Chapter 40 Part II Results Chapter 10 Occupations Open to Talented Persons 1

One day I walked into Manchester with one of these middle-class gentlemen.I mentioned to him the disgraceful and unsanitary ghettos, to draw his attention to the disgusting quarters inhabited by the factory workers of the city.I said I had never seen such a badly built town in my life.The gentleman listened patiently, and yet remarked, on the corner of the street from which we parted, "But there's plenty of money to be made here. Good morning, sir!" - Engels, "The Condition of the Working Class in England" It was a flamboyant custom of the new financiers to publish dinner menus and guest lists in newspapers.

- Cabfig 1 Formal institutions overthrown or established by revolutions are easy to identify, but they cannot measure the effects of revolutions.The main result of the French Revolution was the abolition of aristocratic society, but not of "nobility" in the class sense—the kind distinguished by titles and other conspicuous marks of exclusion, and which often identified itself with such classes as "blood" nobility Shaping social status.A society built on personal success welcomes such visible and established signs of success.Napoleon even recreated a formal aristocracy, which after 1815 was integrated with the surviving old aristocracy.The end of aristocratic society does not mean the end of aristocratic influence.Emerging classes naturally tend to view their own symbols of wealth and power against the standards of comfort, luxury, or pomp established by the previous elite.The well-earned wives of cloth merchants in Cheshire, England, would become "ladies" under the guidance of many books on manners and decent living.It was also for this purpose that the books multiplied from the 1840s onwards.For the same reason, those profiteers who made war fortunes in Napoleon's time also valued the title of baron, and loved to fill the salons of the bourgeoisie with "velvet, gold, mirrors, the clumsiness of Louis XV's chairs." Imitations, and other furniture...there are English fashions about servants and horses, but no aristocratic spirit." A banker who did not know how to make a fortune boasted: "When I appear in the exclusive box in the theater , all the long and short telescopes turned on me.I was greeted with an almost royal ovation. "What could be more proud than this boast?

Moreover, a culture like France, formed under the influence of the court and the nobility, will not lose its imprint.Thus, that French prose, which is particularly obsessed with subtle psychoanalysis of personal relationships (whose origins can be traced back to seventeenth-century aristocratic writers), or that eighteenth-century literary mode which had standardized sexual activity and the mistress of lovers, became One of the ingredients of the "Parisian" asset civilization.Where previously kings had official mistresses, now successful stockbrokers were added.High-ranking courtesans not only cast their well-paid favors on young noble children who have lost their fortunes, but also on bankers who can afford them, as a living advertisement for their success.In fact, in many respects, the French Revolution preserved in an unusually pure form the aristocratic character of French culture; for the same reason, the Russian Revolution preserved, with extraordinary fidelity, the classical ballet and the bourgeois treatment of the nineteenth century. A typical attitude of "good literature".These qualities were accepted and assimilated by the revolution as desirable historical heritage and thus protected rather than destroyed by the revolution.

Still, the old regime died.Although in 1832, the fishermen of Brest believed that cholera was God's punishment for deposing their legitimate king.Except for the Jacobin southern France and some long-term non-Christian areas, the expansion of the formal republican system among the peasants was quite slow.But by the first real general elections in 1848, legitimacy had been confined to the west and the poorer central provinces.The political geography of the French countryside today is largely recognizable at that time.On a higher level of society, the Restoration of the Bourbons did not restore the ancien régime, or, on the contrary, Charles X was overthrown when he tried to do so.The society of the Restoration era was the society of capitalists and careerists described by Balzac, the society of Julien Sorel described by Stendhal, not the society of exiled aristocrats who returned home.A new century of geological change separates Restoration society from the "La dolce vita" of the 1780s recalled by Talleyrand.Balzac's Rastignac is closer to Maupassant's Duroy in Bel-Ami, a typical character of the 1880s, or even closer to More like Sammy Glick, the quintessential Hollywood film of the 1940s, than the non-aristocratic successful Figaro of the 1780s.

In short, post-revolutionary French society is a capitalist society in structure and values, a society of nouveau riche, in other words, a society of self-made people.At the time, however, this was not so evident, unless the government itself was ruled by nouveau riche, that is, a republican or Napoleonic government. Half of the French nobility in 1840 belonged to old aristocratic families, which may not seem revolutionary enough to us, but the fact that half of the nobility in 1789 had been commoners in 1789 was very Stunning, especially after they had witnessed the class-exclusive nature of the rest of the continent. "When the good American dies, he goes to Paris" is an indication of what Paris was like in the nineteenth century, although it was not until the Second Empire that Paris fully became a paradise for the nouveau riche.London, or especially Vienna, St. Petersburg and Berlin, are not cities where money buys everything, at least not among the first generation of upstarts.In Paris, there is almost nothing of value that money cannot buy.

