Chapter 8 Chapter 6 The End of Ancient Civilization

In every civilization, there are poets and thinkers who look back with fondness on the past.They saw prehistoric people as "noble savages," untouched by the corrupting influence of civilization.Long ago, when the first great chapter of human existence was "just beginning," the world was a paradise.There are many poems and books in Indian epics that praise the beautiful past, saying that there was no class distinction in the society at that time, and people could enjoy the fun of life freely and carefree.The Greek poet Hesiod in the eighth century BC also described it in the same way.He first described the golden age long ago, and then from the silver age, the black iron age to the tragic age in which the author lived, he outlined the process of human destiny going from bad to worse.

The pervasive and long-term existence of the idea of ​​primitive man's extreme happiness is based on certain historical facts.Although the various civilizations of the ancient world differed from each other in terms of their "type," the way they saw and dealt with life, they were remarkably similar in one fundamental respect.They all changed the relationship between people in the same way, replaced the classless society before civilization with a new class society, and thus brought a profound impact on all aspects of human society, not only improving productivity, Moreover, the society becomes extremely fragile and vulnerable to the aggression of nomadic tribes.The purpose of this chapter is to analyze the historical significance of ancient civilizations and the circumstances of the massive invasions in the second millennium BC that laid the foundations for later classical civilizations.

As far as economic and social relations were concerned, members of pre-civilized tribes had equal and unfettered rights to the natural resources necessary to sustain life.Economic equality and the same social status are the hallmarks of Neolithic villages.But when tribal members became farmers, their rights to the land were no longer unfettered and they no longer had full access to the fruits of their labor.While their obligations vary from region to region, the end result is the same everywhere.After paying a certain amount of the fruits of labor to the state, priests, landowners, and usurers, there was almost always just enough left over for their meager subsistence.Therefore, contrary to egalitarian hunting groups in the Paleolithic Age and village communities in the Neolithic Age, two classes, the rich and the poor, inevitably emerged in ancient civilizations and civilizations in subsequent periods.

What does the emergence of these two classes mean?A good answer can be found in the words of an Egyptian father as early as the third millennium B.C. while taking his son to school.In order to persuade his son to study hard, he compared the misfortune of farmers and craftsmen with the happiness of learned scribes and officials.He said: The arrival of civilization also brought about drastic changes in political relations.In the past, the constraints imposed on the Neolithic villagers, both internally and externally, were the result of incomplete development.Now, however, tribal chiefs and elders have been replaced by kings or emperors and local officials—such as court ministers, provincial or district officials, judges, clerks, and accountants.Closely allied with the imperial government is the priesthood, which is also a major feature of civilization.In the past, wizards were just "amateur religious professionals", but now the priests who replaced wizards have become "full-time religious professionals".This made possible the creation of an official theology and the formation of priestly groups.Both theology and the priesthood served to strengthen the secular order.They endow political institutions and leaders with divine sanction and divine attributes.The ishakku of Mesopotamia was considered the deputy regent of the god of the city, while the pharaoh of Egypt was revered as a "living god".The combination of theocracy and secular power powerfully defended the status quo; for few dared to plot evil at the risk of immediate punishment in this world and eternal punishment in the world to come.

As for culture, the changes brought about by civilization are also fundamental and lasting.In the past, the culture of Neolithic village communities was always spontaneous and single.All villagers have the same knowledge, common customs, consistent views, and the way of life they maintain is not determined by the outside world.However, with the advent of civilization came a new, more complex society.In addition to the traditional culture of the peasants in the village community, there are various new cultures, namely: the culture of the scribes - the scribes are familiar with the mysterious art of writing, the culture of the priests - the priests know the secrets of the kingdom of heaven, the culture of the artists - the artists Know how to paint and carve, the culture of the merchants - merchants trade goods in all lands except deserts and seas.Therefore, culture is no longer as unitary as it used to be.Two cultures known as "high" and "low" began to develop.High culture was found in the schools, temples, and courts of the cities; low culture was found in the villages.High culture was passed down in writing by philosophers, theologians, and scholars, while low culture was passed down orally among illiterate peasants.

The distinction between high culture and low culture is usually ignored because we rely on written sources; written sources naturally only emphasize the existence of various high cultures and their respective characteristics, but do not understand the coexistence of high and low cultures in civilizations. An equally important fact is often omitted.In order to fully understand the history of humankind since civilization, civilizations must be examined not only together but individually.In the words of the anthropologist Robert Redfield, one must "sneak from village to village. . In many basic respects the peasants of the region were again identical from Sumerian times to the present.Although their complexion may be yellow, white, or brown, and their crops may be rice, wheat, or maize, everywhere, as the historian Oskar Handelin notes, "the peasants maintained a steady consistency."

