuringly assured the coming of heaven to meet the emotional needs of the downtrodden masses.Thus, the secularism and rationalism of classical Greece now gave way to mysticism and the afterlife.Considering these trends in philosophy and religion, it is surprising to note that the Hellenistic age made more scientific progress than any other period before the seventeenth century.This was partly due to the economic opportunities provided by Alexander's conquests.The vastly expanded market inspired people to improve technology and increase production.Successive wars among later kingdoms and between them and outside powers created the need for more complex weapons.Direct communication between Greek science and Middle Eastern science (not only Mesopotamian and Egyptian science, but also to a certain extent Indian science) also played a role in promoting.Finally, the Macedonian rulers of the Hellenistic states grew up in an atmosphere of the prestige of Greek learning, and they generously supported scientific research.This is especially the case in Egypt.The Alexandria Library Museum in Egypt is actually the earliest state-supported research institute in history.It includes observatories, laboratories, dissection rooms, botanical gardens, a zoo and a library with 500,000 to 700,000 volumes.At that time, there was an early "brain drain" in which philosophers, mathematicians, doctors, botanists, zoologists, astronomers, linguists, geographers, artists and poets throughout the Mediterranean world were Attracted by a comfortable and motivating atmosphere, excellent equipment, free board and lodging and enviable salaries, one after another came to Egypt.
The luminary in mathematics was Euclid.His "Elements of Geometry" starts from the axioms and postulates, and uses the deductive method to describe plane geometry, systematizing most of the mathematical knowledge.In astronomy, Hipparchus invented most of the instruments used until modern times and compiled the earliest charts of the constellations.Ptolemy's compilation of astronomical knowledge from the Hellenistic era is the most famous authoritative work before the Renaissance.The most original opinion is Aristarchus. He was the first to understand the grand scale of the universe, and believed that the sun, not the earth, lived in the center of the universe.His views, supported by very few, were seen as contrary to everyday experience and evil.Therefore, Ptolemy's "earth center" system was still generally accepted throughout the medieval era.Advances in astronomy led to the development of scientific geography.Eratosthenes, who presided over the Museum of Alexandria, calculated the circumference of the Earth and came up with a circumference of 24,700 miles; this was only 250 miles from the actual value and was not corrected until the 18th century.He also drew a map of the world's population and habitation with latitude marked, and inferred from the rise and fall of the tides of the Atlantic and Indian Oceans that the seas were connected, and that Europe, Asia and Africa formed a huge island.
In the Hellenistic era, most of the outstanding contributions of science were in medicine and mechanics.The museum encourages the study of anatomy, so doctors now understand for the first time the role of the heart in circulation, the importance of pulses, the function of sensory and motor nerves, and the gyri of the human brain.Most of this knowledge was spread through the great encyclopedic physician Galen; his writings were so impressive that doctors dared not question him, nor dared to try in new directions. until modern times.A prominent figure in mechanics was Archimedes, the founder of hydrostatics, the law of floating bodies that was later used to test the purity of metals.He also invented ingenious machines for war, and worked out the principles of the screw, the pulley, and the lever; concerning the latter, he is said to have said: 'Give me a fulcrum, and I can turn the earth over. "
In short, the historical significance of the Hellenistic era lies in that it broke the independent model of the East and the West formed in history and combined them into one.Now, for the first time, people think of the entire civilized world as a unit—a culturally highly developed core.At first, the Egyptians and Macedonians went to the East as conquerors and rulers, imposing the Hellenistic model.But, in the process, they themselves changed, making the resulting Hellenistic civilization an amalgam rather than a transplant from elsewhere.Finally, Eastern religions also spread to the West, greatly contributing to the transformation of the Roman Empire and medieval Europe.
In 217 BC, Greece held a peace conference to try to end the continuous war between the city-states.A representative of the Aetolian League, referring to the great struggle between Rome and Carthage in the western Mediterranean, warned that whoever won would become a threat to Greece. "For it is obvious even to those of us who do not care much about national affairs: In this war, whether the Carthaginians beat the Romans or the Romans beat the Carthaginians, the victor will never May be content with dominion over Italy and Sicily, they will surely come here." The warning was a priori.Peace was temporarily won, but within five years war broke out again.In the next hundred years, Rome defeated Carthage and turned eastward, first forcing the Macedonian and Greek city-states, and finally forcing the entire Hellenistic East to accept its rule.
What were the origins of this Italian city that so profoundly influenced the course of world history?If you look at the early history of the Greeks and Romans, you will notice that there are actually many similarities between the two.Both originated from the same race, just as the Achaeans and Dorians of the Indo-European language family entered Greece along the Balkan Peninsula, and the Latins of the Indo-European language family arrived at the south bank of the Tiber River along the Italian Peninsula. One of the Latin societies formed at that time, situated at the lowest point easily bridged over the Tiber and at the highest point accessible by boat, its strategic location, comparable to that of London on the Thames, made Rome from the first more important than the other Latin settlements are easier to conduct business and accept foreign influence.