The dominance of the new society was not a uniquely French phenomenon, but it was, on the surface, more pronounced and formalized, if democratic America was excluded, in France, though not as profoundly as in Britain and the Low Countries .In England, celebrity chefs are still serving the nobility, as Careme did for the Duke of Venington (who had previously served Talleyrand); Alexis Soyer.In France, aristocratic home cooks who lost their jobs in the Revolution had established a solid tradition of opening high-priced restaurants.The classic cover page of a guide to French cooking hints at a change in the world.It reads: "(Author) Beauvillier (A. Beauvillier), former official of the Count of Provence ... the current restaurant owner, Grand Hotel Landes, 26 Rue Richelieu." One of the creations of the 1817 edition of the "Gourmet Almanac" edited by Brillat-Savarin.They already flocked to English cafés or Parisian cafés for suppers without a hostess.In Britain the press remained an instrument of instruction, curses and political pressure.But it was in France that Emile Girardin founded the modern newspaper in 1836: La Presse, a political but also cheap newspaper designed to amass advertising revenue in order to Gossip, serials, and all manner of other gimmicks lure readers. (In 1835, "Journal des Debats" [Journal des Debats, with a circulation of about 10,000 copies] had an average annual advertising revenue of about 20,000 francs. In 1838, the fourth edition of "Journal des Debats" was rented out for 150,000 francs a year. In 1845 rose to 300,000 francs.) "Journalism" and "Publicity" in English, "Reklame" and "Annonce" in German, all of which remind one of the French Pioneering moves in these chaotic fields.The fashions, department stores, and public goods windows praised by Balzac are also French inventions, a product of the 1820s. ("From the Avenue Magdalene to the Porte Saint-Denis, merchandise sings to a variegated rhythm, a grand poem.") The French Revolution would also open up to men of talent (at the same time, the social status of this profession in aristocratic England is still similar to that of boxer and jockey): Lablache ), Talma and other theatrical personalities established themselves next to the luxurious residence of the Prince of Moscow at Maisons-Lafitte (named after the banker who made the suburb fashionable). their own position.

The impact of the Industrial Revolution on the structure of capitalist society was not so dramatic on the surface, but in reality it was more profound.Because the Industrial Revolution created new groups of the bourgeoisie that existed side by side with official society, groups so large that they could not be absorbed by official society except the few at the top.But this new group is so confident and dynamic that they don't want to be absorbed except on their own terms.In Britain in 1820, it was still difficult for us to find many wealthy and wealthy businessmen near the Houses of Parliament and Hyde Park.In the Houses of Parliament, the aristocrats and their families still control the unreformed Parliament; while in Hyde Park, there are still those high-class ladies who are completely unceremonious, such as Harriet Wilson (Harriete Wilson, who even refuses to dress up as a A woman with a dying flower and a dying willow is also very indecent).They drove in open carriages, surrounded by well-dressed admirers from the army, the diplomatic corps and the aristocracy, including the non-bourgeois "Iron Duke" Wellington. The number of merchants, bankers, and even industrialists in the eighteenth century was small enough to assimilate into official society.In fact, the first generation of cotton millionaires, headed by Sir Robert Peel the Elder, were fairly staunch Tories, albeit more moderate.Peel Sr.'s son is still training to become prime minister.Under the rainy skies of the north, however, industrialization multiplied the power of the industrialists.Manchester is no longer willing to yield to London.Under the battle cry of "What Manchester thinks today, London thinks tomorrow", Manchester is ready to impose its demands on the capital London.