Farmers in all regions possessed a great deal of practical knowledge about agriculture—knowledge about weather, plant cultivation, animal husbandry, burning methods, and fermentation processes.Peasants in all regions also regard hard work as the best virtue, and look down on city people who are weak and easily fatigued.They all long to own a small piece of land, a few livestock, and a few simple tools for farming and working, because this means independence and security. In order to obtain independence and security, all farmers stubbornly resist outside interference This kind of interference comes from the landlord, or from the contemporary collective.However, the public life and public relations in the village just offset this "strong individualism" of the peasants.Good neighbors are always ready to sympathize and help those in need, and are always willing to take part in building houses, lighting fires, celebrating harvest festivals, and other social activities.

The relationship between high culture and low culture is often ambivalent and tense.On the one hand, the peasants had a sense of superiority and believed that rural life and agricultural labor were more moral than urban life and various occupations in the city; on the other hand, they were economically and politically dominated by the city.Landlords, tax collectors, priests, and soldiers from the city were arrogant and arbitrary, making it easy for people to tell who was the ruler and who was the ruled.The peasants idealized hard labor, while the aristocrats regarded hard labor as the most despicable, suitable only for the helpless common people.Although the aristocrats lived well by exploiting the peasants, they attributed this to their superior intellect and virtue.For thousands of years, this view inevitably took root in the minds of Eurasian peasants, making them subservient and submissive.And those peasants who were unwilling to submit were always immediately hit by the soldiers physically and hurt by the priests spiritually.The scars left by all this can be clearly seen from the following report.This report describes contemporary Indonesian farmers bowing and bowing in front of Dutch officials, while Papuan tribesmen stood upright.

Obviously, the advent of civilization has destroyed the equal relationship between people; however, civilization has also brought great benefits to mankind and enabled mankind to achieve many achievements.From a historical perspective, civilization is an important step in the evolution of human beings.In this respect, civilization is similar to the Industrial Revolution.The Industrial Revolution initially caused painful divisions in society and untold human suffering, but ultimately decisively increased human productivity and welfare.The same is true of urban revolution and civilization.The life of the average Neolithic tribesman may have been more perfect and more satisfying than that of the average farmer or urban worker; but, precisely because tribal culture was at ease and free from tension, productivity was also lower then. (See Chapter III, Section IV).The taxes and land rent imposed by tax collectors, priests and landlords were heavy, but they also strongly promoted the increase in production.The massive increase in population in the great river basin region is a conclusive evidence of productivity gains. "There is no doubt that this conclusion can be drawn from the larger size of the new city than any original 'Neolithic' village, from the large necropolis near the city and from the astonishing work done by the citizens."

Standards of living also rise with population growth.Religious and secular monarchs, high priests and senior officials enjoyed all kinds of food, expensive clothes and ornately furnished mansions that the tribal chiefs could not dream of.The emerging middle class - merchants, scribes, low-level officials and priests - also lived the same comfortable and superior life as today's middle class.Even the general masses—if not psychosocially, but materially—are better off in some respects.A British archaeologist pointed out, "The fish transported from the Persian Gulf to Ragash and from the Arabian Sea to Mohenjo Daro...maybe a very common consumer product at that time, but Stone Age farmers never tasted it. The dwellings of the Harappan artisans were more spacious than the Neolithic huts."