The main foreign influences came from two civilized peoples who immigrated to Italy from abroad—the Etruscans and the Greeks (see Chapter 7, Section 2).The Etruscans, probably from Asia Minor, migrated north of the Tiber around 800 BC and then conquered the Latins to the south.Before their rule was overthrown, they passed on to the Romans their gods and goddesses, their knowledge of arches and vaults, and the typically Eastern practice of divination by examining animal entrails.The Greeks appeared shortly after the Etruscans, and they established several colonies in southern Italy and Sicily, including Tarentin, Syracuse, and Naples.Their contributions to the Latins were the alphabet, several arts and myths, certain religious ideas and practices, and included the identification of Roman and Greek gods—Zeus, Hermes, and Artemis in Greek mythology, namely Jupiter, Mercury and Diana in Roman mythology.
Around 500 BC, Rome expelled its last Etruscan king and began its career as an independent city-state.In just a few years, it conquered the surrounding peoples and controlled the entire Latin plain from the Apennines to the coast; the system of the formation of the Roman city-state was similar to that of the early Greek cities.Initially, the king had imperial power, that is, the highest power, and only the advisory committee composed of nobles and the popular assembly that could only express approval or opposition to legislation had certain binding force on the king.Later, as in Greece, the monarchy was abolished and the nobility became the rulers of society.The imperial power formerly held by the king passed now into the hands of two consuls; the consuls were elected for a one-year term and always held by noblemen.The Senate was the main legislature, as well as an aristocratic body, which remained unchanged even after admitting some commoners.
Part of a relief from the Etruscans, 6th century BC.This bronze-plated wooden relief depicts two warriors in combat.
When Rome accomplished what the Greek city-states could not do, that is, to conquer and unify the entire peninsula, the development of Rome and the Greek city-states was very different.Rome was able to subdue the Italian peninsula, but none of the Greek city-states could unify the mainland of Greece, let alone the entire Balkan Peninsula. Why?One reason is that the topography of the two is significantly different.The mountains of the Balkan Peninsula overlap, in fact, the name "Balkan" is derived from the Turkish word for mountain.Greece is full of intersecting and overlapping mountains, but Italy has only one Apennine Mountains running north-south with no transversal mountains in the middle, which is not difficult to cross.Therefore, the Italian peninsula is not divided into small areas, and it is correspondingly easier to unify and maintain unity.For example, since there were no mountains like the Balkans, the Roman road network, especially the Via Appiu, which followed the Italian boot from Rome to Brandision, united all of Italy.In fact, the Via Appio still exists and was used by British and American troops when they landed in southern Italy in 1943.
Another reason for the success of the Romans was their liberal approach to the other peoples of Italy.Earlier, Athens collected tribute and never extended the scope of its citizenship grants.Rome, on the other hand, granted about a quarter of the inhabitants of the peninsula full citizenship, and the rest Latin citizenship, a great and insufficient privilege.Liberty of the person is enjoyed by all, the only drawbacks being that there is no control over foreign affairs, and no compulsory conscription into the army.This policy saved Rome, because its Italian allies remained loyal to Rome during the crucial years when Hannibal of Carthage was invincible on the peninsula.
In the end, the Romans won because they had superior numbers and invented a brilliant strategy.In fighting their neighbors, they realized that the traditional 8,000-man phalanx was too large to command, especially in mountainous terrain.Therefore, they organized the army into "detachments" of 120 men; 30 detachments, or 3600 men, formed legions.The Legion also had cavalry to protect its flanks.In addition to the traditional helmets, shields, spears and swords, the Romans equipped their legions with effective offensive weapons, the iron-tipped javelins.When fighting, the legionnaires first threw javelins at the enemy from a distance, and then cleverly used the gaps in the enemy's formation to attack the escapees.
By 295 B.C. the Romans had won central Italy and pushed south, approaching the thriving Greek colonial city of Tarentan on the "breast" of the peninsula.The Tarentines asked for help from Pyrrhus, the king of Epirus in Greece, who was hailed by Hannibal as a general second only to Alexander.Pyrrho won two "Pyrrhus victories", but he could not afford to pay heavy losses for this, and the Romans, although their losses were even heavier, had 750,000 Italian fighters as their backup.So Pyrrhus retreated in 272 B.C., and before he left he said wisely, "What a battlefield I left for Rome and Carthage!" Only eight years later, in 264 B.C. , Rome and Carthage were at war in Sicily.
Before discussing the Punic Wars—named for the Latin name of the Phoenicians, Punicus—some democratization of Roman institutions must be mentioned.Since the commoners had supplied the manpower of the victorious legions, they were in a good position to demand political concessions.When their demands were denied, they resorted to the novel and effective method of striking, that is, they withdrew from the city together until all demands were met.One of the first benefits that the common people gained by using this method was the right to choose officials called tribunes to protect their own interests.The tribunes were elected by a new assembly of the people, which also took care of other matters concerning the masses.Other political concessions include writing laws and making them public, and limiting the amount of land any one individual can own.