These upstarts from all over the place are a formidable army, all the more formidable when they become increasingly conscious of themselves as a "class" rather than a "middle class" filling the gap between the upper and lower classes.By 1834, John Stuart Mill could have complained that social critics "would be puzzled in their triangle of landowner, capitalist, and labourer, until they seemed to comprehend that society seemed to have been ordered by God. , into these three classes".They are not only a simple class, but also a fighting class army.At first they were organized against the aristocratic society, in cooperation with the "working poor" (whom they believed would follow their leadership ["The class below the middle class, whose opinions and thoughts are drawn by this wise and virtuous They have the most direct contact with the lower classes of people." Miller the Elder: "Government", 1823]); later, they opposed both the proletarians and the landowners, which in the Anti-Corn Law League this It is most pronounced in the most class-conscious groups.They are self-made, or at least of modest origins, who have had little protection of birth, family, or formal higher education.Like Mr. Bunderby in Dickens' Hard Times, they are not reluctant to flaunt the fact.They were rich and getting richer in those days.They are filled first with an extremely strong and powerful self-confidence because they belong to those who have shown them by personal experience that destiny, science, and history have come together to hand over the world entirely to them.

Self-made newspaper men and publishers who glorified capitalism—Edward Baines of the Leeds Mercury (1774-1848), Edward Baines of the Manchester Guardian (1791- 1844) Taylor (Jonh Edwart Taylor), "Manchester Timas" (Manchester Timas, 1792-1857)'s Prentice (Archibald Prentice), and Smiles (Samuel Smiles, 1812-1904) - they will "Political economy" was reduced to a few simple dogmatic propositions by which intellectual certainty was given to the middle class.And besides the sentimental Methodists, the Independents, Unitarians, Baptists, and Quakers among the heretics of Puritanism endowed them with spiritual certainty and contempt for useless aristocrats.An employer, unmoved by fear, anger, or even pity, told his workers:

Human beings have no right to violate the just and equitable laws established by God.If someone is bold and reckless and wants to obstruct, sooner or later, he will definitely be punished accordingly. . . . Wherefore masters, when they join forces in a presumptuous manner, oppress their servants more effectually by their combined strength, they dishonor God by doing so, and the curse of God rests upon them.On the other hand, however, servants likewise violate this law of equity when they conspire to extort from their employers a share of the profits which are due only to their masters. The universe still has order, but not the order it once was.There is only one true God in the universe, and his name is Steam, and his messengers are Malthus, McCulloch, and all machine users.