Thanks to the new art of writing, civilization also made possible the steady accumulation and transmission of knowledge from generation to generation.Museums today are filled with exhibits that represent astounding achievements in ancient technology.The beginnings of various sciences such as mathematics, astronomy and medicine can also be traced back thousands of years.The bustle of the city center opened the eyes of architects, sculptors, painters, musicians and poets. It is true that these precious achievements have greatly benefited the few, and little has been gained by the many who in the last analysis paid for high culture.But the important thing is that throughout human history, humans have made a lot of progress.It is these advances accumulated over thousands of years that enable modern humans to control nature and obtain enormous productivity through science and technology, so that the majority can now benefit together with the minority.During that long intermediate period, the low culture of the village remained largely unchanged; but the various high cultures, in religion, philosophy, art, and science, underwent constant change.These changes will be discussed in the third and fourth sections, and the following sections discuss the decline and decline of ancient civilizations. In the second millennium BC, the Eurasian continent was in a period of turmoil, that is, the period when nomads invaded, ancient empires were overthrown, and the old social system disintegrated.The commotion was violent, and all of Eurasia was in chaos.Therefore, the 2nd millennium BC is a transitional period in which ancient civilizations disappeared from the historical stage and were replaced by classical civilizations. This large-scale alternation of rise and fall of empires has happened more than once in the long river of history.This raises the question of why.In other words, is the political corruption and social disintegration of the entire Eurasian continent mainly due to internal decay or the intrusion of external forces?It is extremely difficult to answer such a wide-ranging question with certainty and definiteness.For the sake of safety, although both internal and external factors can be said to be the main factors determining the development of the situation, in doing so, it is impossible to accurately ascertain the extent to which internal and external factors played a role in each Eurasian region. The first is internal weakness.Because copper and bronze are expensive and scarce, they cannot be widely used to make weapons and tools.This makes weapons actually monopolized by the monarch and his political and military groups, thus strengthening their privileged position and placing them at the top of the social pyramid.At the same time, it meant that only a small fraction of the total population was armed; a very serious disadvantage when ancient centers of civilization had to face the attack of whole armed nomads. The extremely expensive copper and bronze also deprived farmers of metal tools and had to rely on stone axes, stone hoes, stone knives and stone sickles for production.This greatly reduces productivity because stone tools are not as efficient or durable as metal tools.The stagnation of technological progress also prevents productivity gains.British archaeologist V. Gordon Child wrote: "In the millennium before 3000 B.C., man made perhaps more fruitful inventions and discoveries than at any other period in human history before the sixteenth century A.D. During these 1,000 years, humans learned to harness the power of wind and animals, and invented the wheel, the art of writing, irrigation techniques, and chemical processes in metallurgy, as mentioned earlier (see Chapter 4, Section 2).In contrast, there was no such great explosion of creativity in the third and second millennium BC; the only comparable inventions in this period are iron technology (1400 BC) and alphabetic writing ( 1300 BC). According to V．In Gordon Child's opinion, one of the reasons for the stagnation of technological progress lies in the class division mentioned in the previous section.Class divisions undermine the factors that promote technological change.Because although the ruling group can obtain a large number of obedient labor forces such as tenants or slaves, the tenants or slaves will not be active when the increase in production can only benefit others and not bring any benefits to themselves. Take the initiative to invent or adopt new technologies and methods.Recently, an Indian villager commented to an American missionary that the obstacles to technological change due to social inequality still exist today.He said: In addition to internal weakness, there is the constant threat of invasion by nomads from outside.These threats came mainly from the Semitic tribesmen in the southern desert, the Indo-Europeans in the west of the Eurasian steppe, and the Mongol-Turkic peoples in the east of the steppe. Indo-Europeans