Thus, by 265 BC, Rome, the Italian overlord, was undergoing a process of democratization.It is conceivable that this process of democratization would have resulted in Rome becoming the first democratic nation-state in world history.However, even if this possibility actually existed, it would be effectively eliminated by the series of foreign wars in which Rome was now involved.The war transformed Rome into a great empire.However, the war also profoundly changed the domestic system of Rome, and the premature failure of democratization was one of many disasters.
Rome's transformation from an Italian republic to a great empire was sudden and dramatic, reminiscent of Alexander's conquests.Indeed, both Macedonia and Rome shared some fundamental factors that explain their explosive expansion.They all developed excellent military equipment and military technology, and, unlike the Persian Empire and the Hellenistic countries of the Qing Dynasty, which were socially weak and fragmented, the former enjoyed the vital importance of social vitality and unity. The advantages.
Rome's great rival, Carthage, was originally a Phoenician colony, but by the time Alexander defeated Tyre in 332 BC, it had grown into a fully independent state.Since Carthage almost monopolized the transportation trade in the western Mediterranean, it gradually became rich and powerful.It controlled northwestern Africa, southern Spain, Sardinia, Corsica, and western Sicily, relying on a vast fleet and mercenary armies.Initially, there wasn't any direct conflict between Rome and Carthage for the simple reason that one was a land power and the other a sea power.When the Romans conquered southern Italy, however, conflict arose: Sicily was so close to the newly acquired Roman colonies that Carthage's growing influence over Sicily deeply worried the Romans.
The First Punic War (264-241 BC) forced the Romans to turn to the sea for the first time.They built up a navy, and by turning naval battles into deck battles, they stubbornly defeated the Carthaginians and took Sicily.At this time, the desperate struggle between the two great powers was inevitable.Rome spent 20 years subjugating the Celtic tribes in the Po valley, thereby increasing its reserve army of peasant soldiers.In order to compensate for the loss of Sicily, Carthage strengthened its control over Spain.Based in Spain, the great Carthaginian strategist Hannibalcan led his army across the Alps in 218 BC and boldly invaded Italy, thus starting the Second Punic War (218-201 BC).He defeated the Romans in battle after battle, notably at the great Battle of Cannae (216 BC).However, the loyalty of the Roman allies to Rome prevented him from winning the final victory.When the Roman army landed near Carthage, the invincible Hannibal was called back from Italy to help, but was defeated at home.Once again Roma exhausted its opponents.In 201 BC, Carthage was forced to conclude a peace treaty and, as a result, retained only a small piece of its own territory, walls, and ten ships—just enough to drive out the pirates.Despite this catastrophic defeat, the Carthaginians enjoyed a remarkable economic recovery.However, this could only frighten Rome, and ruthlessly launched the Third Punic War (149-146 BC).As a result, Carthage was captured, the city was completely destroyed, and the remaining population was enslaved.
With these three Punic Wars, Rome entered into a chain reaction: conquest begets further conquest.One reason was the overwhelming power of Rome; the removal of Carthage made it the preeminent power in the Mediterranean.Additionally, conquest has obvious benefits, with each new province receiving a steady stream of loot, slaves, and tribute.In the end, challenges and engagements have always been inextricably associated with the vastness of imperial territory.For example, Philip V of Macedonia aided Hannibal during the Second Punic War, so after Rome destroyed Carthage.Turned to attack Macedonia.The ensuing Macedonian War was only the Romans' major powers in the Middle East - Macedonia, Syria of the Seleucid Dynasty, and Egypt of the Ptolemaic Dynasty.The first in a series of wars caused by the skillful sowing of dissension between the Aetolian League and the Achaean League of the Greek city-states.
Thus, in rapid succession the Romans devastated and annexed Macedonia, Greece, Pergamon, Bithynia, and Cilicia in Asia Minor, then Seleucid Syria, and finally, Egypt in 31 BC.The Romans also took over later Hellenistic states in the East in this way, but in Asia they acquired only a few provinces along the Mediterranean coast.The entire interior fell to Parthia, making Parthia Rome's main rival in the east.At that time, Eurymus Caesar had a great reputation. He conquered (58-49 BC) all Gaul between the English Channel and the Mediterranean Sea.Finally, in the first century AD, Rome began its long-term occupation of Britain and consolidated its occupation by building a fortification between the Firth of Clyde and the Firth of Forth.This is roughly the extent of Roman rule in Northern Europe.
Rome treated its newly acquired provinces less leniently than it had earlier treated its Italian allies.The governors of the provinces appointed by the Senate could do whatever they wanted as long as they sent large amounts of tribute, taxes, grain, and slaves to Rome itself.As a result, wanton exploitation and extortion ensue.In the following indictment Cicero describes the evil government of the governor Gaius Veles in Sicily (73-71 BC), which was common, not uncommon at the time.He said:
The Roman state was almost as adversely affected by these policies as the outer territories.Many of Italy's small farmers were bankrupted by the devastation caused by Hannibal's many conquests, and by years of service abroad during the wars.Cheap grain and legions of slaves continued to flow from the conquered lands to Rome, so the peasants had to sell their land to a new and extremely wealthy class.The rich were eager to amass large estates, because agriculture was still, in their minds, the only respectable occupation for a man of quality.So in Italy, in the 2nd century BC, there was an increasing number of large estates that were not owned by landowners but worked by slaves.Landless peasants migrated to the cities to live in squalor, once again competing with slaves for available work.All the official concern was to provide them with "bread and a circus" lest there be a commotion.City life, while not secure, is at least exciting and attractive.Although the poets loudly praised the beauty of rural life, the peasants themselves did not think so, and continued to flock in droves to Rome, which the historian Sallust called "public toilets" at the time.