Neither the agnostic radical intellectuals of the 18th century nor the self-taught scholars and writers speaking for the middle class should hide the fact that the vast majority of the middle class are too busy making money to care about anything that has nothing to do with making money. thing.They admired their intellectuals, even before they became particularly successful industrialists, as Cobden did, so long as these intellectuals eschewed the unpractical and the too esoteric, because they themselves lacked Educated, practical people, it makes them doubt everything that goes too far beyond experience.The scientist Charles Babbage (Charles Babbage, 1792-1871) proposed to them his own scientific method, but in vain.Sir Henry Cole, a pioneer in industrial design, technical education and the rationalization of transport, who, with the incalculable help of the Queen's Germanic husband, erected the most glorious monument to the middle class: the Great Exposition of 1851 .However, he was forced to withdraw from public life due to his penchant for bureaucracy and meddling.Bureaucracy, like all government interference, is hated by them when it does not directly help them make a profit.Stephenson was a self-taught coal mine technician who converted the gauge of old horse-drawn carriages to railroads—he never considered other alternatives—rather than the imaginative, sophisticated, and daring Engineer Brunel (Isambard kingdom Brunel).In the pantheon of engineers created by Smiles, there is no monument to Brunel, and there is a sentence of criticism: "Measured by the results of seeking practicality and profit, people like Stephenson are undoubtedly more reliable. The object of imitation.” In order to train new industrial technicians based on science, the radicals of the philosophical school did their best to establish a network of “technician workshops”.In these workshops the artisans had to listen to discourses that had nothing to do with their purpose, such as how to clean up catastrophic errors in politics.By 1848 most of the workshops were on the verge of closing down, as this technical education was not thought to teach the Englishman (as distinguished from the Germanic or the French) anything useful.Smart, practical, even educated manufacturing tycoons flocked to the meetings of the newly formed British Association for the Advancement of Science.But it would be a mistake to think that the association represents the normative norms of the class. Such a generation grew up in the years between the Battle of Trafalgar in 1805 and the Great Exhibition in 1851.Their predecessors, brought up in the social organization of educated and reasonable local merchants and heretic priests, in the intellectual framework of the Whig century, were less vulgar.Wedgwood, the pottery king, was a member of the Royal Society and the Antiquarian Society, and a member of the "Crescent Society" composed of Bolton, his partner Watt, and the chemist and revolutionary Priestley (his son Thor Mars experimented with photography, published scientific papers, and sponsored the poet Coleridge).The 18th-century manufacturing magnate naturally built his factories to the designs of Georgian architects.The successors of this generation were, if not more educated, then more extravagant, for by the 1840s they had enough money to spend at will on imitation mansions, imitation Gothic and Renaissance. the Town Hall, and the reconstruction of the Perpendicular or Classical style chapels.But between the ages of George and Victoria came dark ages for the bourgeois and working classes.The outlines of them are memorably described in Charles Dickens' Hard Times. Pious Puritanism dominated this desolate age: rigid, self-righteous, dull and ignorant, obsessed with ethics and morality, to the point where only hypocrites deserve to be called their partners.As G.M. Young said, "virtue is advancing on a broad and invincible front" to drive the unchaste, the weak, the guilty (i.e. those who have neither earned nor controlled) Emotional and financial expenses) are trampled in the mud, and they deserve only this situation, and at best they can only hope for the mercy of those who are superior.In such a concept, there are some economic meanings of capitalism.If a small entrepreneur is to become a big one, he will have to reinvest most of his profits.Under the strictest labor discipline, the new proletarian masses were forced to submit to the rhythms of industrial labor, or, if they refused, to die.Even today, it is heart-throbbing to see what that generation created: In Cork Town, you see nothing but grim labor.If members of a certain sect build a chapel there—18 have done so—they also turn it into a red-brick devotional warehouse, sometimes (but only in elaborately decorated example), there is still a bell on the top of the birdcage-like house.All the public inscriptions in the town are in austere letters painted in black and white.Prisons may be hospitals, and hospitals may be prisons; town halls may be prisons, or hospitals, or both, or anything contrary to the grand purpose for which they were built.Reality, reality, reality, all material aspects of this town are based on reality; reality, reality, reality, all non-material levels are also based on reality. ...everything is a reality between the sick hospital and the cemetery, and what you cannot express numerically, or show what is available at the cheapest market and what is available at the most expensive What is sold does not exist and should never exist.The world is endless, amen! (See Leon Faucher, Manchester in 1844, 1844, pp. 24-25. "This town realizes to a certain extent Bentham's utopian ideal. Everything is measured in its consequences by utilitarian standards; if beautiful, great or noble things can take root in Manchester, and they will develop by that standard.") It is an elegy of faith in bourgeois utilitarianism.Evangelicals, Puritans, and the agnostic "philosophical radicals" of the eighteenth century all believed in utilitarianism, and these radicals expressed utilitarianism in logical terms.This belief has produced its own practical beauty in railways, bridges and warehouses, and also developed its unique romantic horror in rows of smoky, gray, black and red houses. The factory fortress overlooks these small houses.The new bourgeoisie lived on the outskirts of the cottage (if they had amassed enough money to move), calling the shots, imposing moral education, and subsidizing missionaries' missions among the black pagans abroad.Men personify money, because it justifies their right to rule the world; women—since the husband's money deprives them even of the satisfaction of actually running the house—personify the morality of the class, namely: Stupidity ("Be a sweet woman, let whoever wants to be smarter let her be"), uneducated, unrealistic, theoretically unsexual, no property, protected.They are the only luxuries this age of frugal self-help allows itself. The most extreme example of this class is the British manufacturer, but there are also smaller groups of the same kind throughout the Continent: the Catholics in the textile regions of northern France or Catalonia, the Gardners in Alsace. Christians.Lutheran Pietists in the Rhine region, and Jews throughout Central and Eastern Europe.Their toughness is remarkably similar to that of British manufacturers, as they have also departed considerably from older urban life and patriarchal traditions.Leon Faucher, despite his dogmatic liberal beliefs, was struck by the sights of Manchester in the 1840s.Are observers on the European continent not shocked by this?But they share the same confidence as the English, a confidence that comes from steadily increasing affluence (the dowry of the Dansette family in Lille increased from 15,000 to 50,000 francs between 1830 and 1856) , from an absolute belief in economic liberalism, from the rejection of non-economic activities.Until the eve of the First World War, Lille's textile dynasty maintained an utter disdain for military careers.The reason why the Dollfus family of Mulhouse dissuaded the young Engels from attending the prestigious polytechnic school was because they feared that it might lead him to a military career rather than a business one.The aristocracy and its bloodlines did not at first entice them so much that, like Napoleon's marshals, they were their own ancestors.