are not so much a racial group as a cultural group.They probably originated in the Caspian Sea region earlier, where they herded cattle and engaged in a small amount of farming.Because they mainly rely on animal husbandry for their livelihood, as long as they find a more ideal place, they will carry all their luggage in a large bullock cart and migrate there.Always the whole tribe moves together when it moves, women, children, and warriors all take part.Indo-Europeans thus pushed westward into southern Russia and southeastern Europe.By 2000 BC they had spread over a wide area from the Danube plain to the valleys of the Oxus and Jahats rivers.Based on this vast region, they increasingly threatened the geographically accessible centers of civilization—the Middle East, the Balkans, and the Indus Valley. Between the Indo-European ethnic groups in the west of the steppe and the Mongol-Turks in the east of the steppe, there is an earliest dividing line, which is the Altai Mountains and the Tianshan Mountains.The prairies east of this dividing line are higher, drier, and generally harsher.The pastures here are not as fat as those in the west. Sheep, camels and horses can be grazed, but not cattle.This geographical imbalance created a corresponding historical imbalance, that is, there was a long-lasting and far-reaching ethnic migration from east to west.The peoples of the eastern steppes were drawn to the west either as refugees or as conquerors.Group after group of tribes moved westward one after another—the Scythians migrated from the Altai Mountains to Ukraine; In the 19th century, it invaded and occupied most of Eurasia and established a large empire.These oriental nomadic tribes, due to their geographical location, could not only enter Europe, the Middle East, and India, but also China; whenever they had the opportunity, they invaded China from time to time. Due to the great migration of ethnic groups from east to west, the ethnic composition of the ethnic groups in the western part of the steppe gradually changed. At least in the area west to the Caspian Sea, the original Caucasian race was dominant and the Mongol race was dominant.This transition began at the end of the first millennium BC and continued until the end of the Middle Ages.Thereafter, Slavic Russians equipped themselves with Western technology, first with muskets and artillery, then with machine guns and railroads, turning the trend of ethnic composition in the opposite direction. The Semites occupied roughly the region from the Mediterranean Sea to the Tigris River, from the Taurus Mountains to Aden.They first appeared in the desert areas of the Arabian Peninsula, and their history is also composed of successive waves of migration.Earlier, the Semites used donkeys as a means of transportation. Around 1100 BC, the domestication of camels changed their culture, just as the domestication of horses changed the culture of grassland nomads.With the rise of civilization, many Semitic tribes lived near the cities and formed a symbiotic relationship with the city residents; and they were always ready to attack these cities whenever they had the opportunity. The ancient centers of civilization on the fringes of Eurasia were irresistible magnets for the surrounding tribes.Abundant crops, barns brimming with grain, and the dizzying array of luxuries in cities all lured hungry nomads across the steppes and deserts.Thus the ancient centers of civilization were raided from time to time—especially the cities of Mesopotamia, since they were more vulnerable to raids than the cities of Crete, the Nile, or the Indus.It was not until the second millennium BC, however, that the balance of power across Eurasia began to shift, and the survival of great civilizations was first threatened by nomads. The domestication of horses and the later invention of ironmaking were two very significant developments that gave nomads new capabilities for warfare.As far as is known, the Middle East is the first place to domesticate animals, and also the first place to ride animals.Both occurred around 5000 BC.However, in the early stage, the phenomenon of riding animals was rare, because the only animals available at that time were cattle and wild asses, and the speed of cattle was too slow, and the wild ass was too small.However, the practice of domesticating animals then spread north to southern Russia, where wild asses and horses were produced.By 2500 BC, these two animals had been domesticated locally; and, because of their large size, strong physique, and fast speed, horses were soon favored by nomads in the southern part of Chengguo.They adopt the method of selective