The political achievements of the Roman Empire were as bitter as the economic ones.The early democratization tended to turn in the opposite direction as the regiment's Senate commanded successive victories in overseas wars, its prestige and power greatly increased.Nor did the new urban underclass cease to be the basis of popular government, for they were always ready to sell their votes or support demagogues who promised to relieve them of their plight.In addition, the nature of the army changed and became a destructive force.The imperial responsibilities required a large standing army, and the conscripting of the bourgeois for short periods of time no longer sufficed.Therefore, anyone who volunteered to serve in the army could join the army, and bankrupt farmers began to serve in the army for a long time.As a result, the Roman legions changed from civilian armies to professional armies.Soldiers are now loyal first and foremost, not to the state, but to their commanders; from whom they look to receive a share of the spoils of war and lands to share among all.Generals increasingly began to regard the legions entrusted to their command as their own vassals, which they used to enrich themselves.
The expansion of empires also had a destructive effect on culture.Originally, the traditional virtues of the Romans were the virtues of poor, hard-working peasants.But the old teachings of thrift, asceticism, and industry were quickly forgotten when great wealth began pouring into the capital.The frantic scramble for money, the conspicuous extravagance of the nouveau riche, and the indifference to all human social norms became the main features of the end of the Republic.Someone complained at the time: "Rome has become a city where the price of a mistress is higher than that of an arable land, and a pot of kippers is more expensive than a plowman."
From the above, it can be seen that the period from the end of the Punic Wars in 146 BC to the end of the Roman Republic in 27 BC was a period of crisis - class struggle, slave uprisings and increasing military intervention in politics - period.At the beginning, Tiberius Gracchus and his brother Guyo Gracchus bravely carried out a reform movement.They tried to use the status of tribunes that they had won by election to implement a moderate land distribution scheme.However, the rulers of the oligarchy firmly opposed it and did not hesitate to use violence to achieve their goals.In 133 BC Tiberius was killed along with about 300 of his supporters.After 12 years, Guyo was also forced to commit suicide, and the Senate resumed its rule.
The ending of the Gracchus shows that no leader can win without a superior force at his disposal.Thus, it is those generals who won popular applause and support in the long frontier war who are now on the stage of history.Marius, the general who defeated the Numidian tribes in North Africa, was one of them.He was opposed to Sulla who defeated King Mithridates in Asia Minor.Their two factions fought a de facto civil war for several years before Sulla made himself the sole master of Rome.Before Sulla retired in 80 BC, he had sought to restore the senate's historical role as political arbiter.In fact, the Senate at this time was already powerful and monopolized power, making Rome only a republic in name.However, the Senate, which has the highest power, failed to stabilize the situation.In 73 BC, the great Spartacus slave uprising broke out and threatened the existence of the country for a while.In the end, however, the deep-pocketed Empire won.Spartacus was killed in battle, and the road to Rome was lined with followers of Spartacus who were crucified.
Rome and its empire survived by establishing individual dictatorships that absorbed the strength of every segment of society.Although this is obvious in retrospect, Julius Caesar's great contribution is that he saw it clearly and acted on it at the time.Caesar rose to prominence as the conqueror of Gaul, and he also built a strong and loyal army.In 49 B.C. he crossed the Rubicon that separated his province from Italy, and in a series of brilliant battles defeated the armies of the Senate, commanded by his rival, Pompey.Caesar was now the undisputed master of the empire.What Caesar would have done if he came to rule is not clear, for he was murdered by representatives of the old oligarchy in 44 BC.
After Caesar's death, his adopted son and heir Octavian waged a 13-year war for power with the political adventurer Mark Antony.Octavian defeated Antony and Cleopatra in the naval battle of Actium (31 BC), and since then he has ruled alone.He was then thirty-three years old, the age at which the great Alexander died, and Octavian lived another forty-four years; Base.
In 27 BC, the Senate awarded Octavian the statues of "Augustus" and "Grand Marshal".
Visitors will notice that in the overcrowded dwellings of the poor there are no sanitary facilities of any kind, replaced by elaborate public toilets with marble seats and statues of gods or heroes.As a result, there was the inevitable by-product: the potties were placed on the street.Such cases were common, and there are several references to the custom in Roman law.It is also worth noting that there is no lighting equipment on the street, and on moonless nights, the entire capital is plunged into darkness.Everyone hid at home, and no one ventured out, except the blind, for when they went out they were escorted by slaves with torches to protect them from robbers.The poet Juvenals of the day quipped that whoever went out to dinner without making a will would be accused of carelessness.