breeding to make the horse bigger and bigger.The average height of wild horses is 13 hands wide (a hand is about four inches wide), while the average height of modern domestic horses is 15 to 16 hands wide.If horses are bred indiscriminately for several generations, domestic horses will quickly shrink back to the size of wild horses in the American West. When nomads used horses to fight, the earliest method was to harness the horses to light two-wheeled carts.The spoked wheels of this cart were a vast improvement over the bulky solid four-wheeled carts of Mesopotamia.The combination of tall horses and handy carts gave the nomads a formidable weapon—the chariot.In the second millennium BC, nomads drove this kind of chariot, setting off the earliest wave of invasion.When fighting by chariot, one warrior controls the horse, while the other warriors shoot arrows with crossbows.A volley of crossbows was fired, and arrows were flying like rain. Few infantrymen could resist for a long time, let alone resist the dense chariots that followed and charged. By the end of the second millennium BC, nomads replaced chariots with cavalry, further improving their combat effectiveness.At this time, the horse is tall and strong, and can directly ride a person.Moreover, the nomads also invented the bridle, the bit, the horn-shaped saddle and the stirrup, which allowed them to free their hands and shoot a shower of arrows when the horse galloped.The nomads of Oia gained unprecedented mobility and were able to catch up with and defeat armies defending urban centers.The military prowess of the nomads in classical times and the Middle Ages was largely based on horseback combat; finally, in the thirteenth century, it enabled Genghis Khan to accomplish an astonishing series of conquests.It was not until Western firearms gained the upper hand that centers of civilization were freed from the threat of frequent nomadic invasions. For nomads in the desert, camels are no less important than horses.There are two kinds of camels: Arabian dromedary camels and Bactrian camels; the former are adapted to the hot desert environment, and the latter are adapted to the cold desert environment.Both camels are able to live in regions where even a donkey would starve to death, and both can go for weeks without eating or drinking, relying on the fat stored in their humps and the water stored in their multichambered stomachs.It is unclear when and where camels were first domesticated, but by 1000 BC, transportation across the desert regions of Central Asia and the Middle East depended entirely on this 'ship of the desert'. The invention of iron ore smelting technology also improved the combat effectiveness of nomads.This technique did not develop in northeastern Asia Minor until the middle of the second millennium BC; it was not until the fall of the Hittite Empire around 1200 BC that the local blacksmiths dispersed and spread their skills widely.The reason why iron smelting technology appeared late is mainly because the process of smelting iron ore is fundamentally different from the process of smelting copper and copper alloys. When smelting copper, the molten metal sinks to the bottom of the furnace, while the slag floats on top.When iron is smelted, at least within the range of temperatures attained by ancient furnaces, the iron does not completely liquefy, but instead forms a gray porous body, technically known as lump iron.The discovery that repeatedly hammering a hot block of iron into wrought iron is understandably belated.This new metal was by no means an improvement over the copper and bronze which were castable at that time, because it was not easy to cast, required more fuel, and lost its edge more easily.It was later discovered that iron could be hardened by repeatedly hammering it, heating it, throwing it into cold water (quenching), and contacting it with charcoal, an impure form of charcoal.What had to be discovered was not just a new metal, but a whole new kind of metallurgy--for which the early blacksmiths, acting by experience, were unprepared. Although the iron is harder than before after the improved casting method, it is still easy to rust.This defect, however, is more than compensated for by the far wider distribution of iron ores than copper and tin, and the correspondingly lower cost of iron production, than by the defect itself.This means that iron tools are now affordable for ordinary farmers.Agricultural productivity increased, and the scope of agriculture was extended to densely forested areas that were previously out of reach of stone axes (see Chapter 7, Section 1).This cheap new metal also had a major impact on the military balance of Eurasia.Once upon a time, poor nomads could not equip themselves with the abundance of expensive bronze weapons that rulers in urban centers could.But now, iron ore was available in almost every district, and every village's blacksmith could forge new weapons that were better than the old ones and cheaper.Thus, nomadic warriors now not only have an advantage in mobility, but also have the same good and plentiful iron weapons as soldiers guarding civilized areas. The combination of horses and iron weapons prompted nomads to launch two massive waves of invasion across the centers of civilizations.For the first time, between 1700 and 1500 BC, invaders usually held bronze weapons and drove horse-drawn chariots to invade the center of civilization; for the second time, between 1200 and 1100 BC, invaders Usually mounted on horseback, fighting with iron weapons.These invasions should not be regarded as invasions of large-scale nomadic tribes that replaced the native races and completely changed the distribution of the races.Rather, it should be said that a small number of invaders, relying on their superiority in military technology, formed a warrior aristocratic group and ruled the conquered nations that far exceeded them in number. As a result, civilizations everywhere except the Middle East were destroyed.The Middle East is an exception, not because it hasn't been invaded; in fact, the Middle East has been invaded the most due to its geography making it easy for outsiders to enter.Although the empires in the Middle East rose and fell rapidly one by one, the civilizations in the Middle East are still enduring.One reason is that the civilization in the Middle East has a long history, so the roots of civilization are deeper.Another reason is that by 1700 B.C. many vast areas of the Middle East had been civilized and could not all be conquered or destroyed.Finally, the Middle East is usually invaded not by primitive barbarians freshly brought from the steppes or deserts, but by semi-civilized barbarians already inhabiting the surrounding areas, who, in the course of their conquest, have been partly overtaken by Middle Eastern civilization. assimilation. Around 2000 BC, the Hittites of the Indo-European language family probably entered Asia Minor by crossing the Caucasus Mountains.They united with the local peoples, and in the next few centuries, they established a huge empire including most of Syria and the whole of Asia Minor.Around 1590 BC, they also attacked Babylon, but they never managed to gain a foothold in Mesopotamia.The Kassites were another Indo-European tribe from the Zagros Mountains in eastern Mesopotamia.They took advantage of the Hittite raids on Babylon, occupied the ancient capital, and established the third Babylonian Dynasty, which lasted for several centuries (1600-1100 BC).Another invading tribe was the Hurrians, biblically called the Horites, apparently from the Armenian highlands.They founded the Mitanni Empire in the north of the Babylonian Empire, that is, the Assyrian region, which reached its peak around 1500 BC.The Hurrians adopted much of Mesopotamian culture and spread it to surrounding peoples, including the Hittites of Asia Minor.Even Egypt, well protected by its environment, was not immune to these chaotic centuries.From 1720 BC to 1570, Egypt was ruled by foreign invaders, the Hyksos.The Hyksos are composed of some ethnically mixed, but mainly Semitic nomadic tribes.With their horse-drawn chariots, lumbering swords and body armor, they ruled all of Ewa from their base in the Nile Delta. However, they have always been hated as foreigners from "Asia". By 1500 BC, the first wave of invasions subsided in the Middle East.The overwhelming majority of indigenous peoples launched a struggle to expel the invaders.The Egyptians adopted the combat techniques and weapons of the Hyksos, expelled the Hyksos from the country in 1570 BC, and established the Eighteenth Dynasty. Since then, Egyptian history has entered the New Kingdom period.After experiencing this foreign rule, the Egyptians sought their own security by expanding their territory.By the middle of the 15th century BC, they controlled Palestine, Syria, and Phoenicia, and their sphere of influence even reached as far as the Euphrates River Basin.They allowed local rulers to remain on the throne, but power rested with the Egyptian garrison and senior commanders.Similarly, the native leaders of Assyria also successfully overthrew the Mitanni Empire, and then conquered the Kassites, established the first Assyrian Empire, and ruled the Mesopotamian Valley.As a result, three major powers were formed in the