But our imaginary tourist would also find that there were other features of Rome, notably the disparity between the rich few and the poor, that were familiar to them.For example, although Cicero was not the richest member of the Senate, he owned six villas, each with a full team of servants and gardeners.If a tourist commented on the war hero Luculus, saying that a certain country house he used in summer was well designed, but it was not suitable for winter living, Luculus would laugh and say: "Do you think my Doesn’t it feel like cranes and storks don’t change their dwellings with the seasons?” On the other hand, the common perception that the rich in Rome were greedy and corrupt is simply not true.上流社会传统的行为规范和礼仪是谴责那些公开炫耀其生活腐化、行为无节制的人。实际上，当时上流社会最普遍信奉的是斯多葛哲学，这种哲学强调忠于职守和人与人之间的兄弟相处、因而，罗马上流社会的普通成员并非老是沉湎于纵酒宴乐之中，而是追求奢侈、欢乐而又不失理智的比较恬静的生活。
然而，不管富人们过的生活有无节制，反正和穷人的生活很不同。穷人们住房缺乏、房租高、工资低。他们那挤满人的住房都是些东倒西歪、易遭火灾的建筑物，尤其是楼上，虽然房租较低，可得不到水。供给罗马大量水的渠道有11 条，可是大部分水都由管道输送到富人的住宅、公共澡堂和喷泉。住后楼下的街道人来人往，嘈杂极了。小贩大声叫卖货物，兑换钱的人敲着硬币，修补匠敲打锤子，玩蛇人吹奏长笛，乞丐向过路人哀诉自己的不幸。夜间也不两样。由于白天禁止运输车从街上通过，太阳一落，立即出现一长列由运货马车、驮畜和起马车人组成的队伍。据尤维纳利斯说，这一夜间运输使罗马人注定要永久失眠，除非他们住到与世隔绝的别墅里去。他曾问道：“住在这种地方，有可能睡觉吗？沿狭窄、弯曲的街道行进的马车声、赶牲畜人吃喝牲畜停下的咒骂声，使海豹或者皇帝克劳狄本人都无法入睡。”
安东尼·庇护圆柱上的浮雕：被骑兵包围的步兵。
这种环境下的生活所以尚过得下去，是因为国家提供了大量娱乐活动。其中最受欢迎的是赛车和角斗赛。罗马大竞技场有14 万个座位，是罗马六个赛马场中最大的一个。虽然驾驶赛马的人出身微贱，通常是奴隶，但如果他们能一直得胜，也可获得巨大声誉和大量财产。街道和住房墙上贴着他们的无数张画像。角斗赛在有5万个座位的罗马大斗兽场进行，角斗形式多种多样，场面残酷。有些人让各种凶猛的动物如熊、象、犀牛、狮子等互相拼斗或与持有武器的人相斗。还有些人让通常装备各种武器的角斗士互相格斗，直至倒地死去。特别使人震惊的是规模空前的大屠杀。在提留斯为罗马大斗兽场举行落成仪式的那一天，杀死了5000头牲畜。图拉真曾让IO000名达契亚俘虏互相角斗至死。
一幅浮雕的局部：被罗马士兵斩首的日耳曼贵族。
罗马豪华的公共浴室也为较好地度过闲暇时间提供了条件。这些公共浴室是精心建造的，戴克里先时期的公共浴室占地32 英亩，卡拉卡拉时期的公共浴室占地27英亩。这种公共浴室当然比结构简单的浴池要多得多。它们除提供热水浴、温水浴和冷水浴以外，还没有锻炼身体的设备、休息室、花园和图书馆。总之，它们是规模宏大的“运动俱乐部”，它们令人钦佩地促进了“健全的头脑寓于健康的身体”这一思想。