Middle East, the Hittite Empire in the north, the Egyptian Empire in the south, and the Assyrian Empire in the east. Around 1200 BC, the second wave of barbarian invasion broke out, and the balance of power among the above three empires was destroyed.While the new invaders were less destructive than the first, their imprint on the Middle East was permanent.Due to the endless wars between the Hittite Empire and the Egyptian Empire for many years, they were exhausted and had to withdraw from the Syria-Palestine corridor.So the new invaders get a lot of good.Three Semitic peoples filled this vacuum.The Phoenicians settled down along the Mediterranean coast and established an important industrial and commercial center there.The Arameans settled in Syria, Palestine and northern Mesopotamia, and just as the Phoenicians developed into masters of sea trade routes, they used Damascus as their base and became masters of land trade routes.The Hebrews settled Palestine and Syria, and because of their religion they were destined to play a major role in history.Meanwhile, other invaders from the east, the Indo-European Medes and the Semitic Chaldeans, were infiltrating Iran and southern Mesopotamia. Around 1100 BC, a new center of power, the Second Assyrian Empire, was formed.Iron weapons, a well-trained army, an effective bureaucracy, and iron battering rams mounted on wheels enabled the Assyrians to steadily extend their rule.By the seventh century BC, the Second Assyrian Empire, with Nineveh as its capital, included all of Mesopotamia, parts of the Iranian plateau, Asia Minor, Syria, Palestine, and Egypt as far south as Thebes.But the overreach of the empire and the unquenchable hostility of the conquered peoples led to disastrous results.In 612 B.C. the Medes and Chaldeans formed an alliance, along with the Scythian nomads to the north, to destroy Nineveh, ending forever the Assyrian role in history. In the short time after the fall of Nineveh, the Medes and Chaldeans shared the legacy of the collapse of the Assyrian Empire.But at this time, a new giant appeared - the Persian Empire, which was the largest empire up to that time.The Persians, who were associated with and ruled by the Medes, first defeated their past overlords, and then under the leadership of King Cyrus (550-529 BC), using Assyrian military technology, frequently Invaded Asia Minor and ravaged the Babylonian Chaldean Empire.In the decade following Cyrus' death, his successors conquered Egypt in the west and Punjab in India in the east.Thus the Persian Empire reached its zenith, stretching from the Nile to the Indus and beyond.The entire Middle East is under the rule of one country, and barbarian tribes are effectively suppressed. In spite of the turmoil of invasions, the rise and fall of kingdoms and empires, and the change of rulers throughout these long centuries, one significant fact remained unchanged: that cultures have an astonishing continuum. sex.As mentioned earlier, the destruction of political structures does not mean the extinction of civilization in the Middle East.On the contrary, the invading barbarians, lured by the luxuries of the cities and requiring the cooperation of local scribes, officials, and priests, quickly adapted to the lifestyles and traditions of their subjects.The Assyrians are very representative in this regard, as can be clearly seen from the following analysis. In stark contrast to the Middle East, there is no absolute cultural continuum in the peripheral regions of Greece, India, and China.Their civilizations lacked the depth in time and space that supported Mesopotamia and Egypt, and both were wiped out in waves of invasion in the second millennium BC.Regarding the development process of the situation, the Greek information now available is much richer and more reliable than that of India and China.One reason is that the Greeks had close contact with ancient Middle Eastern civilizations, and the latter’s documents provided important clues for understanding the Greek world. In addition, the Greeks themselves paid more attention to history than most of their contemporaries, leaving more ancient civilizations. records of their activities. The earliest Indo-European invaders of Greece were the Achaeans, who invaded Greece sporadically in the 20th century BC.These chariot soldiers holding bronze weapons have never been considered to have invaded Greece from the south from the Danube Plain, but recent evidence suggests that they may have invaded across the Aegean Sea from the northwest of Asia Minor.Their overall level of development was far behind the Cretans of the Minoan civilization, but by 1600 BC, these newcomers had absorbed a large amount of Minoan culture introduced into the mainland, from Thessaly to Many small kingdoms were established at the southern tip of the Peloponnese. The settlements on the Peloponnese were the most advanced because they were closest to Crete.Mycenae was the center of the Peloponnese peninsula from which the emerging civilization was named after it.The settlements in the Greek region of Mycenae were different from the cities on the island of Crete in that they all had strong fortifications.Usually, a huge castle is built on the top of the hill for the king and his officials to live in; the houses of the common people are built outside the castle, but in case of danger, the common people hide in the castle for refuge. Lion's Gate at Mycenae. Unlike the other Indo-European invaders who settled the Middle East and the Indus Valley, the Mycenaeans followed the example of the ancient Cretans, facing the sea and building a formidable sea force.They took every opportunity to plunder or do business, and established overseas colonies in Rhodes, Cyprus and the west coast of Asia Minor.They exported pottery, olive oil, and various animal hides in exchange for luxuries such as spices, ivory, and jewelry.最后，他们的商品将克里特岛的商品从南意大利、叙利亚和埃及的市场上排挤出去，从而瓦解了先前克里特岛在地中海的经济霸权，到公元前15世纪，他们还劫掠了克里特岛本身。没有城墙的城市，包括都城克诺索斯，均被攻占、摧毁。这些灾难连同一连串毁灭性的地震，使伟大的米诺斯文明到公元前1150年时，实际上已灭绝。 古希腊的瓶饰画：迈西尼的士兵：这些全副武装的武士进攻了克里特岛，摧毁了克诺索斯城，逐渐破坏了米诺斯文明。 与此同时，迈西尼人在新入侵者多里安人的手下，遭到了与克里特岛人相似的命运。多里安人出现于公元前120O年前后，他们用铁武器装备自己，一个接一个地攻占了迈西尼的城堡和城市。于是，希腊的行政制度瓦解，农业人口消散，对外贸易萧条，希腊又回复到农业和畜牧的经济状态。黑暗时代降临了，笼罩了整个希腊，直到约公元前800年造城邦崛起。 多里安人的主要据点在伯罗奔尼撒半岛，入侵者由此向海外推进，在克里特岛、罗得岛和小亚细亚沿海一带建立起殖民地。其他希腊人，可能是迈西尼的难民，从雅典渡海到基克拉泽斯群岛，再渡海到小亚细亚西海岸的中部，在那里建立起以爱奥尼亚闻名的居留地，这些居留地在一段时间里成为整个希腊世界最先进的地区。再往北，一些操伊奥里斯语的希腊人从色萨利和希腊中部航海到莱斯博斯岛，再由此航海到小亚细亚北部。小亚细亚这些新建的希腊殖民地由于遭到为数众多的当地居民的抵抗，只能局限在沿海地区，从未能扩张到内地，不过，这些殖民地很繁荣，在希腊人的历史上起了较大的作用。 现对希腊的这一黑暗时代的了解，比对印度相应的遭受入侵后那一时期的了解，要详尽得多。这部分地是由于希腊人与古代中东文明的接触比印度人要密切。从考古遗物和文献资料中可找到这方面的踪迹，找到了解希腊早期的历史和文化的线索。其中较重要的是希腊人自己留下的宝贵遗产——四大史诗，即荷马的《伊里亚特》和《奥德赛》，赫希奥德的《工作与时日》和《神谱》。荷马描写了战争、冒险以及贵族和国王的生活，而赫希奥德则描写了农夫的生活和知识以及众神的家谱。这些诗篇展现了那些世纪中原始的农牧业社会的生动画面。那时的家庭大多自给自足，自己生产粮食，用羊毛织成衣料。专门经商的都是些外国人——腓尼基人或塞浦路斯岛人。他们时常来，来时总是携带着供平民用的零碎日用品和供贵族用的更为值钱的货物。这种单调沉寂的田园生活有时也为偶尔来访的行吟诗人所打破，他弹唱着战争的荣耀和杰出先人的丰功伟绩。 每个公社均由贵族家庭和平民组成。前者居统治地位，并领导战争；后者包括自耕农、佃农、为数不多的工匠、雇工和奴隶。地位最高的是国王，国王的权威取决于他指挥战争和领导贵族院会议的才能。偶尔，国王也召集包括全体成年男子在内的民众大会，但召集大会的目的通常是动员人民支持已由国王与贵族们共同作出的决定。这些简单的制度在处于这一发展水平的印欧语系的部落中具有典型性，表明了希腊城邦的政府机构处于萌芽状态中的情景。India 在印度，印度河流域的文明经历了与克里特岛的米诺斯文明相同的命运。约公元前1500 年，它遭到了一些军事上占有优势，即拥有马和战车的部落的蹂躏。这些入侵者自称为雅利安人，称他们安家定居的地方为雅利瓦尔塔，即雅利安人之国，他们均属于印欧语系的民族。其中位于西方的一些部落入侵了美索不达米亚和希腊，而位于东方的一些部落则入侵了伊朗。进入伊朗后，有些部落在那里安居下来，其余的则继续向东进至印度河流域。雅利安人的入侵与较后几个世纪里穆斯林发动的有计划有部署的战役不同，确切地说，他们是小群小群地渗入已盛极而衰、无力进行有效抵抗的文明地区。 正如前面所提到的，印度河文明的衰亡，主要是由于雅利安人的猛烈进攻，还是由于地震造成的灾变？目前尚不清楚（见第五章第四节）。但不管原因何在，事实是，公元前二千纪下半期，印度河流域出现了一个原始的新社会。有关这一社会的情况现了解得很不够，因为雅利安人其住房是用木头或泥土建造的，没有大城市，未留下任何有形的废墟和遗迹。因而，可用来设想雅利安人生活的材料与可据以设想印度河文明的材料正相反。印度河文明留下的是大量实在的遗物，但没有任何可释读的文字记载；而雅利安人留下的是大量以吠陀的形式出现的文献材料，但没有任何别的遗物。 吠陀一词意为知识。古文献《吠陀》对于印度教徒来说，正如《圣经》之于基督教徒、《可兰经》之于伊斯兰教徒，是其宗教信仰的主要来源。最早的。《吠陀本集》共四部。其中最重要、也最古老的一部是《梨俱吠陀》。随着时间的流逝，一些别的著作也加到这四部吠陀中，获得与后者相似的神圣地位。荷马史诗是了解希腊迈西尼文化的主要原始资料，同样，《梨俱吠陀》是研究早期雅利安人的主要原始资料。它共有十卷，收集赞歌1028首，其篇幅之庞大，大抵与将和《奥德赛》加在一起相当。 雅利安人身材较高、蓝眼睛、肤色白皙，他们很清楚，自己的体态特征和他们所征服的土著大不相同。吠陀文献在提到后者时，说他们身材矮小、肤色暗黑，没有鼻子，称他们为“达萨”，即奴隶；而在描述前者时，则把他们说成是颇有男子气概的人，爱好战争、饮酒、赛车和赌博。雅利安人的战争之神因陀罗是理想化的雅利安武士；他快活地冲锋陷阵，身披金色盔甲，一餐能吃30O头水牛的肉，能喝三大湖的酒。 雅利安人刚到印度时，还是游牧民，主要依畜牛为生，财富的多寡根据牛群的大小来判断。在肥沃的大河流域定居下来后，他们逐渐转向农业。若干有亲属关系的家庭聚居一处，形成村庄；若干村庄组成氏族，若干氏族结成部落。部落的首领是国王。同希腊情况相仿，国王的权威取决于他个人的才能和开创精神，不过，也受到贵族会议的限制，在某些部落，还受到自由民的限制。 这一早期的雅利安人社会的显著特点，在于它与后来的印度教根本不同；食牛肉，而不将牛作为崇拜的对象；快活地饮用醉人的烈酒，而不将其弃绝；有阶级，然无种姓；祭士居于贵族之下，而不是位于社会金字塔之颠。总之，雅利安人社会与当时其他印欧语系为社会极为相似，而与较后救世纪中发展起来的古典印度教则有很大的差别。China 约公元前1500 年前后，手执青铜武器的战车兵也入侵了遥远的中国北部的黄河流域。在那里，他们发现了一种繁盛的新石器时代的文化，商文明就是由这种文化发展而来的。外族人侵与商文明的出现，这两者间究竟有何关系，当前的考古学研究尚不能给于明确的结论。不过，一般都同意，商文明的出现，不是缘于大规模地移植外来成分，相反，是由于本士的新石器时代的文化提供了坚实的基础，而入侵者只是赋予了某种变革性的力量，起了促进的作用。因此，前一章在分析商文明时，说它是世界古代文明之一。可见，战车兵侵入中国北部时，与他们侵入希腊和印度时的情况不同，没有造成明显的文化中止。相反，独特的中国新石器时代的文化连续地发展为独特的中国文明，这一文明从商时期一直持续到现在。 这种连续性在公元前1027 年由商朝到周朝的转变中表现得十分明显。周人曾长期居住在文明边缘区的渭水流域，所以他们在借用西、北方牧羊“蛮族”的军事技术的同时，也分享到商的语言和主要文化。因而，当周人侵占中国北部时，中国文明的发展并没有中断。文字系统同祖先崇拜、占卜术一起，依旧保存管社会依然分裂为贵族武士和农民群众两大阶级；分封制也依然存在，而且在周统治下，变得更为明显。周统治者将所征占的广大领土分封给许多诸侯，诸侯们定期到周朝廷觐见述职，不过，这一制度以后渐被废止。随着朝廷对地方的控制力日渐衰微，居住在围有城墙的城市里的诸侯们，开始统治周围的农村。 公元前771 年，周都被“蛮族”和反叛诸侯联合攻占。周朝迁往不易遭受边境蛮族进攻的东都继续它的统治。因而，周朝公元前771年之前的一段时期，中国人称为“西周”；之后的一段时期，称为“东周”。东周时，周王只是名义上的统治者。虽然他们仍履行某些宗教职责，并受到某种形式上的尊敬，但拥有的土地比其名义上的诸侯们要少，所以他们的势力更弱了。实际上，周王之所以能幸存到公元前256年，主要是因为他们提供了精神上的领导。周正朝还起了高级祭士的作用，而且，周王朝本身就被当作民族统一的象征。 虽然东周时期政治不稳定，但文化大发展。这是一个生气勃勃、富有创造性的时代；在这一时代里，人们写下了伟大的文学、哲学和社会理论著作。这也是中国古典文明形成的时代；在这一时代里，希腊古典文明和印度古典文明也大约同时发展起来。这些古典文明的起源和性质是第三篇所要论述的主题。