最后，罗马在这几个世纪里也是帝国文化的中心。这一文化如前所述，基本上源出希腊，尤其在文学、艺术和哲学诸领域（见第七章第三节）。但是在工程和法律方面，罗马人因为爱好实践，作出了自己重要的贡献。比较典型的是，罗马人虽在理论科学上没什么建树，可在开挖沟渠、铺设下水道网、建造桥梁和公路方面是很出色的。公路筑得极好，其底层是置于坚硬泥土中的大石头，中层为沙砾，上层是大石板。路面被仔细地造成中凸形，使路面的水排入公路两侧的沟渠。这些出色的公路连同途中的桥梁因建造得好，一直使用到中世纪，有些甚至使用到现在。同样，罗马的建筑物也和希腊的大不相同，主要是些世俗建筑物，如浴室、圆形剧场、运动场和凯旋门等。
罗马人在思想意识方面也许最重要的一个贡献是，他们的法律是基于理性而不是习俗。罗马人最早的法律是于公元前45O 年前后制定的《十二铜表法》，是一部简单、保守、代表农业民族的成文法。随着商业和帝国的发展，生活愈益复杂，原先的法律不再能满足需要。外国人在罗马可能遭到关押，他的财产可能被没收，就是一个典型的问题。遇上这种情况，适用什么法律呢，尤其是考虑到当时存在这样的观念：一个民族无论去何处，总携带它自己的法律。罗马人设立专门法庭来审理这类案件。多次审理的结果使他们认识到，外来民族中有许多法律制度，但是近乎普遍适用的法律原则只有少数几条。因而他们制定了一部新的法律——《万国法》，即国际法。他们认为这部法律对罗马人与非罗马人皆可适用。
罗马人发展的最终的法律观念也就是自然法的观念。自然法不是起源于司法实践，而是从斯多葛派关于有一个理性之神统治宇宙的思想中产生的。或者，用西塞罗的话来说，自然法超出于单纯的风俗习惯或公众舆论之上，“是由大自然确立起来的，通过健全的理智方能发现，而且对所有的时代和所有的民族都一样有效”。虽然法律专家们并不认为自然法无形中对罗马民法起了限制作用，但是他们确实把它看作是人类立法应当顺从的楷模。这一基本原则是罗马的一个伟大贡献，至今仍在起作用。实际上，罗马法是后来公元6世纪中期在查士丁尼法典中系统化的，从而构成欧洲拉丁国家、拉丁美洲国家、魁北克省和路易斯安那州现存法律制度的基础。
八、后期帝国，公元284-467年
罗马的伟大时代随着公元180 年马可·奥勒留的去世而告结束。他的前任们有一段时间是将继承权传给确有才能的养子们，这一制度使极有才能的统治者得以一个接一个地上任。但是，马可·奥勒留让他的亲生儿子康茂德作继承人。其结果是灾难性的。康茂德无视其作为帝国首脑应尽的职责，将大部分时间用于观看车赛和角斗赛。公元193年，康茂德遇刺身亡，他之后的统治者绝大部分和他一样不称职。那时，奥古斯都为保护首都安全而创立的训练有素、报酬优厚的禁卫军已不受控制，皇帝只有在得到禁卫军支持时才得以掌权。从公元235年至284年这一段时期里，有过近24个皇帝，可只有一个是因年老或患病而死。中央的分裂必然会削弱边境的防御。西方的边远行省遭到诸日耳曼部落的蹂躏，东方的边远行省受到萨萨尼亚人的重新崛起的波斯帝国的侵犯。
公元3 世纪时，帝国的衰微由于坚强而有才干的皇帝戴克里先（公元284—305年）和君士坦丁（公元312－317年）先后即位而一度中止。他们为加强帝国统一采取了不少政策，对各方面实行严格管制是其中的三项，是应种种急需而逐步实施的。由于某些农田无人耕种，帝国就要求村庄为这些被放弃的土地交纳集体税。由于通货膨胀日益加剧，帝国就颁布有名的物价敕令（公元301年），规定数千种商品和劳务的最高价格价格根据商品质量和劳务种类的不同而不同。由于利息率不断猛涨，就将利息率限制在6—12%之间，利息率的高低取决于所冒风险的大小。某些产品的短缺引起对出口商品的禁止，如各种粮食和诸如铁、青铜、武器、军队装备以及马等“战略物资”。对这些方面的控制实质上一直扩大到等级制度方面。君士坦丁要求每个士兵的儿子继续当士兵，除非他不适宜服兵役。同样，农业劳动者须永久地、世世代代地务农。这一趋势后来扩大到被认为必不可少或后继无人的各行各业。
在这一困难时期采取的另一政策是实行分区治理。帝国经济状况的恶化证明这样做是必需的。戴克里先将国土一划为二，东半部归他自己管辖，西半部由他新任命的共同皇帝分掌。当君士坦丁在博斯普鲁斯海峡西岸古希腊殖民城市拜占庭的所在地建立一个新都时，这一划分进一步强固了。新都选择这一地点是很鼓舞人心的，因为这座不久后被称为君士坦丁堡的新城由于海峡两端狭窄而易于防守，并为抵达地处边区的极其重要的多瑙河和幼发拉底河提供了便利的通路。因而，君士坦丁堡成为当时世界上的一座伟大城市，成为罗马和西部帝国灭亡后的数世纪里、东罗马帝国即拜占庭帝国引以自豪的首都。
较后的数世纪里，给后世以深刻影响的另一政策与基督教和帝国政府之间的关系有关。君士坦丁作出了通过与基督教合作而不是镇压基督教来谋求稳定和统一的重大决定。这表示历时数世纪的对宗教的一贯态度和做法已告结束。帝国后阶段，多变的日常生活使愈来愈多的人转向各种救世宗教以寻求安慰，就跟早先在希腊化东方所发生的情况一样（见本章第四节）。对皇帝和官方多神教的崇拜已不再能满足人们精神上的需要。赞美神秘的东方诸神的各种宗教性团体为世界、行为准则以及如何免除罪恶和死亡，提供了令人满意的解释。
诸新宗教中，基督教最为成功。它提出了“一个上帝”即“全能上帝”的教义，来代替多神教的希腊、罗马诸神和广为传播的一种教的东方崇拜对象。基督教带来了救世主耶稣——耶稣不是神话中提到的迷宫里的暧昧人物，尽管他是上帝的儿子，却令人惊叹地过着尘世生活——的安慰：“我给你们带来了所有人都将获得极大欢乐的消息。”基督教还保证拯救信徒的灵魂，但是，它不是通过许诺一个星光灿烂的来世，而是通过基督本人复活所预示的个人的复活，使信徒醒悟过来。所有一切中最重要的也许是，基督教在一个混乱不宁的时代，在老百姓感到无家可归、为生活所抛弃之时，提供了友谊。所有基督徒都是兄弟，他们的聚会常被称作'阿加比”，意为希腊语中的“爱”。他们相互帮助，用自己的虔诚和克己树立了一个能鼓舞人的、富有感染力的榜样。因而，在旧秩序的法律和哲学日益落后于潮流、日益行不通之时，基督教为弱者和地位微贱者提供了顺应潮流的东西和希望。
到公元64 年罗马城遭大火时，基督徒已数目大增，以致使尼禄相信，谴责基督徒为祸患、开始历史上对基督徒多次迫害的第一次，是策略的。但是，这仅仅使殉难者死后得到神圣的名声，驱使人们努力改变宗教信仰。在4世纪初对基督徒进行了最后一次大迫害之后，皇帝君士坦丁颁布米兰敕令（313年），承认基督徒不再为异教徒，准许基督教同其他宗教一样享有信仰自由。最后，皇帝狄奥多西（379－395年）使基督教实际上成为国教。虽然罗马旧贵族和普教者尤里安皇帝（361－ 363年）为了改宗异教，曾打了一场顽强的维护异教的战争，但到4世纪末，还是基督教占居统治地位。
正象皇帝们采纳基督教是为了促进社会统一那样，他们采用华丽盛大的东方宫廷礼仪也基于这同一原因。戴克里先与授自己以“第一公民”称号的奥古斯都不同，替自己取名乔维安，意即朱庇特在尘世的代表，而君士坦丁皈依基督教后，也摆出付神圣的架式。自此以后，皇帝们的权力被认为是从神那里得来的，而不是公民们授予的。因此，现在的朝廷仪式使皇帝显得遥远而不可接近。皇帝头戴饰宝石的皇冠，身穿镇金的紫绸长袍，所有臣民都须拜倒在皇帝面前，只有少数权贵在得到准许时可吻皇帝长袍的边。帝国高级官吏也同样享有荣华富贵——掌管财务的人成为“负责神圣的赏赐物的伯爵”，帝国议会被称为“神圣的参议会”。
3 世纪和4世纪的皇帝们采用这些措施，勇敢地力求阻挡帝国的衰落。如果光凭决心和努力便能成事，他们原本可取得惊人的成功。实际上，他们确也多少稳定了形势，但只是暂时的。他们作巨大努力的最后结果是延缓而不是避免了帝国的灭亡。从406年起，西罗马的皇帝们已无力阻止高卢、西班牙和非洲的法兰克人、勃艮第人、西哥特人和汪达尔人的长期的大规模入侵。他们也未能制止410年和450年蛮族人两度洗劫罗马这一最大侮辱。最后，也就是476年，西罗马最后一个皇帝罗慕路斯·奥古斯图卢斯在日耳曼即匈奴雇佣军军官奥多亚塞的逼迫下不得不退位。
这一事件虽然现被普遍地当作西罗马帝国灭亡的标志，但在当时，只是说明帝国长达两个多世纪的分崩瓦解的过程已告结束，并没引起多少注意。如果要了解“罗马陷落”的原因，如果可使用大动乱这一传统说法，那就必须确定这一长期然而无情的衰落，直至湮没无闻的过程的动力是什么。
充当应对“陷落”负责的工具的，当然是日耳曼蛮族。因而，有位法国历史学家断言说：“罗马文明不是自然消亡的，而是被扼杀的。”这一判断可找到一些理由证明其正确性，尤其是如果至今还记得：在较早世纪中被称为日耳曼人的无数小部落后来合并成法兰克人、阿勒曼尼人和哥特人的较大的政治单位。然而，即使那样，也不是不可抵挡的游牧部落全凭数量上的优势扫除一切。历史学家们估计，入侵意大利的东哥特人只有10万左右，征服西班牙和法自南部的前开德人也只有10万左右，越过直布罗陀海峡进入北非的汪达尔人总共才8万，占该地区土著居民的1% 。
所以，问题仍然是——罗马为什么会“陷落”？最近，有位美国历史学家说：“虽然战争显然是灭亡的原因……但帝国的机质性病是经济。”实际上，这一“机质性病”不仅在罗马帝国，而且在诸希腊化国家、古典希腊甚至更早的古代文明中，都可见到。它们都为生产率低下这一基本问题所折磨。生产率低下是因为，在取得诸如冶金术、犁、轮子、帆和太阳历这些核心发明的新石器时代之后，未能大大地促进技术的发展。
技术阻滞不前的根本原因看来在于奴隶制度，奴隶制度是所有这些文明的普遍公认的组成部分。甚至在古典希腊，虽然那里的奴隶制度从未象在罗马那样猖獗过，但如前所述，亚里士多德已宣称，有些人生来是统治者，有些人生来是被统治者；如果后者拒绝接受预先注定的命运，那么象追猎“野兽”一样追逐他们直至捕获，“自然是正当的”。
奴隶制度的影响是有害且多方面的。它使奴隶失去改进其所操行业的传统操作方法的积极性；只要有大量的奴隶劳动力可获取，它也使主人丧失促进技术革新的动机。因而，在韦斯巴芗统治时期，当在令罗马圣皮特罗广场坚立一座方尖碑时，虽然当时有位发明者提出了一项可以大大方便竖碑的技术措施，但皇帝为了不让奴隶们有空可闲，宁愿让他们继续从事体力劳动。同样，水车虽然早在公元前1世纪已为帝国东部行省所知道，可直到公元4世纪奴隶来源枯缩之时，才为罗马所采用。
占有奴隶的社会自然倾向于把体力劳动与奴隶相联系，从而认为从事体力劳动有损于自由民的尊严；这种倾向也是同样有害的。古希腊散文家普卢塔克说，伟大的阿基米德
奴隶制度通过这些不同的方面，在实行平等主义的新石器时代之后的数千年中，不断地阻止技术革新。奴隶制度对国内市场也起了抑制的经济影响，因为奴隶显然无力购买自己的劳动成果，这就限制了国内购买力。
帝国结构上这些根本的缺点在一段时间里由于帝国扩张以及随之而来的大量的战利品、贡物、粮食和奴隶而得到遮蔽。但是，在当时那样的技术发展水平上，帝国的扩张受到种种限制，这些限制是由后勤和交通方面的需求所决定的。罗马同中国一样，前进到一定程度，就再也不能前进了。那一限度一经达到，帝国疆界就固定下来，甚或开始缩小，于是，从前隐藏的帝国结构上的缺点渐渐显露出来。
阿什博纳姆《旧约全书》的首五卷中的一页；用拉丁文写成，被认为是西哥特人唯一的金泥写本；它多少表明了罗马对已促成其陷落的诸蛮族部落有着持久的影响。
军队从前一直是获取奴隶和物质财富的有用的来源，而现在成为沉重而不可避免的负担。同样，扩张时期肿胀起来的官僚机构，现到了收缩时期，证明是难以忍受的。过度的支出导致最终无法控制的通货膨胀。例如，在埃及，公元1 世纪时，一个计量单位的小麦的价格为六个德拉克马，公元276年时涨为200个德拉克马，314年时涨为9000个德拉克马，334年时涨为78000个德拉克马，334年后不久涨为20O多万个德拉克马。面对这样的通货膨胀，货币变得毫无价值，在某些场合，又回复到物物交换。物物交换的趋向随工业不断向农村和外省传播而加速。工业传播的原因是多方面的，包括帝国交通工具的恶化和奴隶供给量的下降，后者使发掘新的劳动刀来源成为必需。工业从城市转移到乡村和大庄园意味着帝国在实行重新分配。大庄园不仅拥有农业劳动者，而且有各种工匠，因而变得愈来愈自给自足。而大庄园愈自给自足，帝国经济则愈分解为一个个自给自足的单位。
经济上的分散必然伴随以政治上的分权。随着贸易的衰落和国家岁入的减少，帝国大厦不再能支持下去，并慢慢地开始崩溃。这一因素促使戴克里先和君士坦丁不顾一切地努力以帝国的法令来支撑帝国大厦。但是，帝国的疾病是“机质性的”，而非表面的，所以一切严格管制虽然起了维持、加强统治的作用，但最终还是没有用的。不过，严格管制不是帝国衰微的原因，而是试图阻止衰微的一剂无效的药。正如一位经济史学家所指出的，“危机先于严格管制”。
因此，西罗马帝国“陷落“而东罗马帝国却没有的主要原因就在于，西部的经济不及东部的先进发达。意大利农业从未象中东冲积土流域的农业那样多产。意大利的谷物产量“平均不过是播种量的四倍”。所以，中欧和北欧的沃土在中世纪的技术发展到能够有效地开发它们之前，只好耐心地等待。同样，西部的工业也发生得比较迟，普遍落后于东部的工业。意大利的情况就是这样，高卢的情况更是如此，高卢是西部唯一的另一个曾有工业根基的行省。所以，虽然整个罗马帝国是因“机质性病”而毁灭，但帝国的西部最不坚固，首先屈服，而东部则又生存了一千年。
西罗马帝国尽管灭亡了，可确也留下了丰富的遗产。最显而易见的是物质方面的遗迹——圆形剧场、竞技场、庙宇、导水管、公路和桥梁。还有就是语言方面的遗产——欧洲的罗曼诸语言。罗马法如前所述，至今仍大量存留在欧洲和南北美洲许多同家的法律体系中。今日天主教会的组织和仪式也要大大归功于昔日罗马帝国的组织和宗教传统。最后，“罗马和平”曾带来长达二个世纪的相对和平和繁荣，从而留下一个代替希腊人的城邦独立原则的帝国统一的传统。在此以后的数世纪里，正是这一传统做起全欧洲蛮族王公们争当大元帅、东罗马帝国统治者或沙皇的妄